Energy saving of human conveyance systems; Energie besparing in transportsystemen voor personen

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Delft University of Technology

FACULTY MECHANICAL, MARITIME AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Department Marine and Transport Technology

Mekelweg 2 2628 CD Delft the Netherlands Phone +31 (0)15-2782889 Fax +31 (0)15-2781397 www.mtt.tudelft.nl

This report consists of 36 pages and 1 appendix. It may only be reproduced literally and as a whole. For commercial purposes only with written authorization of Delft University of Technology. Requests for consult are only taken into consideration under the condition that the applicant denies all legal rights on liabilities concerning the contents of the advice.

Specialization: Transport Engineering and Logistics Report number: 2014.TEL.7882

Title: Energy saving of human

conveyance systems

Author: B.R.E. Rinsma

Title (in Dutch) Energie besparing in transportsystemen voor personen

Assignment: literature Confidential: no

Initiator (university): prof.dr.ir. G. Lodewijks Supervisor: Dr. Ir. Y. Pang

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Delft University of Technology

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL, MARITIME AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Department of Marine and Transport Technology Mekelweg 2 2628 CD Delft the Netherlands Phone +31 (0)15-2782889 Fax +31 (0)15-2781397 www.mtt.tudelft.nl

Student: Bart Rinsma Assignment type: Literature Supervisor: Yusong Pang Report number: 2014.TEL.7882

Specialization: TEL Confidential:

Creditpoints (EC): 10

Subject: Energy Savings of Human Conveyance Systems

Human conveyance concerns various installations such as elevators (lifts), escalators (moving stair-ways) and moving walks (moving side-walks). Due to the frequent and/or continuous operation under heavily loaded situations, some of the human conveyance systems (HCS) are considerably energy consuming. New technologies, industry norms and assessment criteria are required nowadays with respect to the power requirement and the energy efficiency of HCS. Studying energy savings of HCS is of great practical and theoretical interests.

This assignment is to provide a survey of energy saving solutions for HCS, which should cover the following:

 To categorize different types of human conveyance installations and to indicate the types with the feasibility of significant energy savings;

 To describe the working principles and the components related to energy efficiency of the indicated installations;

 To review the industry norms and assessment criteria with respect to HCS energy efficiency;  To investigate current energy saving solutions, technologies and applications.

It is expected that you conclude with recommendations for future applicable opportunities based on the results of this study.

This report should be arranged in such a way that all data is structurally presented in graphs, tables, and lists with belonging descriptions and explanations in text.

The report should comply with the guidelines of the section. Details can be found on the website. The supervisor,

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Summary

Human conveyance is an important part of our daily life. It makes it easier and faster for people to move from one location to another. The person does not have to put much effort in it, because the human conveyance system (HCS) requires the power for transport. The power usage of the HCS is sometimes not very efficient, but companies nowadays have energy saving solutions to improve the energy efficiency of the HCS.

For this survey, first a clear understanding about the definition of HCSs is required to scope the survey. Within the scope there are three types of HCS:

• Elevators • Escalators • Moving walks

For each system the a general description is given to get a clear understanding of what components are in these systems and the overlap between the different system components. This information is found on different websites, but not in scientific papers. There are a lot of papers about the individual energy consuming compo-nents and systems. This is required to go more into detail about each component and system. The energy efficiency of each component and system, is found in dif-ferent folders of HCS companies. Also industry norms and assessment criteria are important for HCS companies. This was studied at the end of the survey to know what needs and can be taken into account by HCS companies.

Out of the survey can be concluded that the general potential energy improvement sections are:

• Transmission and motor • Lighting

• Control systems • Weight

The transmissions and motors for HCS are nowadays permanent magnet motors with regenerative drive. A permanent magnet motor does not require a gearbox, so there will be no losses due to transmission.

For lighting often LED is used because it is more efficient and has a longer lifetime i

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than incandescent and fluorescent lamps. This is also the case for LED displays instead of LCD displays.

There are different types of control systems, which include the standby and the movement algorithm. Escalators and moving walkways often do not have a specific movement algorithm as for the elevator, but they (and also the elevator) nowadays have the standby modus to reduce power consumption when the system is not in use. The two general movement control systems for elevators are conventional group control (CGC) and destination group control (DGC). DGC is more efficient, because the person is assigned to an elevator to achieve optimal movement patterns, with less energy consumption than with CGC.

Another important factor, mostly in the elevator, is the weight. By using lighter moving parts and material (for design and construction), the required power, to move the components, decreases.

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Introduction

Human conveyance is an important part of our daily life. It makes it easier and faster for people to move from one location to another without asking much energy of the users.

To get a good understanding about what a human conveyance system (HCS) is, it must be defined. This can be split up into three separate words which each can be defined with a dictionary [1].

• Human - ”belonging to or relating to people, especially as opposed to machines or animals”

• Conveyance - ”when you take something from one place to another: the con-veyance of goods”

• System - ”a group of related parts that work together as a whole for a particular purpose”

When combining these words again, it is also possible to combine the three definitions to fit one definition for ”human conveyance system”:

A group of parts, computers and methods working together to transport people from one place to another.

But how is the energy used in HCSs? Because they require a certain amount of energy to transport the users from one location to another. With certain technologies, energy savings can be realised. This leads to the main question of this literature survey:

What are the current energy saving solutions in human conveyance systems and how do they work?

There are various types of HCSs like vehicles, elevators, escalators, moving sidewalks and off-course a lot more, but these types are daily used. For this survey only the following types of human conveyance systems are taken into account:

• Elevators

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• Escalators

• Moving sidewalks

Vehicles are left out of the scope of this survey, because within this type of HCS there is again a very big variety of systems. This makes this type of HCS a literature survey by itself.

In the first chapters the working principle of the different types of HCSs are ex-plained, the (significant) energy consuming components are described and the cur-rent energy saving solutions are studied.

Also other important factors need to be taken into account such as industry norms and assessment criteria (with respect to energy efficiency). A small survey is done to know what types of assessment criteria and norms there are.

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Chapter 2

Human conveyance systems

As explained in chapter 1, only the elevator, escalator and moving sidewalks are in the scope of this survey. The following sections explain how each system works, highlight the (significant) energy consuming components to conclude which HCS types have feasibility of significant energy savings.

2.1 Elevator

The definition of an elevator is: ”a machine that takes people and goods from one level to another in a building” [1]. There are a lot of different types of elevators, but the two major elevator designs (in the scope of this survey), which are commonly used today are the [2]:

• Hydraulic elevator • Roped elevator

These types of elevators lift or pull a car (cabin with people) up or guide it down.

2.1.1 Hydraulic elevator

Hydraulic elevator systems lift a car up using a hydraulic ram, which is connected to the car on one end and is pushed up and guided down using incompressible fluids at the other end. The fluid-pumping system, which pushes or guides the hydraulic ram, is also called the hydraulic system of the elevator. This hydraulic system of the elevator consists of three parts:

• A tank • A pump • A valve

When the elevator needs to go up the hydraulic pump (powered by an electric motor) pumps fluid from the reservoir into the system. The valve controls the fluid and keeps it out of the tank to prevent unwanted pressure drop. When the pump stops pumping

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(e.g. when the elevator reached a floor) the car rests on the fluid in the system. The valve opens to lower the car. The weight of the car pushes the fluid through the open valve, which is operated (electrically) by a basic solenoid switch, into the tank and the valve closes when the elevator reaches the correct floor [2]. A graphical representation of the components is shown in Figure 2.1 [2].

Figure 2.1: Components of an hydraulic elevator

This system has two major disadvantages [3]. One of these disadvantages is the size of the equipment which need to be installed. When the number of floors goes up, also the length of the piston needs to go up. When this elevator is installed in a 15-story building, the piston needs to be installed 14 stories below the lowest floor (the elevator reaches). Another big disadvantage is that the system is very inefficient, it takes a lot of energy to raise the elevator car. In a standard hydraulic elevator the potential energy, which is gained when lowering the elevator car, just gets lost when the fluid is pushed back into the tank. When the elevator car needs to be raised again, the energy must be generated all over again.

The main energy consuming part in the hydraulic elevator is the pump (electrical engine connected to the pump). But also some small equipment inside the elevator car consumes energy and will be discussed in section 3.3.

2.1.2 Roped elevator

The roped elevator, also very common (as explained earlier), uses ropes to pull the elevator car up or to guide the car down.

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Energy savings for human conveyance systems

installed to control and move the elevator car. The elevator controller is connected to the electric motor, which is connected to the sheave. Between the motor and the sheave can also be a gearbox, when the elevator is geared, to lower or higher the rotation speed. Geared elevators are generally used in mid-rise applications (7 to 20 floors) and have a speed range of 0,1 m/s to 2,5 m/s [4]. This types of elevators can use smaller (less expensive) engines working at higher speeds producing the desired torque. Gearless elevators have nominal speeds between 2,5 m/s and 10 m/s and are used in high-rise applications, but recent developments also made it possible to use this type of elevator in low-rise buildings with speeds lower than 2,5 m/s [5]. The ropes which are connected to the elevator car, go over the sheave and are connected to the counterweight at the other end of the ropes. This counterweight weighs about the same as the car filled to 40%-capacity [4]. The counterweight is installed to conserve energy, which means the motor only has to pull the difference in weight between the counterweight and the car (with people). The car and the counterweight are both connected to a guide rails to keep them from swinging back and forth.

Figure 2.2 shows graphically how every component (explained above) is installed in the system [4].

Figure 2.2: Components of a rope elevator

The main energy consuming part in the roped elevator is the electrical engine

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on the top of the elevator shaft. But also a gearbox can have a big influence in the energy consumption of the engine. In the roped elevator car mostly the same small equipment is used as for the hydraulic elevator.

Both elevator systems have two different sets of doors which also require to open and close. There is a door on the car and a door on each floor to the elevator shaft. To explain the working principle of the door, the car door is taken as example. The door has the following main components and systems, as shown in Figure 2.3 [6]:

• Motor and arm mechanism • Outer door

• Inner door • Door rails

When the motor turns, an arm will slide back and forth which is connected to the outer door and to a second arm to pull or push the inner door. Both doors slide in a door rails to reduce the friction [6].

Figure 2.3: Components of an elevator door

The energy consumption of the engine driving the doors will be less than the engines used to move the elevator car, but it will be more than the small equipment (individually) in the elevator.

2.2 Escalator and moving sidewalk

The definition of an escalator is: ”a set of moving stairs that take people to different levels in a building” [1]. Escalators replace stairs and reduce the effort of people to change floor level. The steps, to allocate a person, of the stairs move up or down.

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An escalator (Figure 2.4 [7]) has a pair of chains looped around two pair of gears (each end has one pair of gears). An electric motor turns the drive gears to move the chains around which are connected to the steps. A typical escalator motor uses 100 horsepower to rotate the gears of the steps, but also the handrail [7]. The steps and the handrail move at the same speed (at the inclined part of the escalator) to make it a comfortable ride.

The steps have two sets of wheels, which guide the steps over the tracks. The wheels at the top of the step are connected to the rotating chains and are pulled by the drive gear. The other set of wheels just glides along it’s track.

Figure 2.4: Components of an escalator

The definition of a moving sidewalk (or moving walkway) is: ”a conveyor for transporting pedestrians along a level passageway” [8].

Moving walks are driven the same way as escalators, but do not have steps. Moving walks can only incline/decline up to 15◦ [9], while escalators can incline with 27◦up to 35◦ [10].

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Figure 2.5: Moving sidewalk [9]

The same kind of parts are used in an escalator and in a moving sidewalk (Fig-ure 2.5). So this is why the escalator and the moving sidewalk will be studied together throughout the rest of the report.

The energy consuming part in the escalator and the moving sidewalk is the electric motor, which is connected to the drive gear and the handrail drive. But also for this type of HCS small components and systems are used such as lights, sensors and controllers which need to be taken into account.

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Chapter 3

Energy consuming components

and systems

As can be concluded from chapter 2 the following components in HCSs can contribute to a significant amount of energy use and will be evaluated in the following sections.

• Engines

• Gearbox and roping system

• Other energy consuming equipment

Because there is some overlap between the components used in elevators, escala-tors and moving sidewalks the components will be described in general. If some components do not apply to a certain application, it will be stated.

3.1 Engines

There are a lot of different types of engines used to power HCSs, which are listed below from oldest (top) to the newest (bottem) [11].

• Motor Generators (MG)

• Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR) • Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

• Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) • Regenerative Motors (Regen Motors)

• Permanent-Magnet Motors

A motor generator is a system where an AC induction motor is connected to a DC generator which powers the DC hoist motor. The magnetic flux across the rotor needs to change, to create an opposite magnetic field following the rotor (illustrated in Figure 3.1). This system has a high starting torque and a good speed control [11]. The silicon controlled rectifiers convert AC voltage to a variable DC voltage. In order to get DC voltage the SCR act like switches to let certain portions of the AC voltage (wave) through [12].

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Pulse width modulation is also used to change the AC voltage to DC voltage. The AC voltage is cut with a certain pulse which has a higher frequency than SCRs. This generates DC voltage with different time steps between ”on” and ”off” cycles, but they are filtered by the motor’s own inductance [13].

In elevator systems variable voltage variable frequency is used to control the input voltage and frequency, throughout the journey of the elevator, into the motor. The speed changes gradually, which ensures that the current required is much less than with AC 2 speed drives and AC motor drives with variable voltage controls [14]. With the previous motors, the energy produced was fed through transistors and dis-sipated as heat. Regenrative motors made it possible to feed the produced energy back into the power grid of the building [12].

Permanent-magnet motors are synchronous motors and are almost similar to the asynchronous induction motor (motor generator). The difference is that, in the permanent-magnet motor, the rotor rotates at the same speed as the magnetic field (synchronous to the stator-generated magnetic field) as illustrated in Figure 3.2 [15].

Figure 3.1: The rotor bars cre-ate an opposite magnetic field to the field produced by the stator windings. This results in a force (torque), which rotates the ro-tor.

Figure 3.2: Permanent magnets at the outside of the rotor in-teract with the rotating stator field. The magnetic fields rotate synchronously and the angly be-tween them determines the ro-tational force (torque).

The permanent-magnet motor is the most efficient motor for elevators avail-able [15]. In combination with the VVVF and a regeneration system it is even more efficient. The VVVF controls the input in the motor during the ride. The regenera-tion system makes it possible to provide the produced power (during empty-car-up and full-car-down) into the buildings power grid. This power can be used again for every electrical component connected to this grid such as lights, HVAC (heat ven-tilation and airconditioning) systems, etcetera. This motor is often used without a gear, while the earlier systems often have gears. In subsection 3.2.1 the efficiencies of

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gearboxes are described and in subsection 3.2.2 rope solutions are explained, which are often used in elevators.

3.2 Gearbox and roping

As explained in subsection 2.1.2, there are two types of rope elevators (with geared or gearless engine systems). In the following sub sections the gearbox and the elevator roping will be explained.

3.2.1 Gearbox

The machine (moving the elevator) of the geared elevator system (Figure 3.3) consists of a motor, brake, gearbox and traction sheave.

Figure 3.3: Geared traction machine in an elevator machine-room There are two types of reduction gears used in elevators:

• Worm gears (Figure 3.4 [17]) • Helical gears (Figure 3.5 [18])

The worm type is the most used gear type, but is relatively inefficient compared to the helical gear type [5]. This is also the reason why some worm types are replaced with helical types. The reason why most of the times a worm gear is chosen over other types of gearing is because it is more compact and it can withstand higher shock loads. The gear reduction ratios normally vary between 12:1 and 30:1, which makes it also more applicable to use worm type gears, as shown in Table 3.1 [16].

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Figure 3.4: Worm gear Figure 3.5: helical gear

The two gear types mentioned above have different ratio’s as shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Gear type information [16]

Type Minimum gear ratio Maximum gear ratio Worm 5:1 75:1 Helical 1:1 10:1 3.2.2 Roping

Roping can be used to change the speed and the force required to lift the elevator car, so this is why it will be discussed in combination with a gearless elevator system. The gearless elevator system (Figure 3.6) consists of a motor, brake and traction sheave [5]. Because there is no gearbox between the sheave and the motor, there will be no efficiency losses due to transmission.

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There are different types of roping systems, but the most common are displayed in Figure 3.7 [5]. Also the type of wrap and where the type of roping system is commonly installed are given.

Figure 3.7: Different types of roping system

Most elevators in Europe have 2:1 roping [5], which means if the sheave turns 2 times the elevator moves the same distance as the perimeter of the sheave. As the travelspeed of the car is twice as low with the 2:1 compared to the 1:1, there is also halve the torque required. This means a smaller motor to generate the re-quired torque can be used and gearbox can be eliminated. There are some elevator constructions which even have a 4:1 or a 10:1 roping system [5]. High roping ratios also have negative aspects. One of these aspects is, when having more pulleys the losses become bigger because of the friction in the cable, between the cable and the pulley and in the pulley. For each demultiplication wrap losses around 10% can be expected [5]. Pulleys with roller bearings are more efficient than pulleys with friction bearings.

The losses in the cable are the internal friction losses which increase with the rope thickness. When a higher ratio is used than 1:1 ratio the cable diameter can also decrease which means the internal friction losses decrease. A smaller cable diame-ter also results in smaller sheaves and pulleys which in turn decreases the exdiame-ternal friction losses of the cable on the sheave or pulley. There is a limit of the diameter of the sheave and the pulley, because a cable of a certain diameter has a minimum bending radius. This means it is not possible to choose a smaller diameter for the sheaves and pulleys than allowable to reduce the losses of the sheaves and pulleys. Choosing a sheave or pulley of a lighter (and strong) material like polyamide instead of cast iron, the moment of inertia can decrease by a ratio of 1:5 [5].

It is also possible to change the types. In 2000 aramid cables (Figure 3.8 [19]) where introduced which are four times lighter than steel cables for the same

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ing strength and have a higher fatigue strength under reverse bending stress [19]. They become more attractive in high-rise buildings, because steel cables can reach a mass of about 50 to 70 tons [5]. Table 3.2 contains the density for the steel wire and aramid material (kevlar, nylon and polyester) (not a rope assembly).

Table 3.2: Rope material density [20]

Steel wire Kevlar Nylon Polyester

Density [g/cm3] 7,85 1,44 1,14 1,38

A less expensive alternative for the aramid cable is the traction belt (Figure 3.9 [21]) which has ultra-thin steel cables encapsulated in a polyurethane cover, which are 20% stronger than normal steel cables [5]. The aramid and the traction belt can have a smaller bending radius and do not require lubrication which is required for steel cables.

Figure 3.8: Aramid cable Figure 3.9: Flat polyurethane trac-tion belt

The information above about gearboxes, sheaves, cables, ropes do not only apply to the elevator. These types of equipment are also installed in escalators and moving sidewalks.

3.3 Other energy consuming aspects

There is a lot more energy consuming components and algorithms installed in an elevator, escalator or moving sidewalks e.g.:

• Standby • Doors • Lights • Fans

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• Sensors • Displays

These other components can represent more than 90% of the total electricity con-sumption if number of daily trips is low [5]. There are two possible ways to improve the efficiency. The first is by replacing standard equipment by more efficient equip-ment. The second one is introducing a sort of idle time, the time when certain equipment is switched off because it is not used.

At the end of this section there is also the subsection ”material”, which is not directly consuming energy but it contributes to the energy consumption.

3.3.1 Standby

As explained above, when the elevator, escalator or moving sidewalk is not used it can turn into an idle or sleep mode. This means lighting, ventilation, certain control panels and certain sensors (inside the elevator car) is turned off. When a passenger arrives everything can be turned on again automatically by sensor or control panel signals.

3.3.2 Doors

As explained in subsection 2.1.2, the doors of an elevator are operated by an en-gine. The type of engine used to operate these doors are electrical engines, so more information about these type of engines can be found in section 3.1. A couple of manufactures and part suppliers use permanent magnet motors. These are found in the following brochures, which are added to the reference list: [22] and [23].

3.3.3 Lights

Usually incandescent or fluorescent lamps are used as elevator car lighting [5]. Incandescent lamps are also known as the normal light bulbs, which are used in homes. The working principle of this light bulb is that electricity runs through the filament, which offers resistance because it is very thin. Due to the resistance the filament gets ”white” hot, which makes the filament glow. The heat that comes with the light is waste, which makes incandescent lamps inefficient. Incandescent lamps have an efficacy of 15 lumens per watt of input power [24].

in a fluorescent lamps there are two electrodes at both ends of a fluorescent tube. In the tube is a gas containing argon and mercury which lights up when electrons flow from one end to the other end. This lamp has an efficacy between 50 and 100 lumes per watt, which makes this lamp more efficient than incandescent lamps [24]. There is also an market for LED lamps, which have an even higher efficacy ranging from 10 till 120 lumes per watt. This for the entire LED system, which also includes the driver (currently about 85% efficient) [25].

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Table 3.3 is a small summary of the efficiency of the different lamp types described above.

Table 3.3: Amount of lumens compared to the power per lamp category [26]

Lumens Incandescent [W] CFL [W] LED [W]

400 - 500 40 8 - 12 6 - 9

650 - 900 60 13 - 18 8 - 12.5

1100 - 1750 75 - 100 18 - 22 13+

1800+ 100 23 -30 16 - 20

2780 150 30 - 55 25 - 28

Also the lifespan of lamps is important, because maintenance costs money. There is a big difference in lifespan between the three different types of lamps described earlier. Table 3.4 shows that fluorescent lamps (CFL) have a more than 8 times longer lifespan than incandescent lamps. LEDs have a more than 41 times longer lifespan than incandescent lamps and a more than 5 times longer lifespan than fluorescent lamps [27].

Table 3.4: Lifespan of the three different types of lamps [27]

Incandescent CFL LED

Lifespan of a lamp 1200 hours 10000 hours 50000 hours

3.3.4 Fans

Elevators, escalators and moving sidewalks have multiple fans installed. Some fans are for cooling the equipment but with an elevator fans are also installed for venti-lation of the elevator shaft and car.

The fans are often powered by an electronically controlled permanent magnet motor (EC motor) [5]. These types of motors can achieve high efficiency, but often require additional electronics to communicate the position of the rotor and the stator (mea-sured with sensors). Nowadays some EC motors are sensorless and also external rotor designs are on the market. When the rotor is external the fans can be con-nected directly to the rotor. This means the motor is cooled by the fans airflow from the fan itself, so no additional cooling is required.

3.3.5 Control system

The control system is a complex system which contributes a lot to energy efficiency and exists of:

• control software • controllers • sensors

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The control software is a complicated aspect, because it can be programmed in many different ways, which makes them operate very different. Elevators, escalators and moving sidewalks have different control algorithms, so they will be discussed sepa-rately.

For elevators only there is also a large amount of different algorithms, which is why two major overarching controls will be explained and compared.

• Conventional group control (CGC) • Destination group control (DGC)

With CGC the control panel to call the elevator is in the hall and the control panel to assign a destination is installed in the elevator car [28]. This means the elevator does not know on forehand what the destination will be. With DGC the control panels for calling the elevator and assigning a destination are combined in one con-trol panel in the hall. The elevators concon-trol systems knows on forehand what the destination(s) will be and the control system can assign an elevator to one or mul-tiple person(s) for optimal transport. This will not only reduce the roundtrip time (RTT), but also the number of stops and can even reduce the number of elevators required in a building. Depending on how many elevators and if they are installed in a ”single-deck”, ”double-deck” or ”triple-deck” configuration a certain algorithm, within the CGC or DGC, can also improve the efficiency even more. For every type of building there are different, efficient, solutions.

There are two types of controllers which can be used in elevators [11], escalators and moving sidewalks [29]:

• Electromechanical Relays (EMRs) • Micro-Processors

The EMRs is used to separate an AC and a DC circuit or to control a circuit with a different power circuit than the control circuit to open or close the power circuit. When the circuit is open no current flows through the load, but when the circuit closes the power is delivered to the load. Figure 3.10 is used to describe the working principle of an EMR.

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Figure 3.10: Working principle of the EMR

Based on [30], when the control circuit is powered, the electromagnet pulls the movable armature towards the stationary contract. When the movable contact touches the stationary contact the circuit is closed and the power is supplied to the load. When the magnet is turned of the movable contact gets pulled away from the stationary contact, by the contraction of the spring. This opens the circuit so no power is delivered to the load.

A micro-processor or CPU (central processing unit) is a chip on which a complete computation engine is fabricated [31]. Information goes into the micro-processor which preforms certain actions or calculations depending on that information. The micro-processor nowadays replaces the EMR in elevators [11]. Compared to the EMR the micro-processor has a longer service life, because there is no mechan-ical wear. The micro-processor is also more reliable, consumes less power and the dimensions are smaller. They are more expensive, but because of the advances in semiconductor manufacturing the prices decrease over the years.

There are a lot of different sensors installed for multiple purposes e.g. [32]: • door protection

• object recognition • capacity monitoring • entrance area monitoring • hoistway information

About the energy efficiency of sensors is not much information. Probably some sensors can be replaced with other more efficient sensors which use less power and full-fill the same purpose. Another solution is installing a different type of sensor to take over the task or combine multiple sensors by selecting one that can measure multiple different inputs.

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3.3.6 Displays

There are a lot of different ways to display the current floor, status and other infor-mation about elevators, escalators and moving sidewalks. Most often a number and the direction is shown on a display. The following display types are used [33–35]:

• LCD (liquid crystal display) • LED (dot) (light emitting diodes)

The difference between LCD and LED is that LCD uses fluorescent lights and LED displays uses the light emitting diodes [36]. Based on the survey results in subsec-tion 3.3.3 LED lights are more efficient than fluorescent lights.

3.3.7 Material

The material of which a human conveyance system is made can contribute the the total power required to get and keep the system in motion. Often found materials in elevator cars, escalator steps and moving sidewalk plates are:

• Stainless steel • Aluminium • Wood

• Plastics (polymer-fibreglass)

Elevator cars have in contrast to escalators and moving sidewalks also interior decora-tion which adds mass to the car. Multiple materials are used for interior decoradecora-tion, so wood and plastics are also added to the list of materials. Within plastics also polymer-fibreglass is added, because this can be used for escalator steps and moving sidewalk plates [37]. Table 3.5 shows the density (ranges) of these materials to justify material choices.

Table 3.5: Material density [38–41]

Steel Aluminium Wood Plastics (polymer-fibreglass)

Density [kg/m3] 7480-8000 2712 160-1300 570-3900 (1800-2200)

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Chapter 4

Current energy saving solutions

The energy consuming components and systems for the elevator, escalator and mov-ing sidewalks are described and discussed in chapter 3. This chapter describes the energy saving solutions used nowadays.

4.1 Drive system

The drive system will be explained separately for the elevator, the escalator and moving sidewalk. Most information of HCS companies is about the drive system as a whole rather than individual components of drive systems.

4.1.1 Elevator

Within the drive system multiple components explained in chapter 3 will be taken into account separately or as a whole system.

Out of section 3.1 can be already concluded that the permanent magnet motor with VVVF and regeneration is more efficient than the motor motor generator (induction motor connected to a motor generator).

A regenerative permanent magnet motor can reduce the overall energy demand of the building by up to 70 % [42]. Table 4.1 shows the elevator energy consumption for two different duties in a building of 20-floors, 60 meters high and 300.000 trips a year.

Table 4.1: Engine power consumption for different duties [kWh] [42]

Duty Gen2 system

Regenerative Drive Gearless PRSM motor Gen2 system Non-Regenerative Drive Gearless PRSM motor Geared system Non-Regenerative Drive Induction Motor 1275 kg 1,6 m/s 3261 8721,7 12845 1600 kg 1,6 m/s 4086,9 10929 16137 21

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Out of this data can be concluded that a regenerative drive gearless PRSM motor is more than 70% efficient than the geared non-regenerative drive induction motor for the described scenario.

Also taking into account the hydraulic elevator there is data that shows that the gearless permanent magnet motor is most efficient. Figure 4.1 shows the efficiency of the different engines for a 12 m high building, 5 floors, 1 m/s, 630 kg and 150.000 starts/year [43].

Figure 4.1: Energy usage per year for certain engines

Figure 4.1 shows that the hydraulic elevator is the least efficient, regarding engine consumption. The geared AC and the gearless AC (permanent magnet) are more than twice as efficient and the KONE MonoSpace (machine room-less permanent magnet motor) is even more efficient.

This permanent magnet motor is often (almost only) installed in a gearless con-figuration (in elevators), but when is chosen for a different engine with a gearbox the helical gear as explained in subsection 3.2.1 has a higher and smaller efficiency range than the worm gear. The two gear types mentioned above have different ratio’s and also different efficiency ranges as shown in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Gear type efficiency [16]

Type Efficiency

range

Worm 20-98%

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4.1.2 Escalator and moving sidewalk

As explained earlier, electrical engines power the escalator and moving sidewalk. The choice for the engine is already explained in the section above. Also for the escalator and the moving sidewalk the permanent magnet motor is more efficient than the induction motor.

For the escalator it is also possible to implement regenerative drives, because people transport is over an inclined angle. Energy savings during peak traffic times can reach up to 7100 KWh/year [44]. The regenerative drives replace brake resistors to avoid energy loss, caused by generated heat. A regenerative drives do not generate as much heat as brake resistors, because the energy released is transformed in electrical power.

4.2 Other efficiency opportunities

There are also other efficiency opportunities which need to be mentioned and play a big role for HCS companies like Otis, KONE, Schindler, ThyssenKrupp, etcetera. Each of the opportunities will be discussed in the following subsections.

4.2.1 Standby

Elevator, escalator and moving sidewalk systems can be turned into hibernation and sleeping mode when they are not in use. These hibernation and sleeping technologies can be integrated in the existing systems and reduce the required power to 95% less than in active state [45]. In hibernation and sleeping mode the lighting, fans, engines, displays, some sensors and actuators will be turned of which lead to power savings. Escalators and moving sidewalks often have a ”normal”, ”slow/standby speed” and a ”stop” operating mode. When the system has a ”slow/standby speed” operating mode, which runs when no passengers are using the system, the savings can be up to 40 % [44] and 2560 kWh/year. For the ”stop” mode the savings can be up to 50% (2760 kWh/year). This depends on passenger traffic, load and drive system.

4.2.2 Lights

As already can be concluded out of subsection 3.3.3, LED lights are more efficient than fluorescent and incandescent lights. Another advantage of LED lights is that the service life is much longer, so less maintenance is required.

For escalators and moving sidewalks, energy savings can be up to 80% regarding to lighting and save up to 1960 kWh/year compared to the conventional lighting [44]. Elevators also can be equiped with LED lighting. Also the for this type of HCS the energy savings can be up to 80% [43]. KONE has implemented it in their elevators last couple of years, which is graphically displayed in Figure 4.2 to visualize the reduction of required energy for lighting [43].

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Figure 4.2: Required energy for electrical equipment (lights) over the last years

4.2.3 Control system

For elevators there are two general operation control modes as explained in subsec-tion 3.3.5:

A lot of information is found that explain the working principles of CGC and DGC and that DCG control mode is more energy efficient. Although it is hard to find numbers to tell how much energy can be saved, Figure 4.3 shows that an elevator in Energy Control Option (ECO) mode uses less energy. This mode also ensures a more or less constant waiting time, not directly related to the amount of traffic. The typical elevator waiting time is increasing when the amount of traffic increases [46].

Figure 4.3: Relation of energy usage and waiting time

Although Figure 4.3 does not have exact numbers, a lot of documents, such as [47–49], state that energy can be saved using DGC. Therefore, this figure validates that less energy is required, when using an elevator in ECO mode.

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Regarding controllers (electromechanical relays and micro-processors), also described in subsection 3.3.5, energy consumption is very low. The total contribution to energy consumption of HCSs will not be significant, so this will not be taken into account in this chapter.

4.2.4 Weight

As for the control system there is less information about the contribution of the weight to the efficiency of the HCSs. This is because HCSs have different moving parts which require energy. It is certain that by lowering the mass of the moving parts, less energy is required to get the parts into motion. Lowering the mass can be obtained by either using lighter materials or replacing multiple parts with a single function for one part with multiple functions.

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Chapter 5

Industry norms and assessment

criteria

There are certain industry requirements for elevators, escalators and moving side-walks, which need to be taken into account when choosing equipment. There are also standards for grading energy efficiency of installations.

During the search also standards for buildings are found and grading the building efficiency. These types of standards will not be taken into account, because this survey is about HCSs. It is important to mention because HCSs contribute to the efficiency of the building they are installed in.

5.1 Energy efficiency grading standards and norms

Lots of systems have energy labels to rate the energy consumption with classes ranging from not/less efficient (”G”, ”D”) to very efficient (”A”, ”A+++”), as illustrated in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Efficiency classes [50, 51]

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For escalators and moving sidewalks it was not possible to find a norm to grade the energy efficiency. For the elevator there is a German norm which consists of two parts:

• VDI 4707-1: Lifts - Energy Efficiency (part 1) • VDI 4707-2: Lifts - Energy Efficiency (part 2)

These documents are not free of charge so documents, relating to the standards, from elevator, escalator and moving sidewalk company is studied.

Schindler did a Life Cycle Assesment by using the following documents [52]:

• NEN-EN-ISO 14004 (2010): Environmental management systems - General guidelines on principles, systems and support techniques

• NEN-EN 14043 (2014): High rise aerial appliances for fire and rescue service use - Turntable ladders with combined movements - Safety and performance requirements and test methods

Both documents do not describe anything related to what the maximum consump-tion levels are to get an ”A”-status label.

According to schindlers report, the VDI 4707 standard follows the scheme in Fig-ure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: General scheme on how the ”Energy Efficiency Class” is formed [52] This scheme describes how the energy efficiency class is formed. First the energy demand for travel and stand-by must be measured separately, to form an energy class for both operation modes. The next step is to put this data in a mathematical model to finally rate the equipment.

5.2 Additional standards and norms

There are a lot of standards related to elevators, escalators and moving sidewalks. Most of the standards which are about these systems combine the three types in one standard. There is a list given below of some standards that can be found and have something to do with these types of HCSs.

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• NEN-EN 627 (1995): Specificatie van de gegevensregistratie en de bewaking van personenliften, roltrappen en rolpaden

• NEN-EN 12015 (2014): Electromagnetic compatibility - product family stan-dard for lifts, escalators and moving sidewalks - emission

• NEN-EN 12016 (2013): Electromagnetic compatibility - Product family • NEN-EN 12464-1 (2011): Light and lighting - Lighting of work places - Part 1

Indoor work places

• NEN-EN 13015+A1 (2008): Maintenance for lifts and escalators - Rules for maintenance instructions

• NEN-EN 16247-2 (2014): Energy audits - Part 2 Buildings

• NEN-EN-ISO 14004 (2010): Environmental management systems - General guideline on principles, systems and support techniques

• NEN-EN-ISO 14798 (2013): Lifts, escalators and moving sidewalks - Risk as-sessment and reduction methodology

• NEN-EN-ISO 25745-1 (2012): Energy performance of lifts, escalators and mov-ing sidewalks - Part 1 Energy measurement and verification

• NEN-ISO 18738-1 (2012): Measurement of ride quality - Part 1 Lifts

• NEN-ISO 18738-2 (2012): Measurement of ride quality - Part 2 Escalators and moving sidewalks

• NTA 4614-4 (2012): Covenant high-rise buildings - Part 4 Elevator installations Also must be noted that every standard refers to other standards, so there are a lot more standards (indirect) related to elevators, escalators and moving sidewalks. NTA 4614-4 describes minimum requirements for the elevator in high-rise buildings. This is one of the most energy consumption related documents listed above. In subsection 5.2.1 the information which can be found in this covenant is explained. Most other standards describe some part of the elevator, escalator and/or moving sidewalk, which is not (directly) related to the energy efficiency. For example NEN-EN 12464-1 is more or less related to the energy efficiency because here minimum building and elevator lighting requirements. The specific part of the elevator lighting requirements is explained and summarized in subsection 5.2.2 to give understanding of what kind information can be found.

5.2.1 Covenant high-rise buildings

This covenant , [53], gives instructions on how to design elevator applications in high-rise building and contains what needs to be taken into account.

For designing an elevator application for high-rise buildings the traffic handling of the elevator must be studied. Simulation parameters, peak development, number of elevator users and a lot more must be determined. It also gives information and requirements on elevator functionalities and criteria for elevator comfort.

The most important finding for this covenant is that in the chapter about energy usage it also refers to VDI 4707 and BREEAM-NL. VDI 4707 is already explained earlier in this chapter, but BREEAM-NL is not mentioned earlier. BREEAM-NL is created to compare the performance for building sustainability. In BREEAM-NL

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energy reduction measures are mentioned for elevators, but it applies not only to high-rise buildings as for VDI 4707.

Elevator installations in high-rise buildings must at least have energy label ”C”, but related to the energy consumption label ”A” or ”B” is preferred. General reduction of energy consumption measures mentioned in this covenant are:

• Reduction of the connected power • Energy efficient controls

• Reduction of stand-by power • Power regeneration

Appendix A contains a table of this covenant which states, measurements that can be taken, qualitatively describes the efficiency and if they are stated in VDI 4707 and/or BREEAM-NL.

5.2.2 Lighting

For buildings, workspaces and transport areas there are certain requirements re-garding to lighting. Table 5.1 holds the requirements for elevators within certain areas.

Table 5.1: Elevator lighting requirements according standards [54] Em [lx] U GRL Uo Ra Specific requirements

Elevator inside a build-ing

100 25 0,40 40 Illuminance in front of

elevator at least 200 lx Elevator within

health-care premises

100 22 0,60 80 Illuminance at floor

level Service elevator within

healthcare premises

200 22 0,60 80 Illuminance at floor

level

According [54], the physical quantity Em is the illuminance in lux [lx]. Lux is

the amount of light (lumens) per square meter. The value given in Table 5.1 is the minimum value for the task area, which is the elevator. But the surrounding area of the hall also needs to be taken into account when it comes to the light in front of the elevator. From the 200 lx that is required in front of the elevator (task area), the surrounding area (0,5 m around the task area) light intensity must be at least 150 lx. Outside the surrounding area (the background area) 1/3 of the light intensity at the immediate surrounding area is required.

The illuminance uniformity (Uo) shall not be less than the minimum uniformity given

in Table 5.1. The illuminance uniformity at the immediate surrounding area shall be at least 0,40 and at the background area 0,10.

The Unified Glare Rating (UGR) must be maximum the value given in Table 5.1. When exceeded, a shielding can be used with a 20◦shielding angle minimum. The minimum colour rendering indices (Ra) must be at least the given value in

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Chapter 6

Conclusions & recommendations

The different types of HCS described are widely implemented in public buildings to transport people from one place to another. This transportation requires energy, which is not always used very efficient. A lot of different companies, e.g. Schindler, KONE, Otis and ThyssenKrupp, developed and implemented systems and parts to improve the energy efficiency.

There is a lot of information about elevators, but information about escalators and moving sidewalks (and their components) is hard to find. Most of the equipment used in these HCS systems is common, but differs in the details like maximum power, torque, operating system etcetera.

There is a lot of information about the whole systems and how they work, but this is not in scientific papers but on web pages. There are more scientific papers about the subsystems, which contain more detailed information, but it does not say much about the energy efficiency in relation to the HCS type. This information is found in brochures of HCS manufacturers as mentioned above.

General potential energy improvement sections are: • Transmission

• Motor • Lighting

• Control systems • Weight

The permanent magnet motor is the most efficient engine and nowadays often in-stalled in HCSs. This type of engine does not require a gearbox, so there will be no losses due to transmission. Using a roping ratio higher than 1:1 also reduces energy consumption, because a smaller force is required to get the system in motion, so a smaller engines can be installed. Another component of the drive system is, for the elevator and even the escalator, a regenerative drive. This is installed to gain power by using gravity to drive the system.

For lighting and display (lighting) often LED is used nowadays. This more energy efficient and has a longer lifetime than incandescent and fluorescent lamps. LED

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lighting is more expensive to purchase, but due to lower energy consumption and less maintenance, overall they are cheaper.

There are different types of control systems, as mentioned earlier in subsection 3.3.5, to control the behaviour of the HCS. For the elevator, DGC is more efficient than the CGC, because it assigns people to a certain elevator. Elevators, escalators and moving sidewalks often go in standby modes when they are not in use. This means certain subsystems and equipment are turned off to reduce the power consumption. Another important factor, mostly in the elevator, is weight. By using lighter moving parts and material (for design and construction), the required power to move the components lowers.

Recommendations

A lot of recommendations for further surveys can be made, because each subsystem of a human conveyance system can be a survey at it’s own. But a couple of topics are interesting in particular.

During the research some information about elevators in different countries was found. Most of them where tables that stated how many elevators and what kind of elevator is purchased and installed in different countries over the last couple of years. It is interesting to know why certain countries have certain types of elevators and in what kind of sector they are used. Also a certain indication of energy consumption throughout the world can possibly be concluded out of the survey.

Another interesting subject which can be researched further are the control systems used in HCSs, which are nowadays made more optimal to reduce energy consumption by the system. As stated in subsection 3.3.5 there are two main control systems, which can be explained in more detail.

Also the algorithms to reduce energy are interesting to study and determining which algorithm is most efficient in a certain case of given building parameters.

The above recommendations are for possible future surveys, but also a possible small study is the efficiency grading norm VDI 4707. This document contains the information on how an elevator is graded (from efficient to not efficient).

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Appendix A

Appendix A starts at next page.

At the top of this page it is ”Bijlage B” stated, but these are pages from the norm NTA4614-4 and directly copied without changes.

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64

Bijlage B

(informatief)

Overzicht energiebesparende maatregelen liften in hoogbouw

In de navolgende tabellen is aangegeven of de desbetreffende maatregel juist bij hoogbouw van toepassing is of bij hoogbouw meer dan gemiddeld tot zijn recht komt.

Tabel B.1 — Aandrijving

Maatregel

Hoogbouw-specifiek Effect op energiegebruik in hoogbouw

Opgenomen in BREEAM-NL

Opgenomen

in VDI 4707 Aanbevolen voor hoogbouw

De liften zijn voorzien van een energiezuinige aandrijving. Van een energiezuinige aandrijving is sprake indien:

– de aanloopstroom en nominale stroom die de lift verbruikt beperkt is (specifiek energiegebruik volgens VDI 4707 lager dan 1,26 mWh/kg*m);

– de lift is voorzien van een motor met een rendement van meer dan 90 % (BREEAM-NL) tot 95 % (voorkeur), met een afname van maximaal 5 % gedurende de levensduur; – de liften zijn voorzien van een

regelsysteem, waarbij het afgenomen vermogen van de motor automatisch afhankelijk wordt gesteld van de heflast (het aantal personen

respectievelijk de hoeveelheid te vervoeren goederen op een willekeurig moment),

bijvoorbeeld doordat piekbelastingen worden weggenomen door toepassing van een frequentieregeling op de aandrijving

Nee Groot Ja, credit

Ene 8.1

Ja Ja

Reductie van het aangesloten basisvermogen van de

aandrijving (betere arbeidsfactor cos ϕ, lagere aansluitwaarde, lagere versnelling, niet sneller dan nodig)

Ja Groot Nee Nee Ja

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NTA 4614-4:2012

65

Tabel B.1 (einde)

Maatregel

Opgenomen

Energieteruglevering: De liften zijn voorzien van een systeem waarmee de vrijkomende remenergie wordt

teruggewonnen en teruggegeven aan het elektriciteitsnet of op ander wijze nuttig wordt hergebruikt. Liften waarin terugwinning van remenergie al van nature ligt besloten in de toegepaste lifttechniek, voldoen automatisch aan deze eis

Ja Groot Ja, credit

Ene 8.1 Ja Ja

De lift is met een niet-hydraulisch

aandrijfsysteem uitgevoerd Nee Gering Ja, Ene 8.1 credit Nee Niet toepassing van Toepassing van

compensatiekabels Ja Gemiddeld Nee Nee Ja

Tabel B.2 — Besturing

Maatregel

Opgenomen

Energiezuinige besturing, die de verkeersafhandeling

optimaliseert door het aantal starts/stops te reduceren, bijvoorbeeld

bestemmingsbesturing

Ja Groot Ja, credit

Ene 8.2 Nee Ja

De liften maken geen onnodige terugkeerritten naar de

hoofdstopplaats(en) (‘home landing’) inclusief testeritten

Ja Gering Nee Nee Ja

Lagere hefsnelheden, betere spreiding kooibelading (circa 50 %) of minder liften in gebruik buiten de pieken

Ja Groot Ja, credit 8.2 Nee Ja

Dit document is door NEN onder licentie verstrekt aan: / This document has been supplied under license by NEN to: TU Delft gb_tude 8-10-2014 13:53:27

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66

Tabel B.3 — Liftkooi en liftkooitoegang

Maatregel

Opgenomen

Reductie van de

energieconsumptie van de liftkooiverlichting door LED-verlichting

Ene 8.1

Ja Ja

Reductie van de

energieconsumptie van de liftkooiverlichting door deze uit te schakelen in de stand-by stand (door aanwezigheidsdetectie, weeginrichting)

Ene 8.1

Ja Ja

Reductie van de

energieconsumptie van de liftkooiventilatie door deze uit te schakelen in de stand-by stand (door aanwezigheidsdetectie, weeginrichting)

Nee Gering Nee Ja Ja

Reductie van de

energieconsumptie van de deuren door hier geen

permanente spanning/kracht op te zetten, maar alleen bij deurbeweging

Reductie van de

energieconsumptie van de sensorlijst door deze alleen te activeren als de deur beweegt of openstaat

Reductie van de

energieconsumptie van de displays en beeldschermen in de liftkooi: energie-efficiënte

uitvoering en uitschakelen als de liftkooi leeg is of de lift buiten gebruik is

Reductie van de

energieconsumptie van de signalering op verdiepingen: energie-efficiënte uitvoering en uitschakelen als de liftkooi leeg is of de lift buiten gebruik is

Reductie van het liftkooigewicht (geen glas, geen natuurstenen vloer)

Nee Gemiddeld Nee Nee Ja

Voorkomen van automatische sturing door inbellen op afstand (inclusief extra correctieritten)

Nee Gering Nee Nee Ja

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NTA 4614-4:2012

67

Tabel B.3 (einde)

Maatregel

Hoogbouw-specifiek Effect op energiegebruik in hoogbouw Opgenomen in BREEAM-NL Opgenomen in VDI 4707 2009 Aanbevolen voor hoogbouw

Verwarming van deuren en drempels uitvoeren met temperatuuropnemer

Verlichting schachttoegangen: reductie van de

energieconsumptie door LED-verlichting

(Dit is eigenlijk een gebouwmaatregel)

Tabel B.4 — Schacht en machineruimte

Maatregel

Opgenomen

Warmteterugwinning op de schacht- en

machineruimteventilatie (geen gat in de machineruimtewand), geconditioneerde lucht onder inbrengen, met

temperatuuropnemer.

Schoorsteenwerking tegengaan. Bij voorkeur geen glazen liftschachten aan de gevel om benodigde klimatisering te beperken.

Ja Gemiddeld Nee Ja Ja

Reductie van de

energieconsumptie van overige elektronische componenten (besturing, regeling,

schakelaars, alarmsystemen, intercom, weeginrcihting) door deze uit te schakelen in de stand-by stand

Reductie van de luchtweerstand van de liftkooi in de schacht, bijvoorbeeld door de toepassing van spoilers op liftkooi en/of door vergroting van de

schachtoppervlakte ten opzichte van de liftkooivloeroppervlakte. Dit laatste heeft tevens een positief effect op het ritcomfort, zie hoofdstuk 8

Ja Groot Nee Nee Ja

Zie vervolg

Dit document is door NEN onder licentie verstrekt aan: / This document has been supplied under license by NEN to: TU Delft gb_tude 8-10-2014 13:53:27

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68

Tabel B.4 (einde)

Maatregel

Opgenomen

Reductie van de

energieconsumptie van de schacht- en

machineruimteverlichting door LED-verlichting (zeker indien de verlichting permanent aan staat)

Efficiënte ophanging en geleiding van de liftkooi en het

tegengewicht, bijvoorbeeld door toepassing van:

– materialen met een lage frictiecoëfficiënt in de geleiding;

– grote middellijnen van tractie- en afleidschijven;

– een goede balancering van de kooi en de compensatiekabels.

Nee Gemiddeld Nee Ja Ja

Tabel B.5 — Gebruik

Maatregel

Opgenomen

Hogere wachttijden op de

onderste drie tot vijf verdiepingen accepteren (trapgebruik is mogelijk)

Nee Gemiddeld Nee Nee Ja

Er is bewegwijzering naar de toegang van de trappen nabij de liften aanwezig

Nee Gering Ja, credit

Ene 8.2 Nee Ja

Reductie energiegebruik door bevordering efficiënt gebruik: bijvoorbeeld één hoofdstopplaats (minder onnodige stops door het ophalen van mensen op één niveau), geen VIP-schakeling enz.

Energy saving of human conveyance systems; Energie besparing in transportsystemen voor personen

Summary

Contents

Chapter 1

Introduction

Chapter 2

Human conveyance systems

2.1

Elevator

2.2

Escalator and moving sidewalk

Chapter 3

Energy consuming components

and systems

3.1

Engines

3.2

Gearbox and roping

3.3

Other energy consuming aspects

Chapter 4

Current energy saving solutions

4.1

Drive system

4.2

Other efficiency opportunities

Chapter 5

Industry norms and assessment

criteria

5.1

Energy efficiency grading standards and norms

5.2

Additional standards and norms

Chapter 6

Conclusions & recommendations

Recommendations

Bibliography

Appendix A

Bijlage B

Overzicht energiebesparende maatregelen liften in hoogbouw