Storm-dom i nated de po si tion on a Frasnian car bon ate plat form mar gin (Wietrznia, Holy Cross Mts., Po land)
Aleksandra VIEREK
Vierek A. (2007) — Storm-dom i nated de po si tion on a Frasnian car bon ate plat form mar gin (Wietrznia, Holy Cross Mts., Po land). Geol.
Quart., 51 (3): 307–318. Warszawa.
The Wietrznia quarry in Kielce is sit u ated be tween the shal low-wa ter De vo nian car bon ate plat form in the Kielce re gion and the deeper
£ysogóry ba sin. This palaeogeographic set ting af fected car bon ate sed i men ta tion in Late De vo nian times. The tran si tional fa cies of the Wietrznia Frasnian com prises two over lap ping types of de pos its: (1) micritic and marly lime stone of shelf ba sin fa cies and (2) coarse-grained lime stone of fore-reef fa cies. The first type in cludes lam i nated- and graded micritic lime stone and nod u lar lime stone. The sec ond in cludes intraformational con glom er ates and brec cias, and crinoidal lime stone. The lime stones in the mid dle Wietrznia Beds formed within storm wave base in a shal low (pos si bly only a few tens of metres) sea that deep ened eastwards. Storms are likely to have been the main cause of ero sion and trans port. In the west ern part of the quarry, prox i mal tempestites show ev i dence of amal gam ation and can ni bal ism as do some high-en ergy flat-peb ble con glom er ates. With abat ing storm winds, finer-grained graded and lam i nated lime - stones ac cu mu lated. To ward the east ern part of the quarry, the high-en ergy ef fects of near-shore storm waves are less ev i dent; the de pos - its there are tran si tional or more dis tal tempestites.
Aleksandra Vierek, Uni ver sity of Silesia, Fac ulty of Earth Sci ences, ul. Bêdziñska 60, PL-41-200 Sosnowiec, Po land, e-mail:
aleksandra.vierek@us.edu.pl (re ceived: Sep tem ber 29, 2006; ac cepted: March 3, 2007).
Key words: Po land, Holy Cross Moun tains, Up per De vo nian, car bon ate plat form, tempestites.
INTRODUCTION
Storm beds (=tempestites) are most com mon on shelves, ramps and plat form mar gins in wind ward set tings. The sed i - ment-laden storm surges trans port sed i ment from on shore to deeper off shore outer ramp set tings via uni di rec tional re turn flows (Flügel, 2004, p. 594).
Three types of car bon ate sys tems are rec og nized:
— car bon ate ramps,
— at tached plat forms,
— iso lated car bon ate plat forms (Seilacher and Aigner, 1991).
In each of these types storm pro cesses have dif fer ent ef - fects. On car bon ate ramps (e.g. the mod ern Ara bian Gulf), storm de pos its show dis tinct proximality-distality trends (see:
Wil son, 1975; Wright, 1986; Seilacher and Aigner, 1991; Lee and Kim, 1992; Flügel, 2004, p. 594). Storm de pos its of at - tached plat forms (the mod ern en vi ron ment of South Florida) dis play strong vari a tions in in ter nal com po si tion be cause storm beds tend to be dif fer ent from place to place (Seilacher and
Aigner, 1991). On iso lated car bon ate plat forms, storm pro - cesses are par tic u larly im por tant in con trol ling the depositional fa cies along plat form mar gins. Storms can quickly and rad i - cally al ter sed i ment dis tri bu tion on any part of the plat form that is above storm wave base (Jones and Desrochers, 1992). On iso lated plat forms there are dis tinct dif fer ences be tween wind - ward and lee ward plat form mar gins, as es tab lished in the mod - ern Bahama Banks (Hine et al., 1981 in Seilacher and Aigner, 1991) or in the Middle Tri as sic Latemar Mas sif (Egenhoff et al., 1999). Ac cord ing to Szulczewski (1995) the Frasnian car bon ate plat form in the Holy Cross Mts. is a reef- and shoal rimmed iso - lated car bon ate plat form. On such an iso lated car bon ate plat form the ef fects of storms are con cen trated at the plat form mar gins.
The car bon ates de scribed herein of the Wietrznia Beds were ep i sod i cally de pos ited on the north ern flank of the Late De vo nian car bon ate platform.
Wietrznia Hill is lo cated in the south east ern part of the town of Kielce in the west ern part of the Holy Cross Moun tains (Fig. 1). The de pos its vis i ble at ex po sure be long to the south ern flank of the Kielce Syncline com posed of De vo nian strata over - ly ing Si lu rian, Or do vi cian and Cam brian de pos its. Gürich (1896) noted that the De vo nian lime stones at Wietrznia are dis -
tinctly bed ded and rich in fos sils. On the ba sis of these fos sils, he con sid ered the lime stones to be tran si tional be tween the Mid dle and Up per De vo nian (“Uebergangschichten von Wietrznia”). Szulczewski (1971) em pha sized their in ter me di - ate po si tion be tween fore-reef and shelf ba sin fa cies.
This tran si tional char ac ter is ev i dent in the mid dle part of the Wietrznia Beds (set C) in the Wietrznia quarry (Wietrznia I
— ac cord ing to Szulczewski, 1971) which shows a con sid er - able de gree of lithological di ver sity and vary ing pro por tions of grained car bon ate com po nents (Fig. 2). Interbedded dark marly micritic lime stones and marly shales dom i nate. Sev eral pale col oured thick beds of coarse-grained lime stone (also called
“event beds”) are in ter ca lated in the micritic lime stone.
Szulczewski (1968, 1971) rec og nized the grained lime - stones as sed i ments re flect ing sub aque ous mass move ments and tur bid ity cur rents. In sub se quent years, KaŸmierczak and Goldring (1978), Szulczewski et al. (1996) and Racki and Narkiewicz (2000) sug gested the pos si ble in flu ence of storm events on the sed i men ta tion of Up per De vo nian lime stones in the Holy Cross Mts. KaŸmierczak and Goldring (1978) had writ ten ear lier about the pos si ble oc cur rence of tsu nami. Ac - cord ing to Racki and Narkiewicz (2000), high-en ergy con di - tions and tec tonic-seis mic ac tiv ity ac com pa nied Late De vo - nian de po si tion from the Early rhenana- to the Late triangularis Zone.
Al ter na tive pos si bil i ties for the in ter pre ta tion of the or i gin of the coarse-grained lime stones merit re view. The aims of this pa per are as fol low ing:
— to de scribe the tran si tional fa cies of the mid dle part of the Wietrznia Beds (set C),
— to de scribe the lat eral change ability of fore-reef to shelf-ba sin fa cies,
pa per the pres ent au thor pro vided de scribes and in - ter prets the tran si tional fa cies of the Wietrznia Frasnian as de ter mined by microfacies anal y sis (see: Vierek, 2007).
REGIONAL PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC SETTING
Epicontinental De vo nian de pos its in Po land may be as cribed to an extracratonic shelf of vari able width rang ing from 150 to 600 km across (Narkiewicz, 1985). Ac cord ing to Racki et al.
(2002) the shelf formed the Pol ish frag ment of a pericratonic ba sin stretch ing from west ern Eu rope to Ukraine along the pe riph ery of the “Old Red Sand - stone Con ti nent” (Laurasia). Two dis tinct palaeo - geographic-tec tonic re gions of the HCM area were dis tin guished: the north ern £ysogóry re gion (palaeo - low) and south ern Kielce re gion (palaeohigh) (see:
Szulczewski, 1977, 1995; Ra cki, 1993; Racki and Bultynck, 1993; Racki et al., 2002).
The Lower De vo nian in the HCM is a dis tinct terrigenous se - quence of con ti nen tal and shal low-ma rine de pos its (Szul - czewski, 1995). At the tran si tion from Early to Mid dle De vo nian times, a ma rine trans gres sion re sulted in de creas ing siliciclastic sed i men ta tion and a di ver si fi ca tion of ma rine en vi ron men tal con di tions. The biostromal plat form char ac ter iz ing the Givetian was trans formed into a reef con struc tion (Dyminy Reef of Narkiewicz, 1988 or Dyminy Reef Com plex of Racki, 1993) as a re sult of the early and mid dle Frasnian trans gres sion (IIb/c and IIc — global cy cles of John son et al., 1985; Racki, 1993).
Drowned, poorly ox y gen ated deeper-shelf ar eas (=intra shelf bas ins) sur rounded the Frasnian Dyminy Reef: the Chêci - ny–Zbrza to the south and the £ysogóry–Kostom³oty to the north (Racki, 1993; Szulczewski, 1995).
There are two main types of Frasnian reefs in the Kielce Syncline: mud-mounds and stromatoporoid-coral reefs. The core of the Dyminy Reef in the cen tral Kielce re gion is com - posed of stromatoporoid-coral lime stone in di cat ing a shal - low-wa ter en vi ron ment. Coarse-grained lime stones, typ i cal of the north ern (Wietrznia) and south ern Kielce re gions, rep re sent ero sion of the reef flank de pos ited in a deeper fore-reef fa cies.
The Kadzielnia-type mud-mounds (Szulczewski, 1971) de vel - oped in quiet wa ter be low storm wave base.
Ac cord ing to Szulczewski (1971), the Dyminy Reef ex - isted up to the early Famennian. Narkiewicz (1988) noted there a stromatoporoid-coral com mu nity, that was se ri ously in flu enced by a transgressive pulse in the Early gigas Zone.
At the be gin ning of the middle Frasnian, the ma rine IIc trans - gres sion (John son et al., 1985) trans formed the sed i men ta tion into a marly-bi tu mi nous type. Dur ing the late Frasnian, sea level reached a max i mum, termed the Kellwasser anoxic event (John son et al., 1985; Racki, 1993). The Dyminy reef
Fig. 1. A — lo ca tion in Po land of the area ex am ined; B — geo log i cal sketch map of the west ern part of the Holy Cross Mts. (af ter Szulczewski, 1971) with quad - ran gle show ing quarry lo ca tion; C — Wietrznia I quarry show ing the po si tion of five mea sured sec tions
was drowned and a pe lagic lime stone fa cies re placed the reef fa cies (Szulczewski, 1971).
METHODS
About 160 metres of the mid dle part (set C) of the Wietrznia Beds are ex posed in the Wietrznia quarry. Five sec - tions were mac ro scop i cally stud ied bed-by-bed (Fig. 3). 66 rock sam ples were col lected for mi cro scopic anal y sis. The
petrographic study al lowed six ma jor microfacies to be rec og - nized (Ta ble 1): fur ther de tails are given in Vierek (2007).
RESULTS
In this study the fol low ing lime stone types were dis tin - guished:
— micritic, typ i cally lam i nated or graded, and nod u lar lime stones cor re spond ing to the shelf ba sin fa cies;
Fig. 2. Types of lime stone in the Wietrznia Beds (set C, sec tion IV)
A — horizontal-lam i nated micritic lime stone, B — amal gam ated beds of grained/micritic lime stone, C — lime stone brec cia, D — flat-peb ble con glom er ate, E — graded brec cia with hor i zon tal lam i na tion at the top, F — interbedded marly lime stone and marly shale
Fig. 3. Lithological sec tions from the Wietrznia I quarry
— intraformational con glom er ates and brec cias and crinoidal lime stones cor re spond ing to the fore-reef ta lus fa cies.
In ter ca la tions of thin-bed ded (1–3 cm), dark-col oured marly shales occur among them.
MICRITIC LIMESTONES
De scrip tion: these are thin-bed ded (3–25 cm) micritic lime stones with hor i zon tal lam i na tion (Fig. 2A). The lam i na - tion is the re sult of al ter nate thin lay ers of micrite (2–6 mm) and pelsparite (1–2 mm). The lam i na tion is lo cally barely vis i ble or is dis turbed by bioturbation (Fig. 4A). Hor i zon tal lam i na tion of ten grades into wavy lam i na tion or low-an gle cross-lam i na - tion, and into hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion (HCS) at the tops of some beds.
Micritic lime stones are oc ca sion ally graded. The ma trix in the top part of the mi cro-sec tion is micrite which has un der gone
change first into microspar (down wards) and then into pseudosparite. Ex cept for rare ero sional bases and undulose tops (Fig. 4B), bot tom and top sur faces are typ i cally dis tinct, smooth and pla nar. There was no fauna vis i ble dur ing field sam pling.
In ter pre ta tion: ac cord ing to Seguret et al. (2001), the lam i - nated in ter vals re flect the de po si tion of car bon ate silts by low-en ergy trac tional pro cesses. The lam i na tion and the grain-size dis tri bu tion char ac ter ize ma te rial de pos ited at the base of a slope, from fine-grained sus pen sions car ried by cur rents ini - ti ated by, for ex am ple, hur ri cane or storm winds (Reineck and Singh, 1972). Hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion is one of the di ag - nos tic sed i men tary struc tures of storm-dom i nated shal low-ma - rine en vi ron ments (Harms et al., 1975; Dott and Bour geois, 1982; Duke, 1985; Ito et al., 2001; Yang et al., 2006). When hur - ri cane or storm winds have ceased, hor i zon tal lam i na tion forms (Narkiewicz, 1978a) per turbed some times by in ten sive bur row - ing (Einsele, 2000, p. 102). Ac cord ing to Flügel (2004, p. 596)
T a b l e 1 Microfacies and depositional en vi ron ments
Lime stone
types Microfacies De scrip tion Grain types/fos sils De po si tional
en vi ron ment
citirciMsenot semil
hor i zon tal and wavy lam i na tion
nor mal grad ing
MF1a pelsparites/micrites pelbiosparites/micrites
MF1b calcipelsparites and
calcipelbiosparites MF2 pelbiomicrosparites
pelbiosparites
mudstone-wackestone; hor i - zon tal to wavy lam i na tion, oc -
ca sion ally cross-lam i na tion, bioturbation wackestone; hor i zon tal and wavy lam i na tion, bioturbation
wackestone; nor mally graded, hor i zon tal and wavy laminae,
sty lo lites
peloids and ag gre gate grains (12.5–40%), rare oncoids, brachi o pods and cri noids (2.5–10%), tubi form Jansaella ridingi,
Renalcis (?), calcispheres (2.5%) calcispheres (15–40%), peloids (25–30%),
small amounts of bioclast frag ments:
brachi o pods, cri noids, trilobites, foraminifera, tubi form Jansaella ridingi,
few Renalcis(?), oncoids
peloids and ag gre gate grains (25–30%), rare cri noids, brachi o pods, few calcispheres and
Renalcis, recrystallized skel e tal frag ments, oncoids
FZ 2–3: open shelf, low- mod er -
ate en ergy
nod u lar
lime stones MF3
micrites/biomicrites
mudstone; len tic u lar to ir reg u - lar nod ules of micritic lime -
stones, sty lo lites, well-de vel oped fab ric, flaser
lam i na tion
lime mud, small amounts of bioclast frag ments (<10%)
aer o bic con di tions, pe lagic car bon ate
plat form, slope, foreslope; 20–35 m
depth
senot semildeniarg-esraoC
crinoidal lime stones
MF4
biopelmicrosparites/sparites
densely packed rudstone, mod - er ately sorted, base usu ally ero -
sional
large frag ments (<9 mm) of cri noids (up to 60%), few brachi o pods, calcispheres
and trilobites, peloids (<10%)
FZ 6: plat form mar gin, shal -
low-wa ter, high en ergy
flat-peb ble con glom er -
ate
MF5 intrabiopelspar(rud)ites
poorly sorted rudstone; sty lo - lites, geopetal struc tures, nu - mer ous flat, highly discoidal
and rounded (mm–cm) intraclasts, base of ten ero sional
cri noids, brachi o pods, trilobites, bryo zoans, calcispheres, few rugose and tab u late cor als,
tubi form Jansaella ridingi, sin gle Moravamminide(?) and Renalcis, peloids
(30%), oncoids, recrystallized skel e tal frag ments
FZ 4–5: fore-reef, strongly tur bu lent wa ter, high en ergy lime stone
brec cia
MF6a intramicrudites
mod er ate - well sorted rudstone, geopetal struc tures, nu mer ous ir reg u lar intraclasts
(mm–cm) subangular or subrounded, base of ten ero -
sional
bioclasts (10%): de tri tus of cri noids, brachi o pods, trilobites, tabulata cor als,
green al gae, rare calcispheres MF6b
intrabiopelspar(rud)ites bioclasts (60%): cri noid frag ments, brachi o - pod shells, stromatoporoids, cor als, nu mer - ous calcispheres, sin gle tubi form Jansaella ridingi, bryo zoans, trilobites; peloids and
ag gre gate grains (5–20%) MF6c
lam i nated biopelintraspar(rud)ites
poorly sorted grainstone-rudstone, sty lo lites,
few intraclasts (up to 10 mm), hor i zon tal, rarely wavy laminae
FZ — fa cies zones af ter Wil son (1975)
and Perez-Lopez (2001), strong bioturbation is in dic a tive of breaks in storm ac tiv ity and of slow and con tin u ous sed i men ta - tion un der low-en ergy con di tions.
NODULAR LIMESTONES
De scrip tion: these are rel a tively thick-bed ded (14–48 cm) micritic lime stones com posed of in situ reg u lar, elon gated and/or len tic u lar nod ules. The nod ules, mea sur ing from a few to ca. 10 cm thick, are lo cally ag gre gated into dis con tin u ous lay ers. They are typ i cally em bed ded in a poorly-com pacted marly-clay ma te rial. Bot tom and top bed ding sur faces are smooth and dis tinct and, as in the micritic lime stones, there are no vis i ble mac ro scopic fau nal re mains.
In ter pre ta tion: there are strong sim i lar i ties be tween the nod u lar lime stones de scribed in this pa per and those in ter - preted as eogenetic con cre tions by Narkiewicz (1978b). This sup ports the view that the for ma tion of the nod ules was as so ci - ated with se lec tive ce men ta tion around nu cle ation cen tres.
Pa laeo zoic nod u lar lime stones were de pos ited on pe lagic car bon ate plat forms, on slopes and in sed i ment-starved bas ins with low ter res trial in flux and where bot tom wa ters were well-ox y gen ated (Ricken and Eder, 1991). Ac cord ing to the Wendte and Uyeno (2005, p. 276, fig. 17), such nod u lar lime - stones were de pos ited on fore-slopes at depths be tween 20 and 35 metres.
COARSE-GRAINED LIMESTONES
De scrip tion: these are thick-bed ded (<70 cm) lime stones char ac ter ized by a high pro por tion of ac com pa ny ing calciru - dites and thick calcarenites. They con tain intraformational lime stone brec cias and flat-peb ble con glom er ates as so ci ated with de tri tal crinoidal lime stones.
The intraclasts of the brec cias are ir reg u lar, chiefly subangular in shape and range up to 50 mm in size. Ac cord ing to the Krumbein and Sloss (1963) chart, their sphe ric ity is 0.7–0.9 and their round ness is 0.3–0.5. The clasts are usu ally
hap haz ardly and ir reg u larly ar ranged and lo cally strongly com - pacted. Some of the brec cia beds are dis tinctly graded (Figs. 2E and 5). Clast–clast con tacts may be pointed, su tured (micro - stylolites) or, rarely, con cave-con vex. Ma trix-clast junc tions
A A
A B B B
b b b
Fig. 4. Lam i nated micritic lime stones
A — bioturbated lam i na tion (b) and hummocky cros-strat i fi ca tion (ar row), sec tion II; B — undulose top of micritic layer, sec tion V
5 cm 5 cm 5 cm
Fig. 5. Graded lime stone brec cia with wavy lam i na tion at the top, sec tion IV
HCS
Fig. 6. Amal gam ated bed (a) of grained/micritic lime stone Ero sional sur face sep a rates brec cia from un der ly ing micrite; hummocky
cross-strat i fi ca tion (ar row), sec tion II, sam ple II/70
are usu ally sharp though some may be in dis tinct. The ma trix of these lime stones is calcarenite.
Set C is also char ac ter ized by lay ers 7–12 cm thick with their lower parts com pris ing micrite and their up per parts lime - stone brec cia (clast-size <10 mm). Ero sional sur faces sep a rate brec cia and un der ly ing micrite (Figs. 2B and 6). The top sur - faces of these beds, ob served over sev eral metres, are undulose.
The intraclasts of the flat-peb ble con glom er ate are tab u lar and highly discoidal (Fig. 2D). The typ i cal discoidal peb ble is 5–10 cm in lon gest di men sion though oc ca sional ex am ples range up to 25 cm. Ac cord ing to the Krumbein and Sloss (1963) chart, clast sphe ric ity is 0.3–0.5 and round ness is 0.5–0.7. The strongly elon gated and flat tened intraclasts, some show ing a fine hor i zon tal lam i na tion, are em bed ded in a fine-grained ma trix. Lo cally, small (<10 mm) and more spher i - cal clasts lie be tween the larger clasts.
In thin lay ers the peb bles are dis trib uted hor i zon tally.
Thicker lay ers con tain ran domly ori ented, steeply in clined and ver ti cally stacked edge wise intraclasts (Fig. 7). Some intraclasts are bro ken, cracked or bent. In the most west erly sec tion (V), large, sharply an gu lar frag ments (length <100 mm and width <30 mm) of hor i zon tally lam i nated micritic lime - stones oc cur within the coarse-grained lime stones.
The bot tom sur faces of the grained beds are usu ally sharp and ero sional. The up per sur faces are flat, dis tinct or, in some cases, undulose. The tops of these lay ers may dis play wavy lam i na tion (Fig. 5) or low-an gle cross-lam i na tion pass ing, in a few cases, into HCS (Fig. 8).
Bro ken or com plete brachi o pod shells, cri noid de bris in abun dance, as well as cor als and stromatoporoids, are ran - domly dis trib uted in the matrix.
To ward the east ern side of the quarry, a 4.5–25 cm thick ho ri zon of crinoidal lime stones com posed of cri noid trochites and sin gle, small (<10 mm) micritic clasts is ex posed. The base of these crinoidal lime stones is sharp and ero sional. The top dis plays hor i zon tal or wavy lam i na tion (Fig. 9A, B).
In ter pre ta tion: the coarse-grained na ture of the de pos its in - di cates strongly tur bu lent wa ter within the fair-weather wave zone (Whalen et al., 2002). The pres ence of many intraclasts ripped from the sub strate clearly re flects high wave en er gies.
Their mor phol ogy sug gests vary ing con di tions of redeposition.
Sharp con tacts be tween the ma trix and the intraclasts in di cate con sol i da tion of the sub strate (Radwañski, 1960). Nev er the less, the spo radic pres ence of in dis tinct intraclasts sug gests the ex is - tence of less con sol i dated sed i ment. The larger, flat tened, elon - gated and slightly rounded intraclasts of the flat-peb ble con - glom er ates were pro duced by sud den re work ing of lime stone lay ers char ac ter ized by vary ing de grees of con sol i da tion and sub se quent mi nor round ing dur ing trans port. Many au thors have con sid ered that intraformational flat-peb ble con glom er ates have re sulted from storms (Jones and Dixon, 1976; KaŸmierczak and Goldring, 1978; Seilacher, 1991; Sepkoski et al., 1991).
In com par i son with those of the flat-peb ble con glom er ates, the brec cia intraclasts are smaller, more sharply edged and usu - ally dis play only slightly-elon gated shapes. Ac cord ing to Szulczewski (1968; 1971), these intraclasts may have been be pro duced by strong ero sion of the su per fi cial parts of semi-con - sol i dated sed i ments caused by sus pen sion-type cur rents or by mudflows. Their or i gin may also re flect a low er ing of the wave
5 cm 5 cm 5 cm 5 cm 5 cm 5 cm
Fig. 7. Edge wise tex ture in flat-peb ble con glom er ate, sec tion V, sam ple V/37
Fig. 8. Coarse-grained lime stones
A — wavy lam i na tion pass ing into hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion; B — en larged por tion of the left up per cor ner of the pho to graph, sec tion II
base due to storms and strong winds that, in turn, pro voked ero - sion, re work ing and sed i ment redeposition (Sepkoski et al., 1991; Seguret et al., 2001; Flügel, 2004, p. 596). Ac cord ing to Pratt (2002), the spo radic dis tri bu tion and an gu lar ity of the intraclasts ar gues that the con glom er ates were gen er ated by oc - ca sional tsu nami rather than by storms. The lack of sort ing and the grain-sup ported fab ric in di cate rapid de po si tion in dy namic, high-en ergy en vi ron ments (Be³ka et al., 1996). The pres ence of an ero sive base may in di cate oc ca sional high-en ergy con di tions, e.g., tempestites (Aigner, 1985) or turbidites. Fur ther more, the in creased sizes of both the bioclasts and intraclasts places de po - si tion of this lime stone type closer to the storm wave base, as so - ci at ing them with turbidite or storm pro cesses.
Crinoidal lime stones formed in shal low-wa ter, high-en ergy en vi ron ments, usu ally on plat form slopes (Wil son, 1975).
Allochthonous ac cu mu la tions which are ob served in slope and basinal set tings cor re spond to down ward trans port lead ing to the for ma tion of crinoidal turbidites (Tucker, 1969 in Flügel, 2004, p. 552).
LATERAL CHANGES
From west to east in the quarry, there is a grad ual de crease in the thick ness of the coarse-grained lay ers; here and there the lay - ers can dis ap pear en tirely (Fig. 3). Nev er the less, in the cen tral part of the quarry (sec tions IV and III), a clear in crease in thick - ness is seen in sev eral lay ers, e.g., layer 24 is 38 cm thick in sec - tion V, 65 cm in sec tion III and barely 16 cm in sec tion WgI. In the west ern sec tion V, a dis tinct amal gam ation of thick coarse-grained lay ers is ev i dent. In sec tions IV–II thin (7–12 cm) amal gam ated beds of grained/micritic lime stone oc cur. These beds can ex tend for up to a max i mum of tens of metres.
Lithologies pro gres sively change from west to east in the quarry. Clast di am e ters in crease west wards. To wards the east, the num ber of coarse-grained lay ers grows less and more in ter - ca la tions of micritic and marly shales ap pear. In the west ern side of the quarry, the micritic and marly shale in ter ca la tions
mostly ap pear in the bot tom of set C whereas to the east they oc cur al most ev ery where through out the sec tion. To gether with these changes, the lam i nated micritic lime stone dis ap pears grad u ally eastwards and unlaminated lime stone ap pears.
DISCUSSION
The con sid er able va ri ety of microfacies (see Vierek, 2007) and the interbedding of dif fer ent lime stones, sup port the tran si - tional na ture (Szulczewski, 1971) of the Up per De vo nian car - bon ates in the mid dle Wietrznia Beds (set C).
Tex tural char ac ter is tics and micro fauna dis tri bu tion in di - cate vary ing con di tions of de po si tion. A low-en ergy en vi ron - ment is in di cated by the rel a tively low bi otic di ver sity and the fine-grained na ture of the de pos its. Where re flat ing higher-en - ergy con di tions, the quan tity of bioclasts in creases and the sed i - ments coarsen in grain size and in clude many intraclasts. In the sec tion ex am ined, mul ti ple in ter ca la tions of thick (up to 70 cm) event beds oc cur. Here, the na ture of re de pos ited fauna can be in struc tive. Large cri noid stems and brachi o pod shells, stromatoporoids, and cor als typ i cal of coarse-grained lime stone de rive from shal lower ar eas in the sed i men tary ba sin, e.g. reefs.
The cono dont biofacies, iden ti fied in the micritic and grained lime stone (Pisarzowska et al., 2006), re flect a va ri ety of depths:
a shal lower (polygnatid–icriodid) biofacies and a deeper (polygnatid–mesotaxid) biofacies. Fur ther more, the oc cur - rence of reef-build ers (cor als) and an Ancyrodella-rich cono - dont fauna in the grained beds (Pisarzowska et al., 2006) in di - cate an en vi ron ment pe riph eral to reefs and mud-mounds (Ziegler and Sandberg, 1990).
The intraclasts in the coarse-grained lime stones are un - equiv o cal in di ca tors of strong tur bu lence and high en ergy.
The large sizes of the intra- and bioclasts, the de gree of clast round ing (subrounded-rounded — flat-peb ble con glom er ate), the clast- sup ported fab ric, the abrupt ver ti cal grain-size changes and the sort ing of grain com po nents (poor to mod er - ate), sug gest that high en ergy and strong ero sion above storm
Fig. 9. A — crinoidal lime stones with small in di vid ual micritic clasts; hor i zon tal lam i na tion is vis i ble at the top, sec tion III, sam ple III/A; B — crinoidal lime stones with wavy lam i na tion and (ar row) ero sional base, sec tion IV
wave base was re spon si ble for the dis in te gra tion of the car - bon ate ma te rial. The in ti mate interbedding of higher-en ergy fa cies with shales is a rec og nized in di ca tor of de po si tion be - low fair-weather wave base but above storm wave base (Aigner, 1985; Myrow and Southard, 1996).
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT
The com po si tion, tex ture and microfacies fea tures of the Wietrznia lime stones, and com par i son with Pol ish (Narkiewicz, 1978a) and Ger man (Devleeschouwer et al., 2002) grained car bon ate de pos its of sim i lar age, sug gests storms as the main fac tor in ero sion and trans port.
Szulczewski (1968, 1971), in dis cuss ing the or i gin of car - bon ate de tri tal de pos its, out lined the char ac ter is tics of sub aque - ous mass flows and tur bid ity cur rents. Tempestites and turbidites are pro duced by in ter mit tent high-en ergy events, show sim i lar char ac ters and are dif fi cult to dis tin guish apart. In Ta ble 2, the char ac ter is tics that dis tin guish car bon ate tempestites and turbidites in the Wietrznia quarry are given.
Lat eral changes in layer thick ness and grain size (Seilacher and Aigner, 1991), rapid and mul ti ple fa cies changes within the lith o logical sec tion (Einsele, 2000, p. 102), large intra- and bioclast sizes, and ero sive bases to coarse-grained lay ers, are all in dic a tive of high-en ergy en vi ron ments typ i cal of tempestites (Aigner, 1985). All char ac ter ize the Wietrznia limestones.
In the wes tern most sec tion V, coarse-grained lay ers show the great est thick nesses and ten dency to amal gam ate. In this sec tion, micritic/marly shale in ter ca la tions are in ter mit tent.
This is in ter preted as re flect ing ad vanced tempestite-bed can ni - bal ism. Ac cord ing to Einsele (2000, p. 102), these are fea tures typ i cal of prox i mal tempestites de pos ited not far be low the fair-weather wave base. Can ni bal ism and amal gam ation may oc cur re peat edly un til a ma jor storm event ul ti mately pro duces a bed with a base that can be preserved.
To wards the cen tre of the quarry, there is a fur ther ex am ple of layer amal gam ation. A thin calcirudite bed dis plays an ero - sional con tact with the un der ly ing micritic lime stones. Sim i lar lay ers de scribed by Duke (1985) serve to make a link with amal gam ation and with hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion. Ac - cord ing to Dott and Bour geois (1982) and Walker et al. (1983), oc cur rences of these beds are in dic a tive of more en er getic and fre quent storm events, shal low depths and close prox im ity to source. Com par i son with the amal gam ation and can ni bal ism of pre ced ing lay ers in di cates de creas ing wave en ergy.
Flat-peb ble con glom er ates are a fea ture of cal car e ous tempestites (see: Sepkoski, 1982; Sepkoski et al., 1991; Flügel, 2004, p. 596). KaŸmierczak and Goldring (1978) rec og nized intraformational con glom er ates of sim i lar age as tempestites de pos ited in a subtidal en vi ron ment. As de tailed by Sepkoski (1982), the or i gin of the flat-peb ble con glom er ates re quires the ep i sodic de po si tion of thin car bon ate lay ers sep a rated by muddy part ings, and ero sion and re work ing by in tense storms to pro duce the tab u lar intraclasts. The com mon edge wise ori en - ta tion of clasts in the thicker con glom er ates of the Wietrznia Beds re flects de po si tion from pow er ful os cil la tory cur rents (Futterer, 1982).
The sec tion of the Wietrznia Beds also re veals the pres ence of more spher i cal and an gu lar intraclasts within brec cia. These micrite intraclasts may also re flect redeposition of storm-de - rived ma te rial (Flügel, 2004, p. 596).
The Wietrznia coarse-grained lime stones show no ev i dence of the bioturbation that is seen in the micritic lay ers. In the con - text of storms, this ob ser va tion may be ex plained as fol lows.
The de struc tive phase of an in tense storm erodes bot tom ma te - rial. Sub se quent wan ing al lows con struc tive de po si tion of new sed i ment. Ini tially, coarser cal car e ous ma te rial falls to the bot - tom. The re main ing, finer sed i ment held in tem po rary sus pen - sion grad u ally drops to form graded- and lam i nated beds — as in the Wietrznia Beds. These late sed i ments pro vide a hab i tat for or gan isms that cause the bioturbation com mon in the up per, fine-grained part of storm beds and links ac tive bioturbation
T a b l e 2 Cri te ria dis tin guish ing tempestites from turbidites (mod i fied from Einsele and Seilacher, 1991) and their pres ence in the Wietrznia Beds
Fea tures Tempestites Turbidites Wietrznia Beds
Wave rip ples and wave
rip ple cross lami na tions com mon ab sent pres ent
Cur rent rip ples and cur -
rent rip ple bed ding less com mon com mon ab sent
Con vo lute lam i na tion rare com mon ab sent
HCS com mon ab sent pres ent in the micritic lime stones and
few in the coarse-grained lime stones Amal gam ation and/or
can ni bal ism very com mon less com mon pres ent
Con ti nu ity of sin gle beds mostly lim ited of ten over wide dis tances mostly lim ited Thick ness of se quence lim ited, as so ci ated with
shal low-wa ter fa cies
in gen eral great, can reach many hun dreds and even thou sands of metres, as so ci ated with
deep-wa ter fa cies
lim ited (up to 10m) Bioturbation in thin mud tempestites
and/or dis tal tempestites rare/ab sent pres ent in the thin micritic lime stones and dis tal ar eas
Fauna shal low-wa ter mixed shal low/deep as sem blage shal low-wa ter
is as so ci ated with the or i gin of wavy lam i na tion, low-an gle cross-lam i na - tion, and of hummocky cross-strat i fi ca - tion — a sed i men tary struc ture di ag - nos tic of storm-dom i nated shal low-ma - rine en vi ron ments (Harms et al., 1975;
Hamblin and Walker, 1979; Dott and Bour geois, 1982; Duke, 1985; Walker, 1992; Ito et al., 2001). HCS oc curs in fine-grained de pos its and is char ac ter - ized by gently-curved, low-an gle cross-lam i na tion (Duke, 1985). The char ac ter is tic fea tures of HCS are, at best, weakly and in dis tinctly vis i ble in the Wietrznia Beds. How ever, vari ants of HCS are de scribed in the lit er a ture.
For in stance, Duke (1980, 1985) dis tin - guished a vari ant in which swales are pref er en tially pre served and hum mocks rare or ab sent. Jach (2004) in ter preted
struc tures with curved up per sur faces and sharply trun cated bot toms as HCS; the ge om e tries of some lay ers in Wietrznia are com pa ra ble with these. Though HCS is not fully un der - stood, Myrow and Southard (1996) see the struc ture as an in di - ca tor of storm-gen er ated os cil la tory cur rents. Skel e tal con cen - tra tions of brachi o pods and cri noids ob served in the Wietrznia Beds are also storm-re lated (see: Flügel, 2004, p. 596).
The com po si tion and sed i men tary struc tures of the Wietrznia lime stones sup port the pro posed in ter pre ta tion that in tense storm waves were the main ero sion and trans port agent.
In ad di tion, a com po nent of the coarse-grained beds (lime stone brec cia) may re flect grav ity-flow ini ti ated by storm con di tions (Myrow and Southard, 1996). Walker (1992) de scribed re cent ex am ples of com pa ra ble sed i ments gen er ated by storm or hur - ri cane events. Storms were in ter mit tent dur ing the de po si tion of the mo not o nous marly lime stones and shales in the Wietrznia quarry. Af ter storm events, rare grain-flows resulted in grain-supported carbonate breccias.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The lime stones in the mid dle Wietrznia Beds (set C) were gen er ated, in the main, by rede po si tion in a dy namic en vi ron - ment. The stromatoporoid-coral reef (Dyminy Reef — Narkiewicz, 1988) lo cated in the cen tral part of the Kielce re - gion was the source. Storms were the main agent of ero sion and trans port.
Prox i mal tempestites, oc cur ring in the west ern part of the quarry, dis play fea tures in dic a tive of amal gam ation and can ni - bal ism (Fig. 10). With storm abate ment, finer graded and lam i - nated micritic lime stones ac cu mu lated. In the east ern part of the quarry, de creas ing wave en er gies led to the de po si tion of tran - si tional or more dis tal tempestites.
Changes in li thol ogy and bed thick ness over an in ter val of about 160 m in the Wietrznia quarry are marked. Seilacher and Aigner (1991) have shown that storm beds de pos ited on a shelf tend to vary from place to place and, in con trast, sed i ments de - pos ited on gently in clined car bon ate ramps trend to be more uni formly con tin u ous. The var ied top o graphic re lief of the De - vo nian reef (Narkiewicz, 1988) was prob a bly an im por tant in - flu ence — as was synsedimentary tectonism (Szulczewski, 1989; Racki and Bultynck, 1993) on the dif fer en ti a tion of fa - cies in the Wietrznia sub-re gion. An early Frasnian deep en ing pulse in ter rupted shal low-wa ter de po si tion in the Wietrznia slope area (Racki and Bultynck, 1993).
Ac cord ing to Pomar (2001) ba sin-floor mor phol ogy and sea level changes in flu ence the size and ef fi ciency of the car - bon ate fac tory. Playford et al. (1989 in Pomar, 2001) con sid ers that the evo lu tion and mor phol ogy of the Can ning Ba sin reefal plat forms (Middle/Late De vo nian) were con trolled by vari a - tion in rates of rel a tive sea level change due to com bined eustasy and tectonism.
Some of the coarse-grained beds might have been gen er ated as a re sult of grain-flow ini ti ated by ear lier storm con di tions. The min i mum in cli na tion an gle of the slope that is nec es sary for ini ti - a tion of grain flow is 18° (Bagnold, 1954). Kenter (1990) noted that gra di ents are still steeper (30–40°) for these sed i ments with cohesionless and grain-sup ported fab rics. Ac cord ing to Coniglio and Dix (1992), the steep en ing of a car bon ate slope, par tic u larly the up per slope, can re sult from or ganic bind ing and frame work build ing by reef-form ing or gan isms. In ad di tion, car bon ates with frame-build ing skel e tal struc tural el e ments (i.e. reefs) may con - struct slopes up to 90° (James and Ginsburg, 1979 in Spence and Tucker, 1997). For ex am ple, the De vo nian car bon ate plat forms from the Can ning Ba sin (West ern Aus tra lia) are mostly rimmed plat forms flanked by high-re lief mar gins and very steep (2–85°) mar ginal slopes (Ward, 1999 in Pomar, 2001, fig. 10). To sum - ma rize, the Up per De vo nian car bon ate plat form from Holy
Fig. 10. A gen er al ized model for the storm-gen er ated Wietrznia Beds
FWWB — fair-weather wave base, SWB — storm wave base; for other ex pla na tions see Fig ure 3
Cross Mts. is a reef-rimmed iso lated plat form with a rel a tively steep mar gin akin to the rimmed plat form base-of-slope aprons de scribed by Coniglio and Dix (1992).
The depth to storm wave-base can vary, but com monly fluc tu ates be tween 50 and 200 m (Cheel and Leckie, 1993).
Hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion is in dic a tive of storm sed i men - ta tion in a shal low ma rine en vi ron ment be low fair weather wave base, prob a bly with a wa ter depth of less than 20 m (Dott and Bour geois, 1982; Duke, 1985; Schieber, 1994). Ac cord ing to Schieber (1994) the epicontinental sea set ting and the pres - ence of HCS to gether with amal gam ation may reflect a rel a - tively shal low wa ter depth of up to a few tens of metres.
Vari a tions in wa ter depths are re flected in storm lay ers by their thick nesses, which should de crease dis tally (see: Kreisa, 1981). This gen eral re la tion ship is mod i fied by ba sin mor phol - ogy and by the char ac ter of the sub strate. De po si tion on an un - even, undulose sur face may be ex cluded as re de pos ited ma te rial would have filled in any sea-floor de pres sions. The in crease in bed thick ness in the cen tral sec tion III of Wietrznia quarry might
also re flect the for ma tion of cal car e ous chan nel-fills (Seguret et al., 2001; Albani et al., 2005). Ac cord ing to Albani et al. (2005) channelized lime stone beds may have oc curred dur ing sea level lowstand un der con di tions of in creased hy dro dy namic en ergy.
In the Wietrznia suc ces sion, this might cor re spond to stepwise drown ing of the Kielce plat form and short and rapid rel a tive sea level fluc tu a tions (see: Sobstel et al., 2006).
Thus, it is con cluded that the Wietrznia quarry lime stones formed above storm wave base in a shal low (pos si bly only a few tens of metres) sea that deep ened eastwards.
Ac knowl edge ments. My grate ful thanks are due to Prof.
G. Racki (Uniwersity of Silesia) for his help dur ing the field work and for his con struc tive com ments dur ing the writ ing of the manu script. My thanks are also due to M. Manowska for her help with the draw ings and Prof. P. S. Kennan (Uni ver sity Col - lege Dub lin, Ire land) for his Eng lish cor rec tions. The fi nal manu - script bene fited from crit i cism and sug ges tions by jour nal re - view ers Dr X. Devleeschouwer and Prof. M. Narkiewicz.
REFERENCES
AIGNER T. (1985) — Storm depositional sys tems. In: Lec ture Notes in Earth-Sci ence 3. Berlin-Springer.
ALBANI A. E., VACHARD D., FÜRSICH F., BUITRÓN B. and FLORES de DIOS A. (2005) — Depositional en vi ron ment and biofacies char ac - ter iza tion of the Up per Penn syl va nian–Lower Perm ian de pos its of the San Sal va dor Patlanoaya sec tion (Puebla, Mex ico). Fa cies, 50:
629–645.
BAGNOLD R. A. (1954) — Ex per i ments on a grav ity-free dis per sion of large, solid spheres in a New to nian fluid model shear. Proc. Royal Soc.
Ser. A., 225: 49–63.
BE£KA Z., SKOMPSKI S. and SOBOÑ-PODGÓRSKA J. (1996) — Re - con struc tion of a lost car bon ate plat form on the shelf of Fennosarmatia: ev i dence from VisÀan polymictic debrites, Holy Cross Moun tains, Po land. Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 107: 315–329.
CHEEL R. J. and LECKIE D. A. (1993) — Hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion.
Sed i ment. Rev., 1: 103–122.
CONIGLIO M. and DIX G. R. (1992) — Car bon ate slopes. In: Fa cies Mod - els (eds. R. G. Walker and N. P. James): 349–374. Geol. Ass. Can ada.
DEVLEESCHOUWER X., HERBOSCH A. and PRÉAT A. (2002) — Microfacies, se quence stra tig ra phy and clay min er al ogy of a con - densed deep-wa ter sec tion around the Frasnian/Famennian bound ary (Steinbruch Schmidt, Ger many). Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol.
Paleoecol., 181 (1–3): 171–193.
DOTT R. H. and BOURGEOIS J. (1982) — Hummocky strat i fi ca tion: sig - nif i cance of its vari able bed ding se quences. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 93 (8): 663–680.
DUKE W. L. (1980) — Up per Cre ta ceous (Turonian) Cardium For ma tion, South ern Al berta. Tech. Mem., 80–4. Dept. Geol., McMaster Univ.
DUKE W. L. (1985) — Hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion, trop i cal hur ri - canes, and in tense win ter storms. Sedimentology, 32: 167–194.
EGENHOFF S. O., PETERHÄNSEL A., BECHSTÄDT T., ZÜHLKE R.
and GRÖTSCH J. (1999) — Fa cies ar chi tec ture of an iso lated car bon - ate plat form: trac ing the cy cles of the Latemar (Mid dle Tri as sic, north - ern It aly). Sedimentology, 46: 893–912.
EINSELE G. (2000) — Sed i men tary Ba sin. Evo lu tion, Fa cies and Sed i - ment Bud get. Springer-Verlag Berlin, Hei del berg, New York.
EINSELE G. and SEILACHER A. (1991) — Dis tinc tion of tempestites and turbidites. In: Cy cles and Events in Stra tig ra phy (eds. G. Einsele et al.): 377–382. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
FLÜGEL E. (2004) — Microfacies of car bon ate rocks. Anal y sis, In ter pre - ta tion and Ap pli ca tion. Springer.
FUTTERER E. (1982) — Ex per i ments on the dis tinc tion of wave and cur - rent in flu enced shell ac cu mu la tions. In: Cy clic and Event Strat i fi ca - tion (eds. G. Einsele and A. Seilacher): 174–179. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
GÜRICH G. (1896) — Das Paläozoicum im polnischen Mittelgebirge.
Verhandlungen der Russisch — Kaiserlichen Mineralogischen Gesellschaft zu St-Pe ters burg, Serie, 2 (32).
HAMBLIN A. P. and WALKER R. G. (1979) — Storm-dom i nated shal low ma rine de pos its: the Fernie-Kootenay (Ju ras sic) tran si tion, south ern Rocky Moun tains. Can. J. Earth Sc., 16: 1673–1690.
HARMS J. C., SOUTHARD J. B., SPEARING D. R. and WALKER R. G.
(1975) — Depositional en vi ron ments as in ter preted from pri mary sed - i men tary struc tures and strat i fi ca tion se quence. Soc. Econ. Paleont.
Min eral., Tulsa, Short Course, 2.
ITO M., ISHIGAKI A., NISHIKAWA T. and SAITO T. (2001) — Tem po ral vari a tion in the wave length of hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion: im pli - ca tions for storm in ten sity through Me so zoic and Ce no zoic. Ge ol ogy, 29 (1): 87–89.
JACH R. (2004) — Storm-dom i nated de po si tion of the Lower Ju ras sic crinoidal lime stones in the KriŸna unit, west ern Tatra Moun tains, Po - land. Fa cies, 50 (3–4): 561–572.
JOHNSON J. G., KLAPPER G. and SANDBERG C. A. (1985) — De vo - nian eustatic fluc tu a tions in Euramerica. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 96:
567–587.
JONES B. and DIXON O. A. (1976) — Storm de pos its in the Read Bay For ma tion (Up per Si lu rian), Somerset Is land, Arc tic Can ada. J. Sed i - ment. Petrol., 46 (2): 393–401.
JONES B. and DESROCHERS A. (1992) — Shal low plat form car bon ates.
In: Fa cies Mod els (eds. R. G. Walker and N. P. James): 277–302. Geol.
Ass. Can ada.
KAZMIERCZAK J. and GOLDRING R. (1978) — Subtidal flat-peb ble con glom er ate from the Up per De vo nian of Po land: a multiprovenant high-en ergy prod uct. Geol. Mag., 115 (5): 359–366.
KENTER J. A. M. (1990) — Car bon ate plat form flanks: slope an gle and sed i ment fab ric. Sedimentology, 37: 777–794.
KREISA R. D. (1981) — Storm-gen er ated sed i men tary struc tures in subtidal ma rine fa cies with ex am ples from the Mid dle and Up per Or -
bon ate ramp de pos its, the Lower Or do vi cian Dumugol For ma tion, South Ko rea. Sedimentology, 39: 951–969.
MYROW P. M. and SOUTHARD J. B. (1996) — Tempestite de po si tion. J.
Sed i ment. Res., 66 (5): 875–887.
NARKIEWICZ M. (1978a) — Stra tig ra phy and fa cies de vel op ment of the Up per De vo nian in the Olkusz-Zawiercie area, South ern Po land (in Pol ish with Eng lish sum mary). Acta. Geol. Pol., 28 (2): 415–468.
NARKIEWICZ M. (1978b) — Gen e sis of nod u lar struc ture in Up per De - vo nian Lime stones, Olkusz-Zawiercie area (in Pol ish with Eng lish sum mary). Geol. Quart., 22 (4): 693–706.
NARKIEWICZ M. (1985) — Stud ies on the De vo nian car bon ate shelf of South ern Po land (in Pol ish with Eng lish sum mary). Prz. Geol., 33 (5):
253–258.
NARKIEWICZ M. (1988) — Turn ing points in sed i men tary de vel op ment in the Late De vo nian in south ern Po land. In: De vo nian of the World (eds. N. J. McMillan et al.). Can. Soc. Petrol. Geol. Mem., 14 (2):
610–635.
PEREZ-LOPEZ A. (2001) — Sig nif i cance of pot and gut ter casts in a Mid - dle Tri as sic car bon ate plat form, Betic Cordillera, south ern Spain.
Sedimentology, 48: 1371–1388.
PISARZOWSKA A., SOBSTEL M. and RACKI G. (2006) — Cono - dont-based event stra tig ra phy of the Early-Mid dle Frasnian tran si tion on the South Pol ish car bon ate shelf. Acta Palaeont. Pol., 51 (4):
609–646.
POMAR L. (2001) — Types of car bon ate plat forms: a ge netic ap proach.
Ba sin Res., 13 (3): 313–334.
PRATT B. R. (2002) — Storms ver sus tsu na mis: dy namic in ter play of sed i - men tary, diagenetic, and tec tonic pro cesses in the Cam brian of Montana. Ge ol ogy, 30 (5): 423–426.
RACKI G. (1993) — Evo lu tion of the bank to reef com plex in the De vo - nian of the Holy Cross Moun tains. Acta Palaeont. Pol., 37 (2–4):
87–182.
RACKI G. and BULTYNCK P. (1993) — Cono dont biostratigraphy of the Mid dle to Up per De vo nian bound ary beds in the Kielce area of the Holy Cross Mts. Acta Geol. Pol., 43 (1–2): 1–25.
RACKI G. and NARKIEWICZ M. (2000) — Tec tonic ver sus eustatic con - trols of sed i men tary de vel op ment of the De vo nian in the Holy Cross Mts., Cen tral Po land (in Pol ish with Eng lish sum mary). Prz. Geol., 48 (1): 65–76.
RACKI G., RACKA M., MATYJA H. and DEVLEESCHOUWER X.
(2002) — The Frasnian/Famennian bound ary in ter val in the South Pol ish-Moravian shelf bas ins: in te grated event-strati graphi cal ap - proach. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol., 181 (1–3): 251–297.
RADWAÑSKI A. (1960) — Sub ma rine slides of epicontinental Up per Ju - ras sic and Up per Cre ta ceous mar gins of the Holy Cross Mts. (cen tral Po land) (in Pol ish with Eng lish sum mary). Acta Geol. Pol., 10 (2):
221–246.
REINECK H. E. and SINGH I. B. (1972) — Gen e sis of lam i nated sand and graded rhythmites in storm-sand lay ers of shelf mud. Sedimentology, 18: 123–128.
RICKEN W. and EDER W. (1991) — Diagenetic mod i fi ca tion of cal car e - ous beds — an over view. In: Cy cles and Events in Stra tig ra phy (eds.
G. Einsele et al.): 430–450. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
SCHIEBER J. (1994) — Ev i dence for high-en ergy events and shal low-wa - ter de po si tion in the Chat ta nooga Shale, De vo nian, cen tral Ten nes see, USA. Sed i ment. Geol., 93: 193–208.
SEGURET M., MOUSSINE-POUCHKINE A., GABAGLIA G. R. and BOUCHETTE F. (2001) — Storm de pos its and storm-gen er ated coarse car bon ate brec cias on a pe lagic outer shelf (South-East Ba sin, France). Sedimentology, 48: 231–254.
in Stra tig ra phy (eds. G. Einsele et al.): 249–267. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
SEPKOSKI J. J. Jr. (1982) — Flat-peb ble con glom er ates, storm de pos its, and the Cam brian bot tom fauna. In: Cy clic and Event Strat i fi ca tion (eds. G. Einsele and A. Seilacher): 371–385. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
SEPKOSKI J. J. Jr., BAMBACH R. K. and DROSER M. L. (1991) — Sec - u lar changes in Phanerozoic event bed ding and the bi o log i cal over - print. In: Cy cles and Events in Stra tig ra phy (eds. G. Einsele et al.):
298–312. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
SOBSTEL M., MAKOWSKA-HAFTKA M. and RACKI G. (2006) — Cono dont ecol ogy in the Early-Mid dle Frasnian tran si tion on the South Pol ish car bon ate shelf. Acta Palaeont. Pol., 51 (4): 719–746.
SPENCE G. H. and TUCKER M. E. (1997) — Gen e sis of lime stone megabreccias and their sig nif i cance in car bon ate se quence strati - graphic mod els: a re view. Sed i ment. Geol., 112: 163–193.
SZULCZEWSKI M. (1968) — Slump struc tures and turbidites in Up per De vo nian lime stones of the Holy Cross Mts. Acta Geol. Pol., 18 (2):
304–326.
SZULCZEWSKI M. (1971) — Up per De vo nian cono donts, stra tig ra phy and fa cial de vel op ment in the Holy Cross Mts. Acta Geol. Pol., 21 (1):
1–129.
SZULCZEWSKI M. (1977) — Main fa cial re gions in the Pa leo zoic of the Holy Cross Mts (in Pol ish with Eng lish sum mary). Prz. Geol., 25 (8–9): 428–432.
SZULCZEWSKI M. (1989) — Strati graphic re cord of global and re gional events across the Frasnian-Famennian bound ary in the Holy Cross Moun tains (in Pol ish with Eng lish sum mary). Prz. Geol., 11 (37):
551–557.
SZULCZEWSKI M. (1995) — Depositional evo lu tion of the Holy Cross Mts (Po land) in the De vo nian and Car bon if er ous — a re view. Geol.
Quart., 39 (4): 471–488.
SZULCZEWSKI M., BE£KA Z. and SKOMPSKI S. (1996) — The drowing of a car bon ate plat form: an ex am ple from the De vo nian-Car - bon if er ous of the south west ern Holy Cross Moun tains, Po land. Sed i - ment. Geol., 106 (1–2): 21–49.
VIEREK A. (2007) — Tran si tional reef-to-ba sin fa cies of Lower Frasnian lime stones de ter mined by microfacies anal y sis (Wietrznia, Holy Cross Mts, Po land). Fa cies, 53 (1): 141–155.
WALKER R. G., DUKE W. L. and LECKIE D. A. (1983) — Hummocky strat i fi ca tion: sig nif i cance of its vari able bed ding se quences: dis cus - sion. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 94: 1245–1249.
WALKER R. G. (1992) — Wave- and storm-dom i nated shal low ma rine sys tems. In: Fa cies Mod els Re sponse to Sea Level Change (eds. R. G.
Walker and N. P. James): 219–238. Geol. Ass. Can ada.
WENDTE J. and UYENO T. (2005) — Se quence stra tig ra phy and evo lu - tion of Mid dle to Up per De vo nian Beaverhill Lake strata, south-cen - tral Al berta. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol., 53 (3): 250–354.
WHALEN M. T., DAY J., EBERLI G. P. and HOMEWOOD P. W. (2002)
— Mi cro bial car bon ates as in di ca tors of en vi ron men tal change and bi - otic cri ses in car bon ate sys tems: ex am ples from the Late De vo nian, Al berta ba sin, Can ada. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol., 181:
127–151.
WILSON J. L. (1975) — Car bon ate fa cies in geo logic his tory.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Hei del berg, New York.
WRIGHT V. P. (1986) — Fa cies se quences on a car bon ate ramp: the Car - bon if er ous Lime stone of South Wales. Sedimentology, 33: 221–241.
YANG B., DALRYMPLE R.W. and CHUN S. (2006) — The sig nif i cance of hummocky cross-strat i fi ca tion (HCS) wave lengths: ev i dence from an Open-Coast Tidal Flat, South Ko rea. J. Sed i ment. Res., 76 (1): 2–8.
ZIEGLER W. and SANDBERG C. A. (1990) — The late De vo nian stan - dard cono dont zonation. Cour. Forsch-Inst. Senckenberg, 121: 1–115.
