The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 5, No. 9

The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry

Pu b l i s h e d

by

T H E A M E R I C A N C H E M I C A L S O C I E T Y

Volume Y S E P T E M B E R , 1913 N o . 9

BO A R D O r E D IT O R S

Editor:

M .

C.

W h i t a k e r

Associate Editors: G-. P . A d a m so n , E . G . B a ile y , H . E . B arn ard , G. E . B a rto n , A . V . B le in in g e r, Wm. Brady, C. A . B ro w n e, F . K . C am ero n , F . B . C arp en ter, C. E . C aspari, V . C o b le n tz, W . C. G eer, W. F. Hillebrand, W . D . H o rn e, T . K a m o i, A . D . L ittle , C. E . L u ck e , P . C. M c llh in e y , J. M. M a tth e w s, T. J. Parker, J. D . P e n n o c k , W . D . R ich a rd so n , G. C. Ston e, E . T w itc h e ll, R . W a h l, W . H . W a lk e r, W. R. W hitney, A . M. W rig h t.

P u b lish e d m o n th ly . S u b s c rip tio n p ric e t o n o n -m e m b e rs of th e A m erican C hem ical S o c ie ty , 56.00 y e a r ly . F o re ig n p o s ta g e , sev e n ty -fiv e c e n ts. C an a d a , C u b a a n d M exico e x c e p te d .

E n tered as S eco n d -class M a tt e r D e c e m b e r 19, 1908, a t th e P ost-O ffice a t E a s to n , P a ., u n d e r th e A c t of M arch 3 , 1879.

C o n tr ib u tio n s s h o u ld b e a d d r e s s e d to M. C. W h ita k er, C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s it y , N e w Y ork C ity

Communications c o n c e r n in g a d v e r t is e m e n t s s h o u ld b e s e n t to T h e A m e r ic a n C h e m ic a l S o c ie t y , 42 W est 3 9 th S t ., N e w Y ork C ity S u b sc r ip tio n s a n d c l a i m s fo r l o s t c o p ie s s h o u ld b e r e le r r e d to C h a rles L. P a r s o n s , B o x 5 0 5 , W a s h in g t o n , D. C.

No c la im s w i l l b e a llo w e d u n l e s s m a d e w it h in 60 d a y s Es c h e n b a c h Pkin't i n o Co m p a n y, Ea s t o n, Pa.

T A B L E O F Editorials:

The Forty-eighth A n n u al M e e tin g of th e A m erican

Chemical S o c ie ty ... 712

Wood A lcohol... 712

Original Pa p e r s: The M icrostructure of S teel C astin gs. B y W ir t T assin 713 Lubrication w ith Oils, and w ith C o llo id a l G rap h ite. B y Charles F. M a b e iy ... 7 17 The Action of V arious S ubstan ces on C on crete. B y Richard K . M eade ... 723

The Decomposition of F e ld sp a r and Its Use in the F ix ­ ation of A tm ospheric N itro g en . B y W illiam H. R o ss... 725

The Leaching of P o ta sh from F re sh ly C u t K e lp . B y A. R. M erz and J. R . L in d em u th ... 729

A Possible Com m ercial U tiliza tio n of N elson ite. B y William H. W a g g a m a n ... • • 73 °

Quantitative D eterm in ation of R o sin in P ap er. B y C . Frank Samm et ... 732

Colorimetric M ethod for T ita n iu m in Iron and Steel. B y C. R M c C a b e ... 735

Vanadium in Steel b y th e H y d ro g en P eroxide C olor M&hod: B y C . R . M c C a b e ... 736

ihc Determination of Z in c in T re a te d T ies. B y F ra n ­ cis C. Frary and M . G o rd o n M a s t i n ...73®

Hickory N uts and H ic k o ry N u t O il. B y G eorge O. -ri, ierSon.and E . H . S. B a ile y ...739

“ ? Analysis of M ap le P ro d u cts I. A n E lectrica l C o n ­ ductivity T est for P u rity of M ap le S yru p . B y J. F . Ttf„n"n . . ... • ... 740

ne Composition of D ifferen t V a rie tie s of R e d Peppers. a y L M . Tolm an and L . C . M it c h e ll... 747

r!e P ’sdnctions betw een Pep sin and P ep tase. B y T » r- R- W a h l... ! ... 752

^termination of T o ta l F o rm a ld eh y d e in I’ u m igators and Commercial Solutions. B y J a c k J. H in m an, Jr. 752 Laboratoryand Pl a n t: An Automatic P ip ette. B y C . H . M c C h a r le s ... 755

improved Gooch C ru cib le H older. B y Lorin H . B a ile y 756 e on Producer G as A n aly sis. B y Jam es G . V a il. . . 756

AddrBSSEs; The Chemical Industries and th e U n iversities. B y T aylo r B o g e r t ... 757

Meade and 0 b solescen ce- B >r R ich a rd K . I v ! j r 0^ ° sion ° f L ead . B y R ich a rd H . G a in e s 766 wood Alcohol... 768

w CC3J*'ar F un ctions of th e R e ta in e d E x p e rt. B y ■ m . U rosvenor... 772

C O N T E N T S Cu r r e n t In d u s t r ia l Ne w s: T h e C a ta ly tic Production of P e t r o l... 774

T h e M an u factu re of C old -P rocess Soap s in E g y p t 774 T h e P u lp-W ood C on sum ption in C a n a d a ... 774

Som e Problem s of th e R u b b er In d u stry '... 775

T h e E xp o rtatio n s of C am p h o r from Jap an, 1910 to 1912 775 " S ilit ” and I ts A p p licatio n s in the C h em ical Ind ustries 775 T h e Schoop M etallizin g P ro c e s s ... 776

R ece n t A c t iv it y in the E xp lo sive P u m p A r t ... 776

T he A lk a li In sp ecto r’s R ep ort for 1 9 1 2 ... 779

W an te d : N e w U ses for B rom in e. ... 780

T h e R ad iu m M a r k e t ... 780

T h e M an u fa ctu re of C op p er W ire b y E lectro d ep ositio n 780 T h e M eltin g P oin ts of E lem en ts of A to m ic W eig h t, 48 to 5 9 ... 780

T h e G ran u lation of S la g ... 780

Som e Inn ovation s in the P a p er I n d u s tr y ... 781

T h e G as and E lectric C on sum p tion in G re a te r N e w Y o r k ... 781

T h e C onsum ption of T h o rium in th e U n ite d S ta te s . . . . 781

Sc ie n t if ic So c i e t i e s: S o c iety for Prom otion of E n gin eerin g E d u c a tio n 781 International E ngineering Congress, 1915 ... 782 :

A m erican E ngineers E n tertain ed in G e r m a n y ... 783

W illiam Jam es E v a n s ... 783

M in e S an itatio n S ection of U . S. B u reau of M in e s . . . . 783

No t e s a n d Co r r e s p o n d e n c e: A C riticism of C hem ical A b s tr a c ts ... 783

P ain ts for In d icatin g th e Uses of P ip es ... 784

O n M eth o d s of A n aly sis of C ru d e G ly c e rin e . • ... 784

W h a t’s th e M a tte r w ith the A m erican C h e m is t? 785 W h a t’s th e M a tte r w ith the A m erican C h e m is t? 785 ■ A R a p id M eth o d for th e D eterm in ation of F a t in Ice C r e a m ... 786

P e a t P ow d er as F u el for L o c o m o tiv es... 786

T h e C hem ical C om position of C oo k ed V e g e ta b le Foods. P a rt I I I .— C o rre ctio n ... 786

P a p er from S e a w e e d ... 786

Bo o k Re v i e w s: C hem ical W orks. T h e ir D esign, E rectio n and E q u ip ­ m ent; T h e M aterials U sed in S izin g ; F a t t y Foods, their P ractical E xam in ation ; G a san aly tisch e M e th ­ o d e n ... 786

Ne w Pu b l ic a t io n s... 788

Re c e n t In v e n t i o n s... 789

M a r k e t R e p o r t ... 790

712

T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

V o l. 5, No.

EDITORIALS

T H E F O R T Y -E I G H T H A N N U A L M E E T I N G O F T H E A M E R IC A N C H E M IC A L S O C I E T Y

T o th e m em bers w ho h a v e learn ed fro m exp erien ce th e v a lu e of our gen eral m eetin gs no a p p e al n eed be m ad e to co n tin u e in th e ir a tte n d a n c e . T o th o se w ho go in te r m itte n tly or w ho h a v e n o t as y e t a tte n d e d , w e w ou ld em p h asize th e im p o rta n ce o f th e se m eetin gs and o f th e R o ch e ste r m ee tin g (S e p te m b e r 9 -1 z) in p a rticu la r. O ur general m ee tin g s a ffo rd b en e fits of se v e ral k in d s. M o st im p o rta n t is th e o p p o r tu n ity to m eet th e fo rem o st m en in th e ch em ical profession an d to ta lk o v e r m a tte rs o f m u tu a l in te re st. T h e n th e re is th e discussion o f p ap ers w h ich is fr e q u e n tly o f m ore v a lu e to us th a n th e pap ers th e m se lv e s, and th e discussions are n o t p u b lish ed . A g a in , th e S o c ie ty v isits m a n u fa ctu rin g in s titu tio n s of in te re s t to th e m , and each c ity offers so m e th in g un iq u e. F u rth e r, th e social fea tu res, th e g e t-to g e th e r sessions, th e ren ew al of frien d sh ip s, all ad d th e ir q u o ta of a ttra c tio n .

T h e ch em ist go in g to th e gen eral m ee tin g fo r th e first tim e is lia b le to feel him self am o n g stran g ers.

H e m akes a few friend s, m eets som e m en fro m th e old school and ge ts e n jo y m e n t fro m th e m eetings, b u t is a p t to th in k th a t th e trip w as h a rd ly w o rth th e co st and is d o u b tfu l a b o u t go in g to th e n e x t m eetin g . A m ista k e is m ade if th is is fo llo w ed o u t, for th e m en d e­

r iv in g th e gre a te st b en efits fro m th e A m e rica n C h e m ­ ical S o c ie ty m eetings are th o se w ho go re g u la rly .

W e are a b o u t to h old our first an n u al m eetin g as a se p a ra te s o c ie ty on th e p lan now in fo rce w h ich p u ts us on our ow n fe e t as an in d e p en d en t o rg a n iza tio n , sta n d in g o u t as th e la rg e st ch em ical s o c ie ty in th e w orld.

E v e r y effo rt is b ein g m ade b y th e R o ch e ste r S ectio n to offer a ttra c tio n s w h ich w ill gu a ra n te e an a tte n d a n c e in p ro p o rtio n to th e im p o rta n ce o f th e m eeting. R o c h ­ ester is w ith in e a sy d ista n ce of a larg e m a jo rity o f our m em bers and h as ex cellen t tr a n sp o rta tio n fa cilities.

B o th aca d em ic and in d u stria l m en w ill be w ell cared fo r, th e general m e e tin g b ein g sch ed u led a t th e g re a t w orks of th e E a stm a n K o d a k C o . and th e sectio n a l m eetings a t th e U n iv e rs ity of R o ch e ster. F a c to r y excu rsio ns w ill b e a sp ecial fe a tu re co ve rin g a field fro m th e p ro d u ctio n of th e in s tru m e n ts used b y th e ch em ical profession to w orks m a k in g th e m ost m odern a p p licatio n of ch e m istry to in d u stria l p roblem s.

F a cto rie s , th e d u p licate s of w h ich do n o t ex ist in th is co u n try or abroad , w ill b e v isite d . S o cial fe a tu re s w ill be p ro m in en t and a go od p ro g ra m h as - been a r­

ran ge d fo r th e ladies.

W e urge m em bers to be in a tte n d a n ce th e first d a y , fo r such a u n iq u e p ro g ra m h as n ever b een p lan n ed for th is S o c ie ty , T h e gen eral m eetin g a t K o d a k P a rk w ill be fo llo w e d b y a co m p lim e n ta ry lu n ch eo n a t th e K o d a k W o rk s and an in sp ectio n of th e p la n t, th is b e ­ in g th e o n ly o p p o rtu n ity o f m a k in g th e in sp ectio n . In th e ev en in g com es th e sm oker, fu ll o f n o v e lty , a m u sem en t and good fello w sh ip . A liv e co m m itte e h as been w orkin g on th is e v e n t fo r m o n th s fo r y o u r b enefit.

L e t th e m em bers of th e A m e ric a n C hem ical Society descen d u po n R o ch e ste r in u n p reced en ted numbers fo r th e first d a y , S ep t. 9 th , an d m a k e th e forty-eighth m ee tin g th e b e st e v e r! A ll w ill be a m p ly repaid.

W O O D A L C O H O L

S ince m an b ega n h a n d lin g fire he h as been utilizing d an g ero u s su b sta n ce s to his ow n good purposes. Also th e ch em ist h as d isco ve re d m a n y su b stan ces and shown h o w t h e y m ig h t be u se d fo r th e b en e fit of mankind; he has d e m o n stra te d th e v a lu e of c y a n id e s for extracting go ld ; h o w stry ch n in e m a y serve as

a

h ea rt stimulant;

he h as p ro v e d th e v a lu e o f p h en o l as a disinfectant;

an d h o w su lfu ric a cid m a y b e used in multitudinous w a y s. A ll th e se su b sta n ce s are dangero u s to handle, in fa c t m a n y o f th e co m m o n er rea g en ts used in the h u n d red s o f la b o ra to rie s an d fa cto rie s are poisons.

W ere p a r tia l fa c ts o n ly p rese n ted , it is conceivable that th e y m ig h t assem b le th e m se lve s in astounding array, w h ich , if n o t p ro p e rly in te rp re te d , w ou ld serve for a cau se o f im p e ach m e n t of th e en tire ch em ical profession, w hose d a ily ro u tin e is one of h a n d lin g poisons of

all

k in d s, e x c e p t fo r th e fa c t t h a t th e ch em ist is

s u p p o se d

to k n o w his b u sin ess as w ell as th e substances he h an d les, an d to ta k e som e p re ca u tio n s fo r

s a f e g u a r d in g

h im self an d th e p eop le w o rk in g w ith him .

I t

is a mat­

te r o f b u siness, e v e n if it p rese n ted no humanitarian fe a tu re s.

O ur a tte n tio n has re c e n tly been d irected to attacks m ade u p o n m e th y l a lco h o l, th e p ro d u ctio n

^{a n d} sale

of w h ich co n s titu te s a le g itim a te ch em ical business in­

v o lv in g th e an n u al m a n u fa ctu re and use of

about

10,000,000 gallo n s of th a t su b sta n ce w ith a

c a p i t a l

in­

v e s tm e n t in th is c o u n try of a b o u t $12,000,000, a n ‘i1’

d u s tr y w h ich e m p lo ys o v e r 3,000 w o rk in g people. e find in c u rren t lite ra tu re , read b y th e m any,

a sse rtio n s

m ade b y u n d o u b te d ly h o n est, b u t o verzealo u s andpri- s u m a b ly m isin fo rm ed persons, or persons

n o t

sufficient in fo rm ed of th e fa c t s to .b e co m p e te n t to judge accor in g to p ro p o rtio n a lity , such as th e fo llo w in g: I t lS un safe to b u rn w ood alco h o l or use it in a n y w ay in ar0°®

w h ere th e air is close. The bottle should never be uncore unless the windows are wide open .”

( I ta lic s ou *•

W h e re w o u ld all th e n e a rly 7,000 m em bers of the Amen can C h e m ic a l S o c ie ty b e if th e la tte r w ere really true

T h e re is no d o u b t a b o u t w o o d a lco h o l being a poison if ta k e n in te rn a lly (a lth o u g h w e k n o w of cases, Per a^.

a cco u n te d fo r b y id io s y n c ra s y , w h ere no evil e e ^ h a v e re su lte d fro m d rin k in g it) an d if breathed v a p o r in a co n ce n tra te d fo rm for u n u su ally long per of tim e . In fa c t , n e a rly a th o u sa n d cases of p°ison^

a ttr ib u te d to w o o d a lco h o l (m o s tly due to drinking1 h a v e been re p o rte d in th e lite ra tu re since i

8 9 9

>

tim e w h ich m a rk e d th e a d v e n t of such

p r e p a r a t i o n s

^

“ C o lu m b ia n S p ir its ,” “ C o lo n ia l S p ir its ,” etc. t a to s a y , m e th y l alcohol o f a h igh gra d e of p urity.

due to a g e n e ra l'a g ita tio n fo r a ta x -free , denature ^

alco h o l, h earin g s w ere held b efore th e W ays and -

Sept., 1 9 1 3 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y 713

and the F inance C o m m itte e s o f th e F e d e ra l C on gress.

The injurious actio n o f w o o d alcohol on th e general health and eyesig h t o f w o rk in g people h a n d lin g it in th e industries was stro n g ly em p h asize d a t th ese h earings b y manufacturers e m p lo yin g it, w o rkm e n an d exp erts.

The U nited S ta te s an d p r a c tic a lly e v e r y s ta te in th e union have specific la w s a g a in st th e sale of w ood a lc o ­ hol as a beverage, or as an a d d itio n to b eve ra ge s. In thickly p opulated co m m u n itie s th e fea r of d e te ctio n is lessened, hence cases of. a d u lte ra tio n are m ore num erous, especially w here th e re is foreig n ch eap lab o r. T h a t fa c t (especially in N ew Y o r k a n d N e w Jersey) cou pled w ith a few cases of serious p o iso n in g b y w o o d alcoh o l in varnishing b rew ers’ v a ts , w h ich are n o t p ro p e rly v e n t i­

lated, caused th e N e w Y o r k S ta te F a c to r y In v e s tig a tin g Commission to lo o k in to th e w ood alcoh o l situ a tio n . The Commission in v ite d P ro fesso r B a s k e rv ille of th e College of th e C it y o f N e w Y o r k , th e n C h airm an o f th e Committee on O ccu p a tio n a l D iseases in th e C h em ical Trades of the N ew Y o r k S e ctio n an d ch em ical a d viser of the C om m ittee on O ccu p a tio n a l D iseases of th e N ew York State L ab o r A ss o c ia tio n an d n ow C h airm an of the Com m ittee on O c cu p a tio n a l D iseases of th e A m e ri­

can Chem ical S o c ie ty , to m ake a re p o rt on “ W oo d Alcohol.” T h is rep o rt, based on a th o ro u g h in v e s tig a ­

THE M IC R O S T R U C T U R E O F S T E E L C A S T IN G S By Wi r t Ta s s i n

R ec e iv e d J u ly 23, 1913 I N T R O D U C T IO N

This paper deals w ith th e resu lts of som e m etallo- graphic in vestig a tio n s o f steel castin g s. A ll o f th e micrographic w ork w as done in th e m ach in e shop on the castings th e m selve s, n o t on sm all sectio ns cu t from them.

. work w as u n d e rta k e n d u rin g th e course of w h a t

>s planned to be a fa ir ly co m p reh e n siv e s tu d y of th e relation betw een stru c tu re an d p h y sic a l p ro p erties of steel in the m ass, and in te n d e d fo r use as a gu id e b y the Inspector and E n g in e e r of T e sts.

"Ihe present p a p e r g iv e s th e resu lts of th e w o rk on ropenas steel castin gs, an d is in te n tio n a lly m ade as non-technical as possible.

i n f l u e n c e o f a n n e a l i n g o n s t r u c t u r e

A steel casting in th e “ g r e e n ,” e sp e c ia lly w h en of a complicated shape, is a lw a y s liab le to be u n der in tern a l strain. In order to re lie v e th e se stra in s an n ea lin g is resorted to. T h is process h as a m a rk e d effe ct upon we structure of th e m etal.

The structure of a steel c a stin g in th e “ g re e n ,” i. e., as it leaves th e m old, is co a rse ly c ry sta llin e an d ex- 1 its to a greater or less d egree a r e g u la rly a rran ge d network, the m eshes of w h ich u s u a lly in te rse ct a t some angle of an o cta h ed ro n (F ig . i) . T h is stru c tu re 1S i now« as “ in g o tism .”

_ eat-treating su ch a c a stin g b re ak s dow n th is origin al stallization and, if p ro p e rly carrie d o u t, effaces it.

‘ Us

hi

a p ro p erly an n eale d ca stin g th e coarse c r y s ta l­

tion o f th e lite ra tu re an d e x te n siv e in sp ectio n o f w orks of a ll k ind s where w ood a lco h o l is m ade a n d used in v a rio u s w a ys, w e h a ve been p riv ile g e d to a b s tr a c t p r e ­ v io u s to final p u b lica tio n b y th e S ta te , w hich a b s tra c t ap p ears elsew here in this issue. T h e fu ll rep o rt m a y be secured b y w ritin g to th e C om m issio n er o f L ab o r, A lb a n y , N . Y .

W oo d alcohol presents a u n iq u e case for le g isla tio n , n o t o n ly on acco u n t of its general resem b lan ce to e th y l alcohol, b u t e sp e cially on a cco u n t of th e w ord “ a lc o h o l,”, w hich has a definite m eanin g to th e ch em ist, b u t is m ore associated in th e la y m ind w ith “ d rin k .”

M e th y l alcohol is used e x te n s iv e ly as a v a lu a b le so l­

v e n t and in th e m a n u fa ctu re o f m a n y im p o rta n t m aterials. Its leg itim a te use sh o u ld n o t be th ro ttle d . T h e presen t law s in regard to its use as an a d u lte ra n t of b eve rage s or in a n y p rep aratio n in te n d e d for in tern a l use or e xte rn al a p p licatio n on th e h um an b o d y are in m ost sta te s now ad eq u a te , b u t th e y sh o u ld i be m ore rig id ly enforced. W here in a d e q u a te , w e tr u s t t h a t reason ab le leg isla tio n , such as is recom m en ded in th e rep o rt referred to a b o v e, m a y be en acte d . A t presen t, h o w ever, w e in sist upon th e rigid e x ecu tio n of th e law s as th e y exist before fu rth e r en cu m berin g th e codes.

line stru ctu re giv es place to a n o th er w h ich is fine­

grain ed and of a u n ifo rm d istrib u tio n (F ig . 2):

T h e degree to w h ich th is ch an ge ta k e s p lace is lim ­ ite d b y th e te m p e ratu re reach ed , its u n ifo rm ity , th e tim e th a t it is m ain tain ed, th e ra te of cooling, and th e size and shape of th e castin g .

G ive n th e p rop er te m p e ratu re , b u t le t th e tim e be to o sh o rt to perm it o f a co m p lete re-arran gem e n t, th e stru ctu re w ill be an alogo u s to th a t seen in F ig . 3, in w hich th e o rigin al stru c tu re is re a d ily tra c e d b y th e p arallel g ro u p in g of th e new c ry s ta lliz a tio n . W ith a still shorter tim e p erio d th e re is o n ly a p a rtia l re- c ry s ta lliz in g , and m ore or less of th e origin al n e tw o rk is visib le (F ig. 4).

L e t th e tim e be lo n g en ough , b u t th e te m p e ra tu re be to o low , th ere w ill be again a p a rtia l re-grou p in g w ith m ore or less of th e origin al c ry s ta lliz a tio n presen t (F ig. s).

L e t th e te m p eratu re be rig h t b u t th e tim e period b e to o long, all traces of th e origin al s tru c tu re w ill be d estro yed , b u t in p lace o f th e fine g ra n u la r s tru c tu re seen in F ig . 2 th e re w ill be a m uch coarser one (F ig . 6) ch ara cte rize d b y th e large-sized areas o f a ce rta in kin d .

L e t th e te m p e ratu re be to o h igh and th e increase in size of certain areas b ecom e m a rk ed (F ig . 7).

R E L A T IO N O F S T R U C T U R E T O P H Y S I C A L P R O P E R T I E S

T h e ch ara cte r of th e stru c tu re b ears a re latio n to th e p h ysica l p rop erties of th e m etal in th e castin g , th e finer th e grain , th e m ore u n ifo rm its d istrib u tio n and th e freer it is fro m o cclu d e d fo reig n m a tte r as sla g, sulfide, oxide, e tc., th e b e tte r w ill be th e p h ysica l prop erties.

ORIGINAL PAPERS

Fi g. t i . X 150 Fi g. 12. X ISO F io . 13. X 150

F io . 8

y ^e noted th a t th e se stru ctu re s are all refera- e to one or the other of. th e ty p e s p re v io u s ly sho w n as

u tlng from th e co n d itio n s of an n ealin g,

flue ^o w e ver> is n ot th e o n ly fa c to r th a t in- near°eS ^ P h ysical p ro p erties, for, g iv e n good an-

lng practice, it is n o t in fre q u e n t to find a castin g

and th a t th ese cra ck s sta rt in an d fo llo w th e line of th e 'im p u ritie s. In F ig . 23 th e cause of th e ru p tu re is cle arly in d icated .

C O N C L U S IO N

O ne, m ore, or all of th e several stru ctu re s here illu s­

tra te d m ay. be fou n d in a n y one steel castin g .

Sept., 1913

T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

The follow ing exam p les (F ig s . 9-15) g iv e th e ty p e of the structures as o b ta in e d fro m fo u r or m ore d ifferen t places on each castin g . T h e p h y s ic a l v a lu e s g iv e n were obtained from a co u p o n 5 .5" X 3 .5 " X 1 .5 ' c a s t on and part of th e ca stin g a n d p la ce d , it w as b elieve d , so as to represent n eith er th e b e st nor th e w orst o f th e casting but to g iv e th e a v e ra g e o f th e piece.

The castings w ere sp o t p o lish ed , e tch e d an d p h o to ­ graphed in th e shop w ith th e p o rta b le m etallo grap h ic outfit (Fig. 8) described b y th e w rite r in M etallurgical uni Chemical Engineering, I I , 56—8.

AH the p h otog raph s are o f th e sam e am p lificatio n

w ith a low resistan ce to sh o ck and to su d d e n ly a p ­ p lied loads. T h e m icro stru ctu re of such castin gs co m m o n ly show s th e presence of slag, sulfides, oxide an d o th er im p u rities. T y p ic a l illu stra tio n s o f th is are to be seen in F igs. 16 and 17.

T h e fo llo w in g exam p les (F ig s. 18-20) g iv e th e ty p e of th e stru ctu re s as o b tain ed from fo u r or m ore p laces on th e castin g. T h e p h ysica l v a lu e s w ere o b ta in e d from coupo ns ca st on and p a rt o f th e castin g .

T h e p h o to g rap h s are of th e sam e am p lifica tio n w ith a m agn ification o f 150.

T h ese im p u rities p la y an im p o rta n t p a rt as a cause

Mark Fis. 9.

Fig. 10.

Fig. f l . Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

T en sile Y ield p o in t E long.

Table I

R ed C M n

A nalysis

Si S P

. 7 1 ,3 5 6 3 8 ,8 3 2 23 .7 5 3 4 .7 2 0.3 1 0 .6 3 0 .2 7 0.071 0 .0 4 4

. 70,991 3 8 ,4 8 9 19.25 2 3 .2 6 0.3 1 0.6 1 0 .2 9 0 .0 7 3 0 .0 4 3

. 70,791 3 9 ,5 0 2 16.75 18.00 0.3 1 0 .5 9 0 .2 9 0 .0 7 2 0 .0 4 0

. 7 0 ,6 2 0 3 9 ,2 1 6 14.00 15.75 0 .3 7 0 .6 0 0 .2 9 0.0 6 9 0 .0 4 0

- 6 9 ,9 8 0 39 ,2 0 5 12.00 14.50 0.31 0 .6 0 0 .2 8 0 .0 6 9 0 .0 4 3

. 7 2 ,0 0 0 3 3 ,0 0 0 10.75 11.50 0.3 1 0 .6 7 0 .2 8 0 .0 6 5 0 .0 4 0

. 7 3 ,0 0 0 4 0 ,0 0 0 8 .5 0 10.00 0 .31 0 .6 2 0 .2 8 0 .0 5 4 0 .0 4 4

with a m agnification o f 150 an d are d ire c tly com p ara- of failu re. T h u s in F igs. 21 an d 22, fro m castin g s

ble with one another. w hich h a ve failed in service, an d w hich are areas som e

The castings w ere m ade b y th e sam e process b u t in d istance a w a y from th e p o in t of a ctu a l ru p tu re , it

widely separated h eats. w ill be n oted th a t th ere are m inu te cra ck s in th e grain

in fa c t , th e a v e ra g e v a lu e of th e castin g m a y be su ch in e ig h t or m ore d ifferen t p laces w ith b u t little, if sc th a t it w ill h a v e b u t little resistan ce to su d d en strain s, m ore exp ense a n d tim e th a n it ta k e s to prepare

I t h as been in d ica te d t h a t th e re is a relatio n b etw e en sta n d a rd te s t b ar.

T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

V o l. 5, No.9

Ta d u! I I

A nalysis

M a rk Tensile Y ield p o in t E long. R ed C M n Si

s

p

F ig . 18. .

...

70,000 3 6 ,5 0 0 12.50 16.25 0 .3 5 0 .6 5 0 .2 9 0 .0 7 0 0.040

F ig . 19. .

...

71,4 0 0 3 7 ,4 8 0 10.50 13.25 0 .3 8 0 .6 8 0 .2 9 0.0 6 5 0.042

F ig . 20. .

...

70,9 0 0 3 5 ,1 5 0 13.75 17 .4 0 0 .3 2 0 .6 4 0 .2 8 0.071 0.045

If, as is g e n e ra lly th e case, th e cou p o n b e g a te d to th e m icro stru ctu re o f th e castin g an d its physica th e castin g , or be ca st on th e h e a v y p a rt, or on th e d rag, v a lu e .

it w ill rep resen t th e b est v a lu e s of th e m etal, w h en , I t can be sh o w n t h a t a c a stin g m a y be spot polished

Sept., 1913

T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

_{7 1 7}

It follows th a t, g iv e n su fficien t exp erien ce and a set of standards, th e m e ta llo g ra p h ic m eth o d w ill g iv e in ­ formation th a t c a n n o t be o b ta in e d c o n v e n ie n tly b y

Fig. 23.

any other m anner o f te s t. I t b ecom es, th erefo re, an additional sa feg u ard in th e in sp ectio n of im p o rta n t castings.

1423 R S t., N . W.

Wa s h i n g t o n, D . C .

LUBRICATION W IT H OILS, AND W IT H COLLOIDAL G R A P H IT E

B y C h a r l e s F . M a b h r y R eceiv ed J u ly 1 4 , 1 9 1 3

In a pap er1 p u b lish ed th ree y e a rs ago, an acco u n t was given of som e resu lts on th e c o m p a ra tiv e efficien cy in lubrication of oil lu b ric a n ts, a n d oils c arry in g colloidal2 graph ite. I t a p p e a re d in all th e te sts th erein described th a t a lo w er co efficien t of frictio n w as given by the use of g ra p h ite th a n b y th e use of oils alone, that oils su p ported a m u ch g re a te r pressure w ith th e aid of graphite, an d e sp e c ia lly th a t th e gra p h ite film was capable of su stain in g th e frictio n of a h e a v y pressure for a lo n g period a fte r th e su p p ly of lu b rica n t was shut off. M u ch a tte n tio n h as since been given to various featu res of lu b ric a tio n w ith co llo id al gra p h ite , especially in a tte m p ts to a sce rta in th e a ctu a l eco n o m y of its use in re p la cin g oil lu b ric a n ts. T h e o b servatio n s to be described in th is p a p e r presen t h igh econom ic efficiency and a re m a rk a b le d u ra b ility of a grap h o id surface. (F or a d efin ition of th is te rm see p ag e 722.)

It has long been fe lt th a t lu b ric a tio n w ith oils u nder heavy pressures is an a rtificial sy ste m , fo r th e frictio n is supported b y a th in film of oil w h ich m ust sep arate completely and c o n tin u o u s ly th e b earin g surfaces.

If this film be in th e le a s t b ro k en , ev en in m inu te places, there w ill be a c a tc h b e tw e e n th e m etal su r­

faces with g r e a tly in crea sed frictio n , as sho w n b y higher tem peratu res as w ell as b y h igh er coefficients.

This u n certain ty in oil lu b ric a tio n d ep en ds on an inherent w eakness of th e h y d ro ca rb o n s w h ich con­

stitute the m ain b o d y o f p e tro leu m lu b ric a n ts, assum - mg that th e y h a v e bebn s e p a ra te d fro m th e crude oil without d ecom po sition in th e process of refinin g;

they are few in n u m ber, and m em bers o f a lim ite d series represented m ain ly b y th e gen eral fo rm u las C

h

H™, C»H?n j, and C n H *,,-* T h e lim ite d n u m ber of h y d ro ­ carbons in these series is sh o w n b y th e fa c t th a t th e y may be collected w ith in c o m p a ra tiv e ly n arro w lim its

°f tem perature d u rin g d istilla tio n , p ro v id e d , of course,

1 Th is Jo u r n a l, 2 , 1 1 5 ; J o u rn a l o f the A m erica n Society o f Mechanical engineers, January, 1 9 1 0 .

At the tim e of th e fo rm e r p u b lic a tio n th e te rm " d e flo c c u la te d ” w as USe designate th is fo rm of c a rb o n w h ich h a d b een fo u n d to b e a lto - F* '’J t^ eren* in its p ro p e rtie s fro m th e o th e r well k n o w n fo rm s.

Ur 1 r sty dy d e m o n stra te d it s c o llo id a l q u a lity .

th a t d ecom position is a vo id ed . T h e s ta b ility of th ese h yd ro carb o n s dim inishes in a so m e w h at regu la r m a n ­ ner w ith th e increase in co m p le x ity o f co m p o sitio n , u n til a p o in t is reach ed w here th e oils can n o t be d is­

tilled w ith o u t c ra ck in g ev en in vacuo. T h is v a ria tio n in s ta b ility appears in th e ir use as lu b ric a n ts, e sp e cially under irregu lar con d itio n s of frictio n an d te m p e ratu re . B u t so lon g as th e te m p e ra tu re is k e p t d ow n an d th e b earin gs h a ve a p ro p e rly ev en su rface, th e h y d ro ­ carbo ns of su itab le v is c o s ity serve as d u rab le lu b ri­

can ts. U n der u n even con d itio n s of fric tio n th e y are liab le to im m ed iate d ecom p o sition ev en to c a rb o n iza ­ tion. T h is com plete d ecom po sition is fr e q u e n tly ob served esp ecially in th e e x tre m e ly v a ria b le co n d i­

tion s of au to m o b ile lu b rica tio n . In fa c t th e d em and s of m odern loco m o tio n w ith u n p reced en ted h igh sp eed s, such as in au to m o b ile racin g, u n eve n loads, and th e v a riab le chan ges of h ig h w a y tra ffic, h a v e reach e d a burden of lu b ricatio n th a t no oils, m ineral, v e g e ta b le , or anim al, are cap ab le of su p p o rtin g . C a rb o n iza tio n in au tom ob ile lu b ricatio n is an o ccu rren ce of com m on o b servatio n , and oils are ra te d on th e b asis of a so- called carbon te st, w h ich show s ce rta in differences in s ta b ility d ep en din g on a d ifference in th e com p o sition of th e oils, and also on th e m eth o d of' refining. N o oils can w ith stan d th e irreg u lar op eratio n s of ce rta in au to m o b ile p ra ctice w ith o u t carb o n izin g to a g re a te r or less exten t.

L u b rica tio n w ith oils is based on th e q u a lity o f oiliness, or greasiness th a t is in h ere n t in th e h y d ro ­ carbons poorer in h y d ro g e n m en tion ed a b o v e. I t is.

n ot str ic tly defined b y v is c o s ity as o rd in a rily d e te r­

m ined. W hile th e m olecules h a v e a ce rta in freed o m of m otion w ith in th e b o d y of th e oil a tte n d e d w ith a consequ ent inh eren t frictio n , th e y h a v e also an a t­

tra c tio n for exte rn al su rfaces on w hich th e y m a y fo rm an a tta ch m e n t, b u t p rese rv in g th e ir c o n tin u ity and freedom of m otion ev en u nder high pressures an d high speeds, th u s form ing, under co n s ta n t co n d itio n s, a continu ou s and a d u rab le film .

E n g le r1 in referrin g to oil lu b ric a n ts sta te d th a t

“ D as S ch m ie rm ittel par E x c e lle n c e ” is n o t k n o w n , b u t th a t for e v e ry sp ecial use a lu b ric a tin g oil m u st be selected on th e basis of its v is c o s ity ; th a t sin ce for v a riab le com bin atio n s of p ressure and speed, th e re is no definite sta n d a rd , th e v is c o s ity m u st be d ete rm in ed fo r a n y set of cond itio ns in p ra c tic a l o p eratio n . I t m a y be said fu rth e r th a t v is c o s ity as o rd in a rily d e­

term ined is n ot a lw a y s reliab le for d ete rm in in g th e q u a lity o f a lu b ric a tin g oil for a n y sta te d co n d itio n , fo r th e reason th a t it is po ssible to p rep are an oil lu b rica n t b y co m p o u n d in g a h e a v y d is tilla te w ith a lig h te r one, le a v in g o u t th e m id d le fra c tio n , in such a m anner as to g iv e a n y v is c o s ity desired as d e te r­

m ined b y th e visco sim e ter. B u t in th e use of such a lu b rican t th e re is a te n d e n c y of th e lig h te r co n s titu e n ts to creep and e v a p o ra te , le a v in g th e h e a v y co n s titu e n ts b etw een th e bearin g su rfaces. I t is e v id e n tly po ssible to determ ine th e presence o f a n y co n sid erable a m o u n t of th e lig h ter c o n stitu e n ts b y d ete rm in in g th e flash ing p o in t of th e oil, b u t th is te s t is s c a rc e ly su fficien t to

i D a s E rd o cl. Leipzig, 1912» p . 83*

7i8

T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

V o l. 5, No. 9

in d ic a te w ith p recision th e presence o f such p ro ­ p o rtio n s of th e lig h te r c o n stitu e n ts as m a y b e used to g iv e th e desired v is c o s ity . A m ore a cc u ra te m eans o f co n tro l is d istilla tio n w h ich , if co n d u cte d in vacuo, sh o u ld sh o w th e sm allest p ro p o rtio n of lig h te r oils.

A fu rth e r aid fro m a p ra ctic a l p o in t of v ie w , an d one t h a t is h ig h ly d esirable if p ro p e rly co n d u cte d w ith referen ce to fa c to ry use an d co n d itio n s, is th e tr ia l of an oil on a su ita b le b ea rin g p ro v id e d w ith th e m eans fo r a sce rtain in g th e coefficien t o f v is c o s ity and for rea d in g te m p eratu re s.

O n a cc o u n t of th e in h ere n t w eakn ess in oil lu b r i­

ca n ts referred to a b o v e , th e need is e v id e n t o f a solid lu b ric a n t c ap ab le of e q u a lizin g th e in e q u a litie s of th e m etal su rfaces an d of such a d e q u a te lu b ric a tin g q u a lity as to a v o id in te rm o le cu la r fric tio n . O f all k n o w n m aterials th e su b sta n ce g ra p h ite alone possesses th e q u alities of a n orm al lu b ric a n t. In its o rd in a ry n a tu ra l co n d itio n it is n o t possible to m e c h a n ic a lly su b d ivid e it so c o m p le te ly th a t it can p e n e tra te th e fine in te rstice s of m e tallic su rfaces an d a t th e sam e tim e fo rm a p e rsisten t co h eren t lu b ric a te d s u r fa c e ; b u t in a fo rm of co m p lete p u r ity , free fro m th e m ineral co n s titu e n ts of n a tu ra l gra p h ite and in a co n d itio n of m inu te su b d ivisio n , such as is fo rm ed b y th e co n ­ versio n o f A c h e s o n ’s electric fu rn a ce g ra p h ite in to its co llo id a l co n d itio n , th ere is a v a ila b le a solid lu b ric a n t t h a t fu lfills th e req u irem e n ts of econ om ic lu b rica tio n . I t is so fin ely d ivid ed t h a t it re a d ily p e rm e ate s m etals and b y reason of its u n ctu o u s q u a lity its ow n frictio n is red u ced to a p r a c tic a lly n egligib le q u a n tity , th u s e sca p in g th e in tern a l frictio n of oil lu b ric a n ts th a t is an im p o rta n t fa c to r in th e losses of p o w er in fa c t o r y o p eratio n .

T h e a ctio n of collo idal g ra p h ite is tw o -fo ld : its p e rm a n e n t susp ension in oil as o ild ag or in w a te r as a q u a d a g rend ers it cap ab le of co n v e n ie n t a p p lica tio n a n d it in v a r ia b ly red u ces th e v is c o s ity o f th e oil as a m edium o f a p p licatio n as show n b y m a n y te s ts w ith a g re a t v a r ie ty of oils; its gre a te st v a lu e , h o w e ver, d ep en ds on its readin ess to fo rm a g ra p h o id co n d itio n on b ea rin g su rfaces. I t is o n ly n ecessary th a t it be su sp en d ed in a su ita b le m ed iu m free fro m a n y k in d of e le c tro ly te to g iv e th e fin e ly d ivid ed p a rticle s freed om of m otion. W hen e v e n ly sp read in an oil m edium o v e r a bearin g su rface such , for exam p le, as a B a b b it t b earin g of th e prop er q u a lity , th e co llo idal pa rticles im m e d ia te ly en ter th e fine m etallic in terstice s and a c c u m u la tin g form a co m b in atio n so m e w h at an alogo u s to an a m a lg a m a te d su rface, w h ich needs o n ly to be p ro p e rly renew ed b y regu lar a d d itio n s of th e lu b ric a n t to presen t a b earin g su rface cap ab le of su p p o rtin g a n y reaso n ab le pressure an d w ith th e lo w e st frictio n th a t it is po ssible to o b ta in .

In th e d escrip tio n of th e C a rp e n te r m achin e on w hich th e te sts p resen ted in th is p ap e r w ere m ade, in thg fo rm er p a p e r referred to a b o v e , th e n ecessity o f using a h a rd B a b b it t b earin g w as m en tion ed . T h e co n ­ d itio n o f th e jo u rn a l and of th e b ea rin g h a v e been m ore c a re fu lly considered in th e recen t w o rk , e sp e cially w ith referen ce to th e hard n ess of th e B a b b it t, th e sm oo th n ess o f su rface, and th e e v e n d istrib u tio n of the

lu b r ic a n t b y th e g ro o v e d b ea rin g. I t is ev id en t that o b se rv a tio n s of th is n a tu re are a lto g e th e r relative, e sp e c ia lly as it is p r a c tic a lly im p o ssible th a t inde­

p e n d e n t b ea rin g su rfaces are p re cise ly in th e same c o n d itio n . B y th e use o f a sta n d a rd lu b ric a n t it is of cou rse p o ssible to co m p are te sts m ade under different con d itio n s.

In th e w o rk herein d escrib ed an esp ecially hard B a b b it t w as sele cted , an d th e b e a rin g su rfaces were m ille d d ow n to tru e c o n ta c t in th e b egin n in g, and by lo n g-co n tin u ed use w ere w orn to as ex tre m e a condi­

tio n of fine sm o o th n ess as it is po ssible to obtain by o rd in a ry m ech an ical o p eratio n . C o m p a rin g the ex­

tre m e ly lo w coefficien ts an d te m p e ra tu re s recently o b ta in e d w ith th o se fo rm e rly p resen ted , th e difference in th e c o n d itio n o f th e b earin gs is e v id e n t. While th e se co n d itio n s are n e ce ssa ry in sh o w in g sm all differ­

en ces o f frictio n , e v id e n t ly no su ch s tr ic t adherence is n e ce ssa ry in fa c t o r y o p eratio n , a lth o u g h th e more clo sely th e y are a p p lied in p ra ctic e th e less will be th e loss in p o w er. U n der a n y reaso n ab le condi­

tio n s o f o p e ratio n th e use o f co llo id a l grap h ite as lu b ric a n t is ce rta in to red u ce th e fric tio n v e ry ma­

te r ia lly an d to serve as an im p o rta n t econ om ic element in fa c t o r y m a in te n a n ce.

F o r th e p u rp o se o f a sce rta in in g w ith greater pre­

cision th a n fo rm e rly th e in flu en ce of co llo id al graphite in re d u cin g fric tio n , o b se rv a tio n s w ere m ade under a v a r ie ty of co n d itio n s, m ore e sp e c ia lly fo r th e purpose of c o m p a rin g its su p erio r eco n o m y o v er th a t of oil lu b ric a n t. F irs t in th e series of te sts one of th e best au to m o b ile lu b ric a n ts w as sele cted fo r a te s t of its fric tio n a l c a p a c ity alone, and th e n w ith different p e rcen ta ge s of g ra p h ite . T h e oil w as allow ed to run fro m th e cu p a t th e r a te o f e ig h t d ro p s per m inute for tw o h ours, w ith a th e rm o m e te r in serted in a hole in th e b ea rin g fo r th e p u rp o se o f rea d in g th e tem peratures.

T h e p ressure sele cted w as 200 lbs. per sq. in. or a to ta l of 1500 lbs. T h e speed w as 450 revo lu tio n s per m in u te (r. p. m .).

F ig . 1 sho w s th e co efficien ts o f fric tio n extending th ro u g h th e p e rio d o f th e te s t, tw o h ours, and also t h a t th e oil film b ro k e sev en tee n m in u tes after the s u p p ly w as sh u t off.

I t sh o u ld also b e m en tio n ed in co n n ectio n w ith this o b se rv a tio n th a t a s u p p ly o f e ig h t d ro p s per minute of th e lu b ric a n t is th e m inim u m a m o u n t o f this oil t h a t w ill su p p o rt th e fric tio n of th is pressure under th ese co n d itio n s. T h is w as d ete rm in ed in another e x p erim e n t, w h erein th e flow of oil w as red u ced to six d rops per m in u te; th e oil film b ro k e soon after the te s t w as s ta rte d sh o w in g th a t th is q u a n tity of oil was in su fficien t, a re su lt p re c ise ly sim ilar to w h a t was ob­

serve d in th e w o rk th re e y e a rs ago w ith th e same oil and w ith o th er oils. T h e lo w coefficien t of friction in th is te s t is w o r th y of n o te, an d also its evenness after n orm al co n d itio n s w ere estab lish e d , an d u n til the oil film b ro k e.

F ig. 1 also p rese n ts th e cu rv e for th e sam e oil carry­

in g 0.35 per cen t g ra p h ite u n d er th e sam e

elem ents,

o f pressure, speed, and su p p ly of oil to th e

bearin g-

T h e lo w coefficien t o f fric tio n is a p p a re n t which, with

Sept., 19 13

T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

Chart for Motor Oil with and without 0. 3 5 % Colloidal Graphite

Tirne in M in u te s.

a corresponding lo w er te m p e ra tu re , in d icate s cle a rly the influence of th e g ra p h ite in red u cin g th e v isc o s ity of the oil, b u t th e o b se rv a tio n o f esp ecial in terest m this test is th e p e rm an e n ce of th e grap h o id su rface after the su p p ly of lu b ric a n t w as d iscon tin u ed . I t appears th a t th is su rface su p p o rte d a pressure of 200 lbs. per sq. in. w ith an e x tre m e ly lo w and even coefficient of frictio n th a t co n tin u ed u n ch an ged du rin g five hours and w o u ld p r o b a b ly h a v e co n tin u ed m uch longer.

For the purpose of a sce rta in in g w h eth er larger or

pressure of 150 lbs. per sq. in. T h e resu lts of th is te st are n o t essen tially differen t fro m th o se of F ig . 2 w ith 0.35 per cen t g ra p h ite , a lth o u g h th e coefficien ts are so m e w h at low er w ith th e large r p e rcen ta ge . T h e re is th erefore little to choose b etw e en th ese p e rce n ta ge s in estab lish in g th e in itia l g ra p h o id su rface; b u t as w ill be show n la te r a su ita b le su rface can be p e rm a n e n tly m ain tain ed w hen it is once e stab lish ed b y a m uch sm aller ad d itio n of lu b rican t, w h eth er it be used as a sm aller p e rcen ta ge of g ra p h ite , or b y a dim inish ed s u p p ly of oil carry in g th e norm al prop ortion .

C h a rt fo r M otor O il w ith 0 .2 5 % Colloidal G ra p h ite

T im e in M in u t e s .

smaller percentages of g ra p h ite are a d v a n ta g e o u s, se'eral runs were m ade w ith lu b ric a n ts c a rry in g 0.5 Per cent and sm alle r p e rce n ta ge s to 0.1 per cen t, neither of these ex trem e s w ere s a tis fa c to ry . F ig.

2 presents th e resu lts as to coefficien t w ith th e u ncant carryin g 0.25 per cen t of gra p h ite under a

F o r th e purpose of a sce rtain in g th e m in im u m

am o u n t of gra p h ite t h a t w ill m a in ta in a g ra p h o id

cond itio n w hen once form ed on th e b earin gs, a series

of te sts w ere m ade g ra d u a lly re d u cin g th e s u p p ly of

lu b ric a n t all under th e sam e co n d itio n s o f pressure

and speed. F ig . 3 g iv e s th e cu rv es a fte r th e flow of

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T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

V o l. 5, No. 9

Chart tor Endurance Tests. Oil and 0 . 3 5 % Colloidal Graphite

Time, i n P / o u r s .

o il w as red u ced fro m e ig h t to fo u r d rops p er m in u te, th e oil co n tain in g 0.35 per cen t g ra p h ite . I t w ill be o b serve d th a t th e oil ran for six hours w ith th e coeffi­

cie n t of frictio n p r a c tic a lly u n ch an ged a fte r n orm al co n d itio n s w ere estab lish ed .

I t seem s a d v isa b le to g iv e in d e ta il th e re su lts of th e se te sts in order th a t th eir co n n ectio n w ith th e final re su lt m a y ap pear. F ig . 3 also g iv e s th e re su lts of a

w ere a llo w e d to ru n on th e sam e su rfa ce and under the sam e co n d itio n s as b efore, e x c e p t a red u ctio n in the s u p p ly of lu b r ic a n t fro m tw o d rops to one drop per m in u te. F ig . 3 p resen ts th e resu lts of th is test with no ch an ge in th e coefficien t.

F ig . 4 p resen ts a n o th er te s t of th e graphoid su rface u n d er th e sam e c o n d itio n s as to pressure and sp eed, b u t w ith th e flow o f oil re d u ce d to one drop in C hart for E n d u r a n ce T ests. O il a n d 0 .3 5 % C olloid a l G r a p h ite

* b 7 0 3 10 H !Z 13 14- I S /€,

T i m e in H o u r s .

fu rth e r te s t o f th e sam e gra p h o id su rface w ith th e flow o f oil red u ce d fro m fo u r to tw o drops per m in u te;

as b efo re, th e coefficien ts rem ain ed p r a c tic a lly th e sam e d u rin g fifteen hours w ith sligh t b reaks due to sto p p in g a n d sta rtin g .

S till co n tin u in g th e en d u ran ce te s ts , th e bearin gs

tw o m in u tes. D u rin g th is run o f sixteen hours it w ill be o b serve d t h a t th e coefficien t of frictio n remains co n s ta n t an d th e re w as no ch an ge in

t e m p e r a t u r e .

Since th e coefficien t o f fric tio n in th is te st was un ch an g e d a t th e en d of sixteen h ours, even a

g re a te r

red u ctio n in th e flow of lu b ric a n t w ou ld

e v id e n tly

Sept., 1913

T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

_{72 1}

C h a rt fo r E n d u r a n ce T est on Colloidal G r a p h ite A lo n e

T i m e In H o u r s .

have m aintained th e g ra p h o id su rface, b u t th is flow was practically a t th e lo w e st p o in t w h ere it could be accurately m easured fro m th e oil cup.

It appears, therefore, th a t th e sam e resu lt in lu b rica-

it w as show n th a t a flow of eig h t drops p er m inute is th e m inim um su p p ly of oil alone th a t w ill su p p o rt th e frictio n under these conditions.

F o r th e purpose of te stin g still fu rth e r th e q u a lity of

T im e in M i n v f e S.

*10n obtained b y ,the use o f on e-sixteen th of th e th e graph oid su rface, a t th e en d of th e la s t te s t th e

quantity of oil th a t is n e ce ssa ry to m ain tain th e sam e flow of lu b rican t w as susp ended an d th e m ach in e

lubrication w ith o u t th e use of co llo id al gra p h ite ; for allow ed to run u n til th e b ea rin g c a u g h t. T h e

resu lts of th is te s t are shown, in F ig . 5 w here it ap p ears th a t th e pressure w as su p p o rte d fo r n e a rly te n hours and w ith a coefficien t o n ly s lig h tly h igh er th a n in th e p reced in g te sts. I t sh o u ld be borne in m ind th a t a b re ak in th e c o n tin u ity o f th e lu b ric a te d su rface is in d ic a te d su d d e n ly b y a g re a t rise on th e fric tio n arm an d it is cau sed b y th e first p o in t or sectio n h o w e ver m inu te w h erever th e g ra p h ite b ecom es w orn th ro u g h , y e t th e re m a y still be a large sectio n o f lu b rica te d su rface. T h is a p p e ared in th e n e x t ex p erim en t.

The m ann er in w hich co llo id a l g ra p h ite is a b le to su p p o rt such h e a v y pressures w ith lo w fric tio n has al­

re a d y been exp lain ed . A fte r th e m e tallic su rface b ecom es c o m p le te ly s a tu ra te d w ith gra p h ite e v id e n tly w ith o u t ren ew al co n tin u ed frictio n w o u ld be n ecessa ry to rem o ve it co m p le te ly . I t th e re fo re seem ed of in terest to a sce rtain h ow re a d ily it cou ld be rem o ved . A series of runs w ere m ade on th e sam e su rfa ce a fte r it b roke in th e la s t te s t, w ith th e a d d itio n o f oil alone a t th e ra te o f e ig h t drops per m in u te, to d eterm in e ju s t th e p o in t w here th e grap h o id su rface cou ld no lo n g er assist in lu b rica tio n . In each o f th e ru n s th e oil w as allow ed to flow fo r th ir ty m in u tes, and th e b earin gs w ere th en c a re fu lly w iped. F ig . 6 sh o w s th e effe ct of th e g ra p h ite in assistin g th e oil lu b rica tio n w ith o u t ch an ge du rin g six runs, and also t h a t it b e ­ cam e e x h a u ste d an d b ro k e in th e se v e n th run sh o w in g th a t a lto g e th e r a p p ro x im a te ly th ree and on e-h alf hou rs w ere requ ired to w ear off th e gra p h ite u n til it w as no lon ger an aid in lu b ricatio n .

A G R A P H O ID S U R F A C E A N D T H E C O N D IT IO N S O F IT S F O R M A T IO N

In th e form er p a p e r on th is s u b je c t1 th e effe ct of co llo idal g ra p h ite (then referred to as a “ d e flo ccu la te d f o r m ’ ) ap p ears th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: “ One o f th e m ost ch a ra cte ristic effects is th a t of a su rface- ev en er,, b y fo rm in g a veneer, e q u a lizin g th e m e tallic dep ressions and p ro jectio n s on th e su rfaces o f jo u rn a l an d b e a rin g .’ ' A fte r fo u r y e a rs exp erience w ith g ra p h ite lu b ricatio n it ap p ears t h a t th e fo rm er e x ­ p la n a tio n fa lls sh o rt o f defin ing th e in tim a te relatio n o f collo idal gra p h ite to m etallic b earin gs. N o d o u b t in b u ild in g up th e g ra p h o id su rface th e en tire d e­

p ressions and p ro jectio n s are sa tu ra te d w ith g ra p h ite w h ich d o u b tless en ters in to a closer s ta te o f co m b in a ­ tio n w ith th e m e tallic su rface th a n th a t m erely o f a m ech a n ical veneer.

In th e use o f collo idal g ra p h ite as a lu b ric a n t it ap p ears th a t b y reason o f th e te n u ity or fineness o f its p a rticle s, it is cap ab le u n der th e co n d itio n s o f lu b ric a ­ tio n o f p e n e tra tin g th e p orous su rface o f m etals, and co m in g in to su ch close c o n ta c t in th e ir in te rm o le cu la r stru c tu re , o f ap p ro a ch in g a co n d itio n o f g ra p h itic co m b in atio n . I t th e n co n tin u es to a cc u m u la te u n til a co n tin u o u s s a tu ra te d su rface is fo rm ed , w h ich e x ­ ten d s e q u a lly o v e r th e depressions a n d p ro tu b era n ces 1 * e k ear|ng is n o t in th e b est co n d itio n o f sm oo th - n ess; b u t in its b est co n d itio n th e gra p h o id su rface fo rm ed seem s to be n e a rly friction less.

S ince th is re latio n of m etal and carb o n is n o t de-

1 Loc. cit.

722

T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L

fin ed b y a n y te rm n ow in use, th e w o rd graphoid used a b o v e m a y serve to d istin g u ish it fro m the term//«

th a t exp resses th e s ta te o f an oil lu b ric a n t on a bearing su rface.

A s to th e g re a te r e fficie n cy o f th e graphoid surface o v e r an oil film u n d e r a n y co n d itio n s of lubrication th e re seem s to be no q u estio n . I t a ll depends on esta b lish in g th e c o n d itio n s w h e re b y th is surface may be re a d ily fo rm ed . A n oil m ed iu m in which the co llo id al g ra p h ite is p e rm a n e n tly suspended can evi­

d e n tly c a r ry it to a n y fo rm o f b ea rin g surface that needs lu b ric a tio n . W h a te v e r th e condition of the m e ta llic b e a rin g th e g ra p h ite soon com bines with it, and th e sm o o th er th e su rface th e m ore readily will a co n tin u o u s g ra p h o id su rface be form ed . In all tests it has a p p e ared t h a t th e in te rn a l fric tio n of an oil.is d im in ish e d b y co llo id a l g ra p h ite , a lth o u g h its larger effe ct is a lto g e th e r in d e p e n d e n t o f oils except as a m ed iu m o f a p p lic a tio n . A ft e r a g rap h o id surface is fo rm ed o n ly a sm a ll co n tin u o u s ad d itio n is necessary to re p la ce th e w e a r w h ich , as sh o w n in th e tests, re­

d u ces th e co n su m p tio n o f oil to a sm all fraction of what is n ecessa ry in th e use of oil alone. W h ile eliminating th e in te rn a l fric tio n o f oils a n d rend erin g viscosity of se c o n d a ry im p o rta n c e , th e gra p h o id surface is c ap ab le o f ta k in g care of lig h t a n d h e a v y pressures e q u a lly w ell an d w ith a m inim u m loss of power.

R E L A T IO N O F C O E F F I C I E N T O F F R I C T I O N A N D VISCOSIXV T O T E M P E R A T U R E

S in ce th e c u rv e s fo r te m p e ra tu re s were founds to fo llo w c lo se ly th o se o f fric tio n p r a c tic a lly

unchanged,

it w as n o t th o u g h t n e ce ssa ry to p lo t th em . In all the o b se rv a tio n s d escrib ed in th is p a p e r, it was observed th a t th e te m p e ra tu re g r a d u a lly increases with the d u ra tio n of th e te s t u n til it rea ch e s a practically con­

s ta n t v a lu e n o t ex ceed in g 65 o F ., an d th a t for the most p a r t th e te m p e ra tu re s w ere c o n sid e ra b ly lower. It ap p e ars th a t th e fric tio n g e n e ra te s a certain amount o f h e a t u n til it reach es a n o rm al w h ich is practically co n s ta n t, an d th a t b e y o n d th is p o in t th e increase if j a n y is so slig h t th a t it is d issip a te d . In general the lo w er th e co efficien t o f frictio n , th e lo w er will be the te m p e ra tu re . T h is is sh o w n in F ig . 1, where the te m p e ra tu re an d th e co efficien t fo r oil alone were co n s id e ra b ly h igh er th a n th o se fo r oil carrying 0.35 p e r cen t g ra p h ite . I t also a p p e ars in th e other charts e sp e cially in th e en d u ran ce te sts, w ith a sm all supply o f oil. T h is is d o u b tless e x p la in e d , in p a rt at.least, b y th e in te rn a l v is c o s ity o f th e oil w h ich is of course less w ith th e sm aller su p p ly o f oil aided by the g ra p h ite , and it d e m o n strates a su p erio r q u ality of the g ra p h o id c o n d itio n o v e r an oil film , in eliminating p r a c tic a lly in te rn a l v isc o s ity .

A U T O M O B IL E L U B R IC A T IO N

T h ere is p r o b a b ly no v a r ie ty o f lu b ricatio n in which co llo id al g ra p h ite sh o w s its eco n o m ic valu e to better a d v a n ta g e th a n in red u cin g th e fric tio n on automobile b earin gs. On th e B a b b it t b earin gs o f th e cylinder s h a ft it re a d ily fo rm s a g ra p h o id su rface th at wears in d e fin ite ly , and th e se lf-lu b ric a tin g q u a lity of this su rface red u ce s fric tio n to th e sm a lle st possible value-

A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

V o l. 5, No.5