A C T A U N I V E R S I T A T I S L O D Z I E N S I S FO LIA OECONOM ICA 17, 1982
Janusz S w ie rko c k i *
M O D IFIED ECON O M IC -FIN A N C IA L SYSTEM AND PR ESEN T TA SK S OF FO REIG N TRADE
T he econom ic-financial system is an elem en t of th e m an ag em en t system . Each m anagem ent system of foreign tra d e should be th e o re tically correct, it should correspond to th e gen eral concept of th e n a tio -nal econom y’s m anagem ent, and rem ain co h eren t w ith th e economic stra te g y goals. T hese c rite ria a re easily a tta in a b le in a m odel analysis w hile in practice th e ir sim ultaneous im p lem en tatio n en co u n ters d iffe-r e n t b a iffe-riffe-rie iffe-rs especially w hen th e iffe-re ap p e aiffe-r vaiffe-rious tensions.
P lan n in g rep re se n ts th e m ain elem en t of th e m an ag em en t system . T he role of economic and financial in stru m e n ts in decision-m aking is d ep e n d en t upon th e n u m b e r of directiv es included in th e plan. In a s tric tly cen tralized model, in w hich a n y allocation of resources is d e-term in ed by c e n tral preferen ces tra n s m itte d in th e form of point d i-rectives, th e econom ic-financial system perfo rm s passive functions being lim ited to reg iste rin g th e p reviously m ade decisions. On th e o th e r hand, in a m ixed m odel, in w hich decisions a re also m ade a t executive levels, th e econom ic-financial system is o fte n th e m ain in stru m e n t en su rin g co-h erence b etw een tco-hese decisions and guidelines o u tlin ed in tco-h e c e n tra l plan. Hence, correctness of p a rtic u la r economic and financial categories in foreign tra d e such as econom ic m an ag em en t m easures, in te rn a l prices, conversion rate s, incentives, tariffs, co rrectin g in stru m e n ts (surcharges, levies, taxes) — should be assessed in re la tio n to th e m an ag em en t con-cept.
Tasks w hich can be placed before th e c u rre n t m an ag em en t system of foreign tra d e a re s tric tly lim ited. F irstly , the system cannot elim i-n a te ii-n te ri-n a l ai-nd e x te ri-n a l disproportioi-ns ii-n th e ecoi-nom y if th e y a re a re s u lt of strateg ic decisions. H igh p a rticip a tio n of in v estm e n ts in th e
national incom e, dynam ic gro w th of nom inal wages, financing of eco-nom ic developm ent th ro u g h foreign ind eb ted n ess can be said to create c u rre n t tensions b u t th e ir elim ination calls for s tru c tu ra l undertakings. Secondly, th e m anagem ent system op erates in conditions of a d efin ite w orld m a rk e t situ atio n w hich p ra c tic a lly cannot be, to an y e x te n t, in -fluenced by Poland. If e.g. in v estm en t p ro jects com m issioned in previous y ears ap p e ar to be illa d ju ste d to p re se n t dem and tren d s, or if as a re -su lt of p ro tectio n ist policy em ployed by foreign co u n tries P o la n d ’s access to p a rtic u la r m a rk e ts is re stric te d or ham p ered — th e n these difficulties w ill not be rem oved by a n y system of th e c u rre n t m an ag e-m ent.
A ccordingly, w ith inelastic s tru c tu re of p ro d uction capacities in a sh o rt ru n , being not alw ays co m p lem en tary in rela tio n to th e s tru c -tu re of foreign dem and, th e m ain fu n ctio n of th e m an ag em en t system is re stric te d to searching for and lau n ch in g econom ic reserves, about existence of w hich th e c e n tra l level is un aw are, in o rd er to secure im ple-m en tatio n of th e ple-m ost u rg e n t tasks and fac ilita te regaining of p ro p e r m acroproportions in th e economy. T hese reserv es encom pass assortm ent, tim e of concluding tran sactio n s, service, financial procedures, special design and colour re q u ire m e n ts etc. B enefits in th is field can be d eriv ed only th ro u g h active u tilization of economic and financial categories.
D espite th a t, a d m in istra tiv e in stru m e n ts have been em ployed fo r several y e a rs now as a tool of o p erativ e m an ag em en t of foreign trad e. T heir dom inance w as not u n d erm in ed even by intro d u ctio n in some b ranches of th e so-called m odified principles of functioning of large economic organizations, w hich in th e ir assum ptions w ere im plying a con-cept of in d irect m anagem ent in in itia tin g u n its em ployed over th e p e-riod of 1973— 1975 К
In line w ith these prin cip les th e re w as rein tro d u c e d an incentive r e -lationship betw een w age fund and dynam ics of production added as a m ain m easu re of economic m anagem ent. S im u ltan eo u sly its defin itio n w as precisely expressed and unified. In this w ay p rere q u isite s for g re a -te r decisional independence of th e executive level w ere provided. H ow ever, sim u ltan eo u sly th e re ow ere in troduced n um erous neow in s tru -m en ts th e ai-m of w hich w as to p reserv e a b e tte r c e n tral control over form ation of th e w age fund and to co u n te rac t ap p earan ce of disp ro -p ortions u n fav o u rab le from th e view -point of th e m a rk e t equilibrium . T hese new in stru m e n ts included ta x -fre e lim it of in cre m e n t of th e dis-cretional w age fund, a system of com pulsory w age reserv es for
incre-1 See J. P a j e s t к a, Z m o d y fik o w a n y sy ste m W OG (M odified S ystem of L arge E conom ic O rganizations), „Zycie G ospodarcze” A pril 1977, No. 3.
m erits in th e w age fund and em p lo y m en t exceeding c e n tra lly d e te rm i-ned indices. These m ethods can h a rd ly be called p a ra m etric .
The second essential m odification in rela tio n to th e functioning sy stem of in itia tin g econom ic u n its concerns allocation of task s and r e -sources in th e economy. In accordance w ith th e new assum ptions, b ran c h
m in istries a re obliged to im plem ent d irectiv e quidelines of n ational so-cio-econom ic developm ent p lans (sales value, em ploym ent, w age fund) th ro u g h passing th em to su b o rd in ated larg e econom ic organizations in th e form of a p p ro p ria te lo n g -te rm w age and financial n orm s steerin g th e p ro d uction added. In o th e r w ords, m in istrie s — w ith in th e fra m e -w o rk of th e ir o-w n plans — should elab o rate p ro p er indices several y e a rs in advance in such a w ay th a t th e to tal value of th e production added in su b o rd in ated larg e econom ic organizations e n su res realizatio n of sales value envisaged in th e n atio n al socio-econom ic developm ent p lan w hile th e level of em p lo y m en t and w ages plan n ed for a given y e a r is not exceeded 2.
T he above rem a rk s prove th a t system changes, w hich have been exp an d in g th e role of b ran c h m in istries in foreign tra d e m anagem ent for m an y years, h ave le ft a t th e ir disposal now a considerable freedom in selection of operational m easures. P rin cip ally , w ith in th e tria n g le of M in istry of F oreign T rad e and M arine Econom y — b ran c h m in istries — ex ecutive economic u n its th e resp o n sib ility fo r tra d e w ith abroad is b o rn both by the foreign tra d e m in istry co-o rd in atin g th e p lan on th e n atio n al econom y scale and b ran c h m inistries, to w hich foreign tra d e tasks are addressed. T hus ex ecutive u n its a re dealing w ith tw o disposi-tion and control centres, th e in te re sts of w hich a re not alw ays co n v er-g ent a lth o u er-g h th e y fo rm ally rep re s e n t th e c e n tra l level. Such solution m ay suceed in conditions of th e c e n tra l financial system , w hile in th e active system tendencies to w ard s m axim ization of effects released by incentive m echanism s account for th e fact th a t a m in istry , being assessed on th e basis of all effects scored by larg e economic organizations su b o rd i-na te d to it, becom es in te re ste d in obtaining m ild tasks and p len tifu l resources, and th u s it is m ore bran ch -o rien ted .
D elegation of resp o n sib ility for im p lem en tatio n of a p lan to b ran c h m in istries and th e ir eq u ip m e n t w ith pow ers to ex ecu te fu lfilm e n t of
2 It is believed th a t one o f th e m ost essen tial p ro b lem s of th e n ew system is to e n su re co h eren ce b etw e en in s tru m e n ts of econom ic m a n ip u la tio n w ith in b ra n c h m in istries a n d p rovisions o f th e c e n tra l plan. See: J. K o w a l s k i ,
P ow iązania N P SG z za sadam i zm o d y fik o w a n e g o s y s te m u W OG (Links b etw een
th e N atio n al Socio-Econom ic D evelopm ent P la n a n d P rin c ip le s of M odified S y-stem of L arg e Econom ic O rganizations), „G o sp o d ark a P la n o w a ” 1977, No. 12.
th e tasks im posed deprived c e n tral functional organs in foreign tra d e of possibilities to d ire c tly control o perations of economic u n its su b o rd i-nated to p a rtic u la r b ran ch m inistries. This consolidates th e vertical d e-cisional h iera rc h y , w hich can neg ativ ely affect co-operation betw een large econom ic organizations and especially so in the in te rb ra n c h sy -stem . S im u ltan eo u sly th e re ap p ears a th re a t of larg e „m onopolies” p u rsuing foreign tra d e policy in line w ith th e ir ow n p referen ces w hile b y -passing c e n tral preferences. It th u s app ears th a t c en tralized m an ag e-m en t e-m ethods e-m ight be co n sisten tly coe-m plee-m ented by stre n g th e n in g the position of th e foreign tra d e m in istry and tra n sfo rm in g it into a rea l and exclusive re p re se n ta tiv e of in te re sts of th e w hole economy.
Due to technical difficulties in achieving m u tu a l coherence of eco-nom ic m an ip u latio n in stru m e n ts w ith in b ranch m in istries and provisions of th e c e n tral plan, the prin cip le of u n ity of a u th o ritie s and r e -sponsibilities paves th e w ay for application of th e sim plest and th u s tra d itio n al m ethods in ex acting im p lem en tatio n of p lanned tasks d e-spite original in ten tio n of th e m odified system . S im ilarly, re a l decen-tralizatio n of decision-m aking is h in d ere d by a n u m b er of o th e r causes. F irs t of all, it is h a rd to c a rry out an assum ption concerning long- -te rm v a lid ity of p a ra m e te rs even in th e situ a tio n of stabilized in te rn a l and e x te rn a l economic situation. It is h am p ered by w eak ties b etw een a n n u al p lans and fiv e -y ea r p lan produced by im perfection of p lan n in g m ethods. In conditions of tensions, continuous corrections of th e plan, and elab o ratio n of task s for th re e -m o n th and even one-m onth periods, th e p o stu la te of norm s s ta b ility can be fu lly included in categories of w ishful thinking. S im u ltan eo u sly low ering of th e level tra n sfo rm in g th e c e n tra l p lan tasks into economic p a ra m e te rs w as not com bined w ith in tro d u c tio n of c rite ria objectivizing this process. A ccordingly, it con-tin u es to be ch aracterized w ith m any a rb itra ry featu res, w hich on one hand m ake it su b ject to b arg ain in g w hile — on th e o th e r h a n d — th e y fac ilita te a rb itra ry in te rv en tio n of su p erio r u n its in th e course of th e plan im plem entation. Thus, p a ra m etric c h a ra c te r of th e m odified system is larg e ly form al only, w hich induces individual large econom ic orga-nizations to exercise considerable caution in search for and d e claratio n of reserves. C e n tra l lim ita tio n of g ro w th ra te of w ages, w hich is ju sti-fied by m ark e t disequilbrium , la rg e ly n e u tra liz es th e financial system and im poses a need for application of n o n -m a teria l stim uli.
W eakness of th e m o tiv atio n al pow er of ties b etw een th e w age fu n d and production added is m ost pronounced in export. L inking of foreign tra d e effects w ith dom estic effects accom panied by large sc a tte rin g of e x p o rto rie n te d production pushed it, m oreover, to th e m argin of in te
-re sts -revealed by larg e econom ic organizations, as an a c tiv ity calling for considerable effo rt w ith o u t b rin g in g a concrete com pensation. U nlike in th e dom estic m ark e t, e x p o rt is c a rrie d o ut in conditions of th e b u y e r’s m a rk e t and keen com petition w ith o th er suppliers, w hich poses a re q u ire m e n t of m ain ta in in g a high q u a lita tiv e level of production, observing d e liv e ry tim e, and responding elastically to b u y e rs ’ re q u ire -m ents. All these a re costly proced u res w hich can be avoided in th e do-m estic do-m ark et. A t th e sado-m e tido-m e, n e ith e r rig id ity of in te rn a l do-m ate ria l allocation n o r excessively low h a rd c u rre n c y conversion ra te s encourage overcom ing of d ifficu lties connected w ith expansion of export. A re la ti-v ely low tra n sa ctio n ti-value of e x p o rt in com parison w ith production realized in th e c o u n try account for th e fact th a t a chain of c o rrelatio n s „bigger e x p o rt — bigger v alue added — bigger w age fu n d ” is v e ry w eak in practice.
T h eo retically ju stified prin cip le of in te g ratio n b etw een effects of dom estic production and foreign tra d e and of a com prehensive e v a lu a -tion of executive u n its on th e basis of overall p ro fita b ility of th e w hole p ro d uction does not fu lfil ex p ectatio n s in practice. T his is also due to specific m ethods of in te rn a l v a lu a tio n of e x p o rt and im port.
In financial accounting of e x p o rt th e re a re alm ost com m only b in ding tra n sa ctio n p r ic e s 3, w hich re p re se n t a re la tiv e ly objective re -flection of effo rts m ade by larg e econom ic organizations fo r a p a rt of tu rn o v e r to be p ro fitab le w ith th e p re se n t level of conversion rate . On th e o th e r hand, in im p o rt a w hole ran g e of key ra w m a te ria ls and m a-te ria ls from th e point of view of economic m an ag em en t costs reach do-m estic bu y ers a t fixed and stable or, a t least, p erio d ically stable p rices, w hich som etim es v a ry co n siderably from actual costs of th e ir p u r -chasing abroad. S im ilarly, th e prices of dom estic raw m ate ria l in p u t in ex p o rt-o rie n te d p ro ducts fall w ide in th e ir re la tio n s from obtainable tra n sa ctio n prices. In th is w ay th e effect from foreign tra d e loses its objective c h a ra c te r. These d eform ations a re ag g ra v a te d by all changes in h a rd c u rre n c y prices caused by in flation or o th e r phenom ena. Ben e fits derived from th e iBen fla tio Ben a ry iBencrease of prices a re iBen th e p re -se n t system reaped in e x p o rt by larg e econom ic organizations, th e sta te bu d g e t am ortizing this increase in im port. The a sy m m e try in d is tri-b u tio n of p ro fits and losses tri-b etw een tri-b o th levels co n stitu te s one of th e reasons accounting for c o n stan t im p o rt pressu re, and it calls fo r ap p li-cation of d irectiv e in stru m e n ts dim m ing th e effectiveness calculus in
a T ra n sa c tio n p rice in e x p o rt is e q u iv a le n t to FO B h a rd c u rre n c y p ric e m u ltip lie d by c u rre n tly b in d in g c u rre n c y conversion rate .
p roduction and export. Subsidizing of im port in th e p rese n t situation of grow ing deficit in th e pay m en ts balance cannot be reconciled w ith th e s tra te g y tasks.
A w areness of existence of d e trim e n ta l effects of a rtific ia lly low e-red calculation of im ported in p u t is expressed th ro u g h application of c o rrectin g in stru m e n ts including ra w m ate ria l tax, e x p o rt or p ro fit tax. These, how ever, a re em ergency m easures, w hich w hile rem oving c e rtain deficiencies of th e pricing system produce num erous new u n fa -vourable side effects, firs t of all in th e field of e x p o rt developm ent. Thus, in th e p re se n t situ a tio n n e ith e r costs of im ported in p u t re p re -s e n t an y bigger b u rd e n fo r the production added p rom oting econom ie-s nor do in cre m e n ts of th e production added, ow ing to e x p o rt earnings, rep re s e n t an incentive to its expansion.
T h a t is w h y in selected u n its th e re w ere envisaged ad d itio n al m ethods of e x p o rt stim u la tio n in th e fo rm of h a rd c u rre n c y reserv e allo cations for su p p le m e n ta ry purchases in th e h a rd c u rre n c y zone or m a -te ria l incentives.
L eaving of h a rd c u rre n c y reserv es a t th e disposal of econom ic u n its m ight larg ely facilitate im p lem en tatio n of e x p o rt plan tasks due to m a-terial shortages in the co u n try , provided h a rd c u rre n c y u n it prices in e x p o rt and im port are th e sam e and m eet re q u ire m e n ts posed by plan eq u ilib riu m in foreign trade.
In th e area of m ate ria l incentives, in economic u n its em ploying la -b o u r p ro d u ctiv ity gro w th indices in estim atin g th e w age fund, th e re increases sales value by 8 p er cent of e x p o rt value in selling prices to th e second zone encom passed by p a rt В of th e foreign tra d e plan. The m ag n itu d e th u s obtained provides a basis fo r correction of th e w age fund a t the m in istry level. S im u ltan eo u sly th e re is, how ever, absent a d ire c t relatio n sh ip betw een th e prem iu m title and p ay m en t fu n d and th e re is also m issing a clear su b je c t relatio n sh ip betw een incom es and achievem ents scored by individual units.
C onversely, in m odified large econom ic organizations th e re w as in tro -duced a bonus fund for m anagerial sta ff created from p ro fit on condi-tion of increased p a rticip a tio n of th e valu e of e x p o rt to th e second zone in overall value of sales. The real sh are increases calcu lativ ely accor-ding to a special key and is com pared w ith th e sh are reco rd ed in the previous y e a r to estim ate a p ro p e r fund. This system , in tu rn , is cha-racterized w ith an insignificant p rem iu m effect and its considerable postponem ent in tim e in rela tio n to u n d e rta k e n e x p o rt efforts. A com -p lete by-passing of re q u ire m e n ts -posed by th e effectiveness calculus con-stitu te s a com m on essential d raw b ack of both system s. Boosting of any
e x p o rt reg ard less of costs m ay only postpone p a y m e n ts d ifficulties b ut it w ill c e rta in ly ag g rav ate th em w h en applied over a longer tim e.
T he an alysis of th e m odified econom ic-financial sy stem show s th a t it consolidates em ploym ent of th e d irectiv e m an ag em en t m ethods in foreign tra d e w hile it sim u ltan eo u sly does not su fficien tly prom ote im p lem en tatio n of th e stra te g y task s in th e field of p rom otion of p ro -fitab le e x p o rt and ratio n alizatio n of im port. On th e o th e r hand, s ta tis ti-cal d a t a 4 prove th a t e x p o rt p erfo rm an ce in the period of 1976— 1978 w as w orse th a t in o th er periods (w ith th e exception of th e six -y e a r plan), and th a t d esp ite trem en d o u s effo rts m ade to develop th e econom y, and despite th e fact th a t th e p rese n t fiv e y ea r period w as assu -m ed to be a period of dyna-m ic develop-m ent of ex p o rt, especially to h ig h ly developed cap italist countries. This, am ong o thers, testifies to d raw b a ck s in p reviously applied m ethods of m an ag em en t in th is field m aking sm all provisions for specific aspects of a c tiv ity in th e above m en tio n ed m arkets.
A ny im p rovem ent of th e p re se n t system m ust be su b o rd in ated to obligations connected w ith servicing th e p re se n t ind eb ted n ess in capi-ta lis t countries. These im p rovem ents can e ith e r ten d to w ard s f u rth e r increase of a d m in istra tiv e control in stru m e n ts w ith re g a rd to volum e and s tru c tu re of trad e, or to w a rd s g rad u a l em p lo y m en t of d u ly p a ra m etric m ethods, or fin a lly th e y can choose a p a th of g rad u a l in tro -duction of in d ire ct m an ag em en t m echanism freein g th e c e n tra l level from operational decisions only in those a re a s w h e re a p p ro p ria te con-d itions for it a re p resent. This s tra te g y of changes seem s to be m ost advisable in foreign tra d e and especially in export, w h e re due to the fact th a t h a rd c u rre n c y prices a re obtained in h e av y com petition, th e achieved effects m ay not be of a fu lly objective c h a ra c te r allow ing for u tilization of stro n g m a te ria l incentives. It is also k now n th a t contacts w ith foreign buyers, and m ain ly those in m a rk e t econom y countries, call for big ela stic ity of operation, w hich c a n n o t be g u a ra n te e d by the c e n tra l m anagem ent system .
In o rd er to im plem ent a stra te g y of sectional decen tralizatio n of d e -cisions it is, first of all, necessary to isolate e x p o rt p ro fit as a sep ara te basis for a w ard in g prem ium s. This can be c a rrie d out e ith e r th ro u g h su b sta n tia l activ atio n of th e financial system in th is field or th ro u g h nonbalance (calculative) calculus. In both cases it becom es necessary to a d ju st in te rn a l ra te s and prices to ru le s of th e effectiveness calculus. T he calculative v a ria n t does not re q u ire h e re refo rm of financial p a -ra m e te rs b u t only th e ir correction by m eans of special coefficients fo r re w a rd in g purposes.
4 See: appen d ix . 10 — F o li a o e c o n o m ic a 17
The changes w hich m u st be m ost u rg e n tly effected include prom o-tion of bigger elasticity of foreign tra d e ra te w hich should be based on th e p lan eq u ilib riu m level, com m on intro d u ctio n of tra n sa ctio n p ri-ces in im port, elim ination of these deficiencies of selling priri-ces, w hich d isto rt th e pictu re of real e x p o rt e ff e c ts 5. E xport p ro fit objectivized in th is w ay should, in its p a rt falling for a large econom ic organization, provide a basis for application of stro n g m ate ria l incentives in te g ra tin g on a la rg e r scale activities of in d u stry and foreign trade. In p re -s e n t condition-s w h en m axim ization of d ire c t e x p o rt i-s encouraged, a fo-reign tra d e com pany p erform s b u t a function of a passive m iddlem an b etw een hom e in d u stry and foreign m ark ets, being in te rested only in the level of th e h a rd c u rre n c y price on w hich its com m ission depends w hile it cannot, to any e x te n t, in flu en ce th e level of dom estic costs. The p ro d u ce r’s a tte n tio n it not in tu rn , focussed on red u ctio n of cost calculations, th e negative effects of w hich can be felt both in th e hom e m ark e t and in d e te rio ra tin g p ro fita b ility of export.
G ra n tin g of sep ara te prem ium s for e x p o rt production in place of a com prehensive ev alu atio n of production p ro fita b ility is a step back-w ards in rela tio n to p re se n t-d a y solutions from th e theo retical point of view, b u t from th e p ractical angle it app ears necessary as long as p ro -fits from e x p o rt and from dom estic sales rep re se n t tw o sep ara te eco-nom ic c a te g o rie s 6.
Ja n u sz S w ie rk o c k i
ZM ODYFIKOW ANY SYSTEM EK O N O M ICZN O-FIN A N SO W Y A A K TU A LN E ZADANIA HANDLU ZAGRANICZNEGO
W a rty k u le om ów iono głów ne zasady k ie ro w a n ia g o sp o d ark ą i h an d lem za-g ran iczn y m w p ro w ad zo n e w 1977 r. w zm odyfikow anym system ie WOG. D okonano oceny ty c h zm ian z p u n k tu w idzenia d e c e n tra liz a cji decyzji. G łów ny nacisk położono przy ty m na an a liz ę zgodności o b ow iązujących ro zw iązań z z a d an iam i s tr a
-5 S elling prices, being c e n tra lly estab lish ed , a re u su a lly ch a ra c te riz e d w ith excessive sta b ility ; selling prices fix ed by d irec to rs of in d u stria l a m alg a m a tio n s o r com panies a r e u su a lly e x o rb ita n t; prices of dom estic ra w m a te ria l in p u t are, as a ru le, based on costs an d th e y do n o t ta k e in to ac co u n t th e a lte rn a tiv e in th e form of foreign trad e.
8 T his necessity is n o t su p p o rted by a ll a u th o rs. See e.g. B. H o ł u b e c k i ,
M o d yfika cje sy ste m u W OG (M odifications of th e S ystem of Big Econom ic
O rganizations), „G ospodarka P la n o w a ” 1977, No. 9; К . G o l i n k o w s k i ,
Prob le m y fu n k c jo n o w a n ia zm o d y fik o w a n eg o sy ste m u WOG (P roProblem s of F u n c tio
te g ii w dziedzinie ro zw ija n ia o płacalnego e k sp o rtu i ra c jo n a liz a cji im portu. P rz y -czyny b ra k u p ostępu w p rz y w ra c a n iu ró w n o w a g i b ila n su p łatniczego tk w ią m. in. w sferze sy stem u bieżącego k ie ro w a n ia i w y m a g a ją p o w ro tu do kon cep cji d ecen -tra liz a c ji tylk o w ty c h dziedzinach, w k tó ry ch ta k ja k w eksporcie, zo b iek ty w i-zow ane ceny i w y m ie rn e w y n ik i d a ją p o d staw ę do sto so w a n ia siln y ch bodźców m a teria ln y ch .
