A Late Car bon if er ous olistostrome at the front of the South ern Tian Shan nappes (Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de pos its, Kyrgyzstan)
Oleh HNYLKO1, *, Ihor TSUKORNYK2, Larysa HENERALOVA2 and Oleksiy DVORZHAK2
1 In sti tute of Ge ol ogy and Geo chem is try of Com bus ti ble Min er als of NAS of Ukraine, Naukova 3a, Lviv 79060, Ukraine
2 Ivan Franko Na tional Uni ver sity of Lviv, Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy, Mykhaila Hryshevskoho 4, Lviv 79005, Ukraine
Hnylko, O., Tsukornyk, I., Heneralova, L., Dvorzhak, O., 2019. A Late Car bon if er ous olistostrome at the front of the South ern Tian Shan nappes (Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de pos its, Kyrgyzstan). Geo log i cal Quar terly, 63 (2): 407–423, doi:
10.7306/gq.1478
As so ci ate ed i tor: Anna Wysocka
A Late Car bon if er ous (Early Moscovian) olistostrome de vel oped in the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan gold-an ti mony-mer cury de pos its on the Alay Ridge north ern slope (Kyrgyzstan), at the front of the Late Pa leo zoic South ern Tian Shan nappes, is char ac ter ized. It com prises a sub-nappe olistostrome in a collisional tec tonic set ting. The olistostrome con tains olistoliths and olistoplaques con tain ing parts of the mid-Pa leo zoic sed i men tary suc ces sions be long ing to the parautochthon and lower nappes of the north ern Bukantau–Kokshaal branch of the South ern Tian Shan nappe belt. The olistostrome ac cu mu lated ahead the ad vanc ing nappes in the foredeep ba sin that was filled with turbidities and de bris-flow de pos its (Tolubai Formathion). The parautochthon was partly dis mem bered into thrust lime stone sheets which dis in te grated and slid into un - con sol i dated sed i ments of the foredeep ba sin, form ing large lime stone olistoliths and olistoplaques. Olistoliths con tain ing shales and bed ded cherts were slid from the lower nappes. Tec tonic brec cias up to melange scale are pres ent in some olistoliths, sug gest ing tec tonic dis in te gra tion within the nappe pile and the sub se quent slid ing of the tectonized blocks into the olistostrome ba sin. Ore-bear ing si lici fied rocks (so-called “jasperoids”) with an ti mony-mer cury and gold min er al iza tion are lo cated pre dom i nantly along the con tacts of the lime stone olistoliths/olistoplaques with a terrigenous ma trix.
Key words: olistostrome, nappe, South ern Tian Shan, Kadamzhai, Khaidarkan, Kyrgyzstan.
INTRODUCTION
The term “olistostrome” was first in tro duced by Flores (1955, 1959) to rep re sent sub aque ous sed i men tary bod ies with blocks (olistoliths) cha ot i cally im mersed in a finer-grained ma - trix. It was con sid ered that an olistostrome is a suf fi ciently large unit to be mapped. Com monly, olistostromes are very thick and ex tend for tens, in places hun dreds, of kilo metres (Leonov, 1981). The terms “ma trix” and “olistolith” de pend on the scale un der con sid er ation, for ex am ple small blocks are re ferred to as olistoliths in ex po sures, and the same blocks can be de picted as part of the ma trix on geo log i cal maps. The ma trix is the prod - uct of mud/de bris-flows ac com pa ny ing sub ma rine land slides.
Olistoliths are rep re sented by rel a tively co her ent trans ported blocks of rock. Huge plate-like olistoliths were de scribed by Rich ter (1973) as olisthoplaques.
Olistostromes re flect mass-wast ing pro cesses and grav - ity-in duced em place ment of un sorted sed i ments and may be
as so ci ated with turbidites. Most olistostromes were de rived from up lifted orogenic fronts as well as from the up lifted parts of rift/pas sive mar gin bas ins (Leonov, 1981; Wendorff, 2005;
Lucente and Pini, 2008; Cieszkowski et al., 2009; Golonka et al., 2015; Fes ta et al., 2016 with ref er ences therein).
The cri te ria for dis tinc tion of olistostromes from tex tur ally sim i lar melanges are as fol lows: Olistostromes are sed i men tary in or i gin, whereas melanges con tain blocks em bed ded in a tec - toni cally sheared ma trix, and there fore they are of tec tonic gen - e sis. An olistostrome heavily over printed by tec tonic de for ma - tion may be in dis tin guish able from a melange (Hsü, 1974;
Leonov, 1981; Fes ta et al., 2016 with ref er ences therein).
Late Car bon if er ous olistostromes are widely de vel oped in the Late Pa leo zoic synorogenic flysch of the South ern Tian Shan orogen, and are rep re sented by olistoliths of Car bon if er - ous and more an cient lime stones and other rocks within a terrigenous ma trix. They are ex posed on the Alay Ridge north - ern slope in clud ing the Chauvai, Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan gold-an ti mony-mer cury de posit fields (Kyrgystan). Mikhailov (1947), Cherenkov (1964, 1973), Porshnyakov (1968), Kurenkov (1978), Kukhtikov et al. (1983), Zhdan (1985), Chernyshuk (1986), Belousov and Beer (1989), Belousov (1998), Nenakhov and Belov (2000) and Nenakhov et al. (1992) de scribed the olistostromes in dif fer ent ar eas of the South ern Tien Shan. Porshnyakov (1968) was the first to pro pose a
* Cor re spond ing au thor, e-mail: ohnilko@yahoo.com Re ceived: January 22, 2019; ac cepted: April 19, 2019; first pub lished on line: June 13, 2019
model link ing thrust to olistostrome in the Pa leo zoic of the Alay Ridge, while schemes dis cussed by Cherenkov (1964, 1973) and Kukhtikov et al. (1983) were based on a more “fixist” con - cept in fer ring for ma tion of the olistostrome with out nappe thrusting.
Porshnyakov (1968), Zubtsov and Porshnyakov (1995) and Zubtsov (1997) at trib uted the thin rafts plates of De vo nian–Car - bon if er ous lime stone (the so-called “Zuzanov Lime stone”) de - vel oped within the youn ger Late Car bon if er ous flysch in the area of Khaidarkan, Kadamzhai and Chauvai de pos its to thin tec tonic nappes and/or tec tonic lenses. These au thors noted the pos si ble re la tion of such lime stone units (or their parts) to olistostromes as well as to the source ar eas as slid lime stone blocks grav i ta tion ally trans ported into the sur round ing terrigenous sed i ments. Vishnevsky et al. (1978, 1982) at trib - uted the “Zuzanov Lime stone” and sim i lar lime stone units to the olistostrome for ma tions. Belousov and Beer (1989) and Belousov (1998) ex pressed the idea that the lime stone bod ies bear ing the an ti mony-mer cury min er al iza tion on the Khaidarkan and Kadamzhay de posit fields be long to large olistoplaques or grav i ta tional nappes.
Olistostromes de vel oped in the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de posit fields were sche mat i cally de picted on the Geo log i cal Map of the USSR (Turkestan-Alay sheets, scale 1: 50,000) pre - pared for print ing (Belov et al., 1991) but un for tu nately not pub - lished due to the po lit i cal sit u a tion.
Chernyshuk (1986) con sid ered that the for ma tion of some olistostromes on the Kauzan antiform (lo ca tion see be low) area was re lated to the de struc tion of thrust slices com posed of Mid - dle Pa leo zoic ef fu sive-si li ceous-cal car e ous and terrigenous-si - li ceous strata. Nenakhov et al. (1992) at trib uted the Late Pa leo - zoic olistostromes as so ci ated with turbidites to so-called “fron - tal” pro cesses due to ero sion of the up lifted front of the nappes.
Biske (1996) sug gested that the lime stone olistoliths within the Late Car bon if er ous flysch are most likely de rived from tec tonic slices of the Alay Nappe (parautochthonous struc tural unit in this ar ti cle, see be low) of the South ern Tian Shan orogen.
Burtman (2006) in ferred the ex is tence of two sources for this olistostrome: in Early Moscowian time, the slides were dis - placed from the south with the up lifted paratochthonous lime - stone mas sif, and in the Late Moscovian time, the clasts were emplaced from the north to gether with the nappe pile filled with pe lagic cherts and lime stones, and these were added to the south ern ma te rial.
It should be noted, that the olistostrome for ma tions were not de scribed in de tail and not de picted on the de tailed geo log i cal maps of the area of the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de pos its.
At the same time, the study of these for ma tions is of prac ti cal im por tance, since the ore-bear ing si lici fied rocks (the so-called
“jasperoids”) are con fined to the con tacts of lime stone bod ies (olistoliths in many cases) and terrigenous sed i ments (Vaulin, 2016; Nevolko et al., 2019). This pa per de scribes the geo log i cal po si tion and struc ture, and in ter prets the tec tonic-sed i men tary or i gin, of the Late Car bon if er ous olistostrome ex posed in the area of the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de pos its.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Tian Shan be longs to the Cen tral Asian Orogenic Belt (Fig. 1) formed as a re sult of the evo lu tion and sub se quent clo - sure of the Palaeo-Asian Ocean and col li sions of the Si be rian, Kazakhstan, Tarim and North China con ti nents (Zonenshain et al., 1990; Dobretsov et al., 1995; Windley et al., 2007; Safonova et al. 2017 with ref er ences therein). The Tian Shan ex tends for over 2500 km from west ern Uzbekistan, through Tajikystan, Kyrgyzstan and south ern Kazakhstan to west ern China, and rep re sents the Pa leo zoic fold-thrust belts which were formed dur ing amal gam ation of Eur asia (Burtman, 2006, 2015; Biske and Seltmann, 2010; Biske, 2015, 2018 with ref er ences therein). The Kyrgyz Tian Shan Moun tains are tra di tion ally sub - di vided into the North ern Tian Shan, Mid dle Tian Shan and South ern Tian Shan (Fig. 2).
In Kyrgyzstan, the North ern Tian Shan con sists of sev eral Pre cam brian meta mor phic blocks accreted dur ing the Or do vi - cian. The Mid dle Tian Shan terrane rep re sents a sin gle block of Pre cam brian con ti nen tal crust framed from the south by an Or - do vi cian to Lower Si lu rian accretionary com plex (Alexeiev et al., 2016; Biske, 2018). It col lided with the con ti nen tal blocks of the North ern Tian Shan dur ing the Or do vi cian. As a re sult, the new Kyrgyz–Kazakh con ti nent was formed (Zubtsov et al., 1974;
Windley et al., 2007; Ghes, 2008; Alexeiev et al., 2016).
The South ern Tian Shan is a Late Pa leo zoic fold-nappe belt which formed as a re sult of col li sion of the Kyrgyz–Kazakh con ti - nent with the Alay–Tarim and Karakum–Tajik con ti nen tal blocks (Fig. 2; Biske and Seltmann, 2010; Burtman, 2015; Biske, 2018).
The area stud ied in cludes the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan gold-an ti mony-mer cury de pos its, which to gether with other de - pos its (Chauvai, Abshyr) be long to the South Fergana an ti - mony-mer cury belt, com pris ing a large ore prov ince (see Vaulin, 2016; Nevolko et al., 2019 and ref er ences therein). It is lo cated in the South ern Tian Shan on the north ern slope of the Alay Range in the South Fergana moun tain re gion to the south of the Fergana De pres sion. The area be longs to the Alay seg - ment of the north ern (Bukantau–Kokshaal af ter Biske, 1996, 2015) branch of the South ern Tian Shan fold-nappe belt (Figs. 2 and 3). This seg ment was formed as a re sult of the Turkestan Ocean (a Palaeo-Asian Ocean branch then pres ent be tween the Kyrgyz–Kazakh and Tarim con ti nents) litho sphere subduction be neath the ac tive Kyrghyz-Kazakh con ti nen tal mar gin with sub se quent (af ter col li sion and clo sure of the Turkestan Ocean in Moscovian age) in cor po ra tion of the north - ern pas sive mar gin of the Alay microcontinent (pos si ble west - ern con tin u a tion of the Tarim) into the subduction zone, which was in clined to the north. As a re sult, the south-di rected nappe belt was built both of ocean-de rived slices and of the de tached Pa leo zoic cover of the Alay microcontinent (Biske, 1996, 2015;
Burtman, 2006, 2015; Biske and Seltmann, 2010).
The Alay seg ment of the Bukantau–Kokshaal nappe pile is bounded to the north by the su ture of the Turkestan Ocean (see Burtman, 2006; Biske and Seltmann, 2010; Biske, 2018) and from the south by a foredeep-type ba sin with Late Pa leo zoic flysch and molasse de pos its (Biske, 1996, 2015; see Fig. 2).
Fig. 1. Tec tonic out line of the Cen tral Asia Orogenic Belt and sur round ing ar eas (af ter Safonova et al., 2017)
Fig. 2. The main tec tonic units of Kyrgyztan (af ter Biske,1996; Burman, 2006;
Biske and Seltmann, 2010; mod i fied)
The Alay seg ment con sists of sev eral struc tural units (Fig. 3) made up of var i ous Mid dle Pa leo zoic sed i men tary suc ces sions.
The parautochthonous unit is made of for ma tions of (1) the Alay sed i men tary suc ces sion, com pris ing mainly De vo nian–Car bon if - er ous shal low-ma rine shelf-type lime stones of the Alay microcontinent. This sed i men tary suc ces sion is com posed of a num ber of sim i lar lime stone for ma tions (see be low) here in af ter sim ply termed the “Alay lime stones”. Above it are the lower nappes, made up of rocks of three sed i men tary suc ces sions: (2) Si lu rian–De vo nian shales, turbidites and de bris-flow/olisto - strome for ma tions (terrigenous suc ces sions); (3) Si lu rian–Car - bon if er ous pre dom i nantly pe lagic deep-sea de pos its; (4) de - tached Si lu rian–Car bon if er ous car bon ate plat forms. The up per nappes are of oce anic (Turkestan Ocean) or i gin (Biske, 1996, 2015; Nenahov and Belov, 2000; Burtman, 2006, 2015).
The term “parautochthon” is used due to this unit be ing autochthonous rel a tive to the lower nappes and si mul ta neously be ing thrusted onto the foredeep-type flysch and youn ger molasse sed i ments south of the area stud ied (Biske, 1996, 2015).
Synorogenic Late Car bon if er ous turbidites (flysch) was de - pos ited on the top of the sed i men tary suc ces sions of these nappes and with fur ther nappes be ing tec toni cally emplaced above this. The flysch shows some re ju ve na tion from the up per nappes to the lower ones that sug gests younging of thrust ing
from the up per to the lower struc tural units. (Biske, 1996, 2015;
Burtman, 2006; see Fig. 4).
Such Late Car bon if er ous synorogenic flysch is de vel oped on top of the parautochthonous sed i men tary suc ces sion. It lies on the Alay lime stones and is tec toni cally cov ered by the lower nappe made of Si lu rian–De vo nian turbidites. The synorogenic flysch be longs to the Tolubai For ma tion (Early Moscovian in age ac cord ing to foraminiferal data: see Djenchuraeva, 1979) and is rep re sented by gravel-sandy-clay-marl turbidites and also in cludes olistostrome in the up per part of the Tolubai For - ma tion: coarse sub ma rine de bris-flow de pos its with large olistoliths/olistoplaques com pris ing mainly Alay lime stones (Vishnevsky et al., 1982; Chernyshuk, 1986; Nenakhov et al., 1992; Biske, 1996 with ref er ences therein). This olistostrome ex posed in the area of Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de pos its is the ob ject of our re search (Figs. 4 and 5).
The pack age of tec tonic nappes of the South ern Tian Shan was de formed into folds (antiforms and synforms) as a re sult of fur ther collisional com pres sion in the Late Pa leo zoic. The Kausan Antiform and Okhna–Taldyk Synform are such large folds (Biske, 1996, 2015 with ref er ences therein; see Fig. 3).
The Kadamzhai de posit is sit u ated on the Kausan Antiform, and the Haydarkan de posit is lo cated on the north ern flank of the Okhna–Taldyk Synform.
Fig. 3. The tec tonic units of the north ern (Bukantau–Kokshaal) branch of the South ern Tian Shan fold-nappe belt (the Alay seg ment in clud ing the Chauvai, Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de posit fields; mod i fied from Biske, 1996; Konopelko et al., 2018: fig. 3)
Tec tonic melanges with frag ments of Pa leo zoic rocks are de vel oped within the South ern Tian Shan nappe con struc tion (Biske, 1983, 1996, 2015 with ref er ences therein). Ad di tion ally, the South Tian Shan orogen was bro ken up by subvertical faults of pre dom i nantly strike-slip type. Closer to the ax ial part of the Alay range, post-collisional granitoid magmatism took place in the Early Perm ian (see Konopelko et al., 2018 and ref - er ences therein).
In Me so zoic–Ce no zoic times, this ter ri tory was de vel oped as a sta ble plat form. In the Al pine stage, a mod ern high-moun - tain ous re lief was formed, as well as a new faults and gen tle folds orig i nat ing due to col li sion of In dia and Eur asia.
METHODS
Geo log i cal map ping of the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan fields (see Fig. 3) at the scale of 1:10,000 with de tails at 1:5000 and 1:2500 was car ried out by the au thors dur ing field work in 2017–2018. Geo log i cal in ter pre ta tion of sat el lite im ages were used. Field work was sup ple mented by lithostratigraphical and sedimentological stud ies as well as via anal y sis of lo cal tec ton - ics. De tailed field map ping en abled the iden ti fi ca tion of lo cal i ties with olistostromes and large olistoliths. Par tic u lar at ten tion was Fig. 4. Cor re la tion of the main for ma tions of the Alay seg ment of the Bukantau–Kokshaal
fold-nappe pile (af ter Biske, 1996, 2015; mod i fied)
Fig. 5. The lithostratigraphical scheme of the sed i men tary for ma tions lo cated in the area stud ied (mapped) Lithostratigraphic units and dis cus sion of their age from pub lished lit er a ture (Djenchuraeva, 1979; Aristov and Chernyshuk, 1984;
Biske, 1996 and ref er ences therein, see also Osmonbetov et al., 1982; Sabirov, 2012)
paid to the study of ex posed con tacts be tween the flysch/fly - scho idal-type de pos its and the large bod ies of lime stone (olistoliths and/or tec tonic frag ments).
MAPPED TECTONIC UNITS
Four tec tonic units and their destructured frag ments are de - vel oped in the ar eas stud ied and mapped in the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de posit fields (see Fig. 3). The cor re la tion and age of the mapped sed i men tary for ma tions com pris ing these units is shown in Fig ure 5.
The first (parautochthonous) unit is made of both Car - bon if er ous shal low-ma rine shelf-type Alay lime stones (Cal) and Early Moscovian flysch/olistostrome of the Tolubai For ma tion (C2tl). In the area stud ied, the Alay lime stones are rep re sented by the Peshkaut (C1ps), Gaz (C1-2gz) and Pyrkaf (C2pr) for ma - tions con form ably ly ing on top of each other. More an cient De - vo nian car bon ate rocks might also be de vel oped (Fig. 5). The Peshkaut For ma tion is rep re sented by light grey mas sive and thick-lay ered usu ally micritic lime stones. Its lower sur face is trun cated by faults. The Gaz For ma tion is com posed of dark grey to black micritic lime stone with lay ers and lenses of black chert. The Pyrkaf For ma tion com prises light grey me dium-lay - ered lime stone with fusulinid fos sils. The Peshkaut, Gaz and Pyrkaf for ma tions are strongly dis lo cated, which makes it dif fi - cult to de ter mine their true thick ness, prob a bly their to tal thick - ness reaches a hun dred metres in the area stud ied. These for - ma tions are not al ways clearly dis tin guish able and are shown on the maps as un dif fer en ti ated Alay lime stones (Cal) (see Figs. 6–9).
The Tolubai For ma tion over laps the Pyrkaf For ma tion and is rep re sented by me dium-bed ded flysch (car bon ate and siliciclastic turbidites) with de bris-flow de pos its con tain ing clasts of Alay lime stone, chert of the pe lagic sed i men tary suc - ces sion, shale and sand stone. The thick ness of the Tolubai For ma tion reaches a few hun dred metres. An olistrostrome with large olistoliths of the Alay lime stones is pres ent in the top of the Tolubai For ma tion and will be de scribed be low.
The sec ond tec tonic unit be longs to a lower part of the lower nappes and is made up of a terrigenous sed i men tary suc - ces sion thrusted onto the parautochthonous unit. The terrigenous suc ces sion is rep re sented by the Dzydala For ma - tion (S2-D1dz) and Karadzegach For ma tion (D1kd). The Dzydala For ma tion is com posed of green and dark to black clay, slightly meta mor phosed shale, fine- and me dium-bed ded flysch (siliciclastic turbidites). The Karadzegach For ma tion over laps the Dzydala For ma tion and is rep re sented by con - glom er ates/de bris-flow de pos its with clasts of lime stone, chert, shale and sand stone, as well as con tain ing olistoliths of lime - stone and yel low do lo mite. Ac cord ing to Zubtsov and Porshnyakov (1995), yel low dolomites form sep a rate tec tonic units in the struc ture of the Kauzansky antiform. Rocks of the terrigenous suc ces sion are in tensely dis lo cated and frag - mented, in part con verted into tec tonic melange. Their thick - ness prob a bly reaches a hun dred metres.
The third tec tonic unit be longs to the mid dle of the lower nappes. It is made up mainly of a pe lagic sed i men tary suc ces - sion thrusted onto the sec ond unit. The pe lagic suc ces sion is rep re sented by the Tomasha For ma tion (D-C1tm) and Bidana For ma tion (Cbd). The Tomasha For ma tion is com posed of thinly lay ered green, grey and dark grey to black pe lagic cherts interbedded with green shales. Its thick ness does not ex ceed ten metres. The Bidana For ma tion (up to 100–150 m in thick) over laps the Tomasha For ma tion and is com posed of grey micritic lime stones, alcarenites and calcirudites with in ter ca la -
tions of pe lagic chert and shale. In some places in the Khaidarkan field (see Fig. 7), lime stones of the Bidana For ma - tion are over lain by con glom er ates/de bris-flow de pos its up to 150–200 m thick (C2) with clasts and olistoliths of bed ded cherts of the Tomasha For ma tion.
The fourth tec tonic unit is the up per part of the lower nappes and is de vel oped on the north ern flank of the Khaidarkan de posit field. It is made up of Si lu rian–Car bon if er - ous car bon ate plat form rocks of the so-called Aktur sed i men - tary suc ces sion rep re sented by shal low-wa ter reef lime stone.
The unit is thrusted onto the de pos its of the terrigenous and con densed suc ces sions.
The pri mary nappe struc ture of the ar eas stud ied is dis - turbed by post-nappe tec tonic move ments, es pe cially in the Khaidarkan re gion, were nappes were de formed into folds and bro ken by subvertical faults.
In the cen tral and north ern part of the Khaidarkan de posit, the tec tonic melange oc cu pies a sig nif i cant area (see Fig. 6).
Melange is char ac ter ized by a block-in-ma trix fab ric. The ma trix is rep re sented by dis rupted shales of the terrigenous and pe - lagic sed i men tary suc ces sions char ac ter ized by lack ing stra tal con ti nu ity, scaly cleav ages and lo cally with a black clay frac tion.
Blocks in the melange have an elon gated loz enge-like form char ac ter is tic of melanges (see Fes ta et al., 2010). They are rep re sented by rel a tively weakly tectonized rocks of the same sed i men tary suc ces sions.
DESCRIPTION OF THE OLISTOSTROME
Kadamzhai field. Char ac ter is tic struc tures show ing the re - la tion ship of the Early Moscovian olistostromes with the sur - round ing for ma tions are de vel oped on the east ern flank of the Kadamzhai field in the Karabiy and Aktash Moun tains (Fig. 6).
Here, in the core part and on the south ern flank of the Kauzan Antiform, the parautochthonous tec tonic unit is ex posed and rep re sented by the Alay lime stones and Tolubai For ma tion. In the south of the mapped ter ri tory on the Sartala Pla teau and the Shale Wedge (see Fig. 6), the sec ond and third tec tonic units (lower nappes) are de vel oped. They are made up of Si lu rian to De vo nian shales, turbidites, yel low dolomites and con glom er - ates (a terrigenous suc ces sion) and, lo cally, pe lagic si li ceous de pos its (pe lagic sed i men tary suc ces sion). In many places, the Si lu rian to De vo nian schists are trans formed into clay melange, in clud ing blocks of older Early Pa leo zoic or Ediacaran(?) phtanites.
In the Aktash Moun tains, the Alay lime stones are tec toni - cally dis mem bered and imbricated into thrust lime stone sheets ly ing on each other and di vided by brecciated zones. To the south, these sheets are ex fo li ated from the main lime stone body ex posed in the Aktash Moun tains, and are wedged into flysch de pos its of the Tolubai For ma tion de vel oped in the Karabiy Moun tains. These lime stone sheets thin to the south and even tu ally wedge out and dis ap pear among the flysch strata (Figs. 6 and 9).
Far ther to the south and closer to the Sartala Pla teau, lime - stone sheets are iso lated from the main lime stone body and form sep a rate tec tonic caps (tec tonic klippen) and/or large olistoplaques ly ing on the flysch of the Tolubai For ma tion (Figs. 6 and 9). The sheets reach sev eral hun dred metres long and a few tens of metres thick. The lime stones are brecciated at the bot tom con tact of these sheets. The un der ly ing terrigenous rocks are also brecciated and sheared. Shear zones reach a thick ness of sev eral decimetres and up to metres (Fig. 10A, B).
The up per con tacts of these lime stone units with the over lap - ping flysch are, as a rule, also tec toni cally frag mented. Lo cally
re tfa( sro tces snia tnuoM yibaraK dna egdeW elahS ,dleiF tiso peD iahzmadaK eht fo trap nr etsae eht fo pam la c igo loeG .6 .giF9102 ,la te okloveN)dei f idom yltrap ,
sro tces nr etsae dna lar tnec ,dleiF tiso peD nakradiahK eht fo pam la c igo loeG .7 .giF
B–A enilgnola noi tces-ssorc dna ,ro tces lar tnec ,dleiF tiso peD nakradiahK ,aera tnuoM ayavokivalP nr ehtuoS eht fo pam la c igo loeG .8 .giF ees noi ta col roF7 erugiF
flysch de pos its over lie the lime stone bod ies, in di cat ing synsedimentary move ments of the lime stone sheets into the flysch ba sin.
In the south ern part of the Karabiy Moun tains near the Sartala Pla teau, some large (up to >1 km long) lime stone sheets are as so ci ated with an olistostrome rep re sented by small (up to a few tens of metres across) olistoliths of the same lime stone hosted in de bris-flow de pos its (Fig. 10C, D). The de - bris-flow de pos its are mostly rep re sented by un sorted ma -
trix-sup ported con glom er ates and brec cias, in some places grav elly sand stones with pre dom i nantly lime stone clasts. The as so ci a tion of the large lime stone sheets with the typ i cal olistostrome sug gests that such sheets be long to olistoplaques.
In the east ern part of the stud ied area on the left side of the Karangly-Sai, the tec tonic cap (rem nant) of the third tec tonic unit made of lime stone of the Bidana For ma tion and lo cally cherts of the Tomasha For ma tion of the pe lagic sed i men tary suc ces sion was mapped (see Fig. 6). This rem nant lies both on Fig. 9. Im age from Google Maps: the Kadamzhai De posit Field, Karabiy Moun tains sector
Delamination of the Alay lime stones into the thrust sheets ex fo li ated from the main lime stone body and wedged into the flysch sed i ments of the Tolubai For ma tion; for lo ca tion see Figure 6
Fig. 10. Thrust sheets and/or olistoplaques of the Alay lime stones (Kadamzhai De posit Field)
A – thrust lime stone sheet ly ing on flysch of the Tolubai For ma tion; B – lower con tact of a lime stone sheet; C – de bris-flow de pos its near lime stone olistoplaque; D – lime stone olistoplaque over ly ing flysch of the Tolubai For ma tion; for lo ca tion see Figure 6
unit filled with the Tolubai For ma tion rep re sented by the flysch con tain ing olistostrome lenses. Small (sev eral metres across) olistoliths of the bed ded green cherts of the Tomasha For ma - tion were ob served in the olistostrome lenses. The lower con - tact of these olistoliths is not ex posed. The olistoliths are over - lapped by sand stones of the Tolubai For ma tion. It ap pears, that the source for the olistoliths was the third tec tonic unit made of the pe lagic sed i men tary suc ces sion.
Khaidarkan field. An Early Moscovian olistostrome was mapped in the south ern part of the de posit field (Fig. 7). It forms a belt up to 10 km long and up to 1200 m wide in the area stud - ied. The olistostrome be longs to the first (parautochthonous) tec tonic unit. In the cen tral and north ern part of the field, the sec ond and third tec tonic units (lower nappes), destructured in places to form tec tonic melange, are de vel oped. They are tec - toni cally over lain by the fouth tec tonic unit com pris ing Si lu - rian–Car bon if er ous car bon ate plat form rocks of the Aktur suc - ces sion. In the cen tral part of the field, in clud ing Mt. Plavikovaya and the Kara-Archa quar ries, units of the Alay lime stone emerge at the sur face within the melange in steep antiformal struc tures bounded by the faults (see Fig. 7).
At the east ern edge of the Late Car bon if er ous olistostrome out crop (see Fig. 7), a group of olistoliths and olistoplaques closely ad ja cent to each other are lo cated. They are rep re - sented by:
– light grey mas sive, light and black-grey thickly and thinly lay ered micritic lime stone of the Pyrkaf and Gaz for ma - tions;
– green and black shales of the Dzydala (?) For ma tion;
– grey and dark grey micrites and calcarenites of the Bidana For ma tion;
– green shales and lay ered cherts of the Tomasha For ma - tion.
The lime stones in these olistoliths are of ten frac tured and lo cally trans formed into tec tonic brec cias. Clayey shales fill ing the olistoliths are dis lo cated in small folds, sheared and in places trans formed into melange. Plas tic shale fills the spaces be tween the rigid lime stone blocks, and ob vi ously were in jected be tween them.
The com po si tion of olistoliths sim i lar to that de scribed is more or less main tained along the en tire olistostrome belt on the south ern flank of the Khaidarkan field. Olistolith size ranges from small slumps (up to 0.5–1 m across) to huge olistoplaques (up to 1 km long). Olistoliths are dis persed in a ma trix or lie back to back on each other (see Figs. 6, 7 and 10–12). The olistostrome ma trix is made of de bris flow de pos its form ing sed - i men tary lenses within fine-me dium and coarse-grained turbidites of the Tolubay For ma tion. De bris flow de pos its are rep re sented by mostly un sorted ma trix-sup ported con glom er - ates and brec cias. Clasts in these sed i ments are mostly rep re - sented by the same rocks that make up large olistoliths, such as lime stone, bed ded chert, clayey shale and sand stone. In some ex po sures, it can be seen that the lime stone olistoliths lie on non-tectonized de bris-flow de pos its of the olistostrome ma trix (Figs. 11 and 13).
In the south west ern part of the mapped area to the south of the Plavikovaya Mount Quarry, a group of the large olistoplaques made of lime stones of the Pyrkaf For ma tion and lo cally of the Gaz For ma tion are de vel oped (Figs. 7, 8 and 12, 13). These be long to the parautochthonous unit crum pled into an anticline fold (see Fig. 8). Lime stone sheets over lie de - bris-flow de pos its with clasts of the same lime stone and cherts of the Tomasha For ma tion (Fig. 13C–F). De bris-flow de pos its over lie thin- or me dium-bed ded sandy-clay flysch of the
these cases, the lime stone sheets lie on top of each other and are sep a rated by lime stone brec cias (Fig. 13A, B). In tro duc tion of plas tic clay olistostrome ma trix into cracks (up to 2–3 m thick, up to tens of metres long) in the lime stones was ob served.
Slides (up to 100 m long) filled with in tensely dis lo cated green and black shales and cherts of the Tomasha For ma tion were also iden ti fied among the terrigenous ma trix of the Tolubay For - ma tion be tween the lime stone olistoplaques (Fig. 8).
Thus, in the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan fields, the Early Moscovian olistostrome con tains olistoliths and olistoplaques com posed of:
– mas sive and bed ded, of ten brecciated Alay lime stones (mainly Pyrkaf and Gaz for ma tions);
– bed ded green-grey shales, cherts and lime stones (Tomasha and Bidana for ma tions of the pe lagic suc ces - sion);
– black and green shales (Dzydala For ma tion of the terrigenous suc ces sion).
Rock frag ments of the first (parautochthonous), sec ond and third (lower nappes) tec tonic units are rep re sented in this olistostrome. Some strata, es pe cially the Tomasha For ma tion shales/cherts, are com monly tectonized up to melange grade only within olistoliths lo cated in the non-tectonized olistostrome ma trix.
Quartz metasomatism is man i fested along the con tact of the terrigenous rocks of the Tolubai For ma tion and Alay lime - stones in many places. Both lime stones and terrigenous rocks are fully or par tially si lici fied and en riched with iron ox ides along the con tact. Fre quently quartz metasomatism forms
“jasperoids”: fully si lici fied rocks. An ti mony-mer cury and lo cally gold min er al iza tion oc curs mainly among the si lici fied rocks (see Vaulin, 2016; Nevolko et al., 2019 and ref er ences therein).
There fore, the iden ti fi ca tion of the olistostromic na ture of the many lime stone bod ies, the clar i fi ca tion of their struc ture and ac cu rate re flec tion of the bound aries of the olistoliths/olisto - plaques of the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de pos its is im por - tant and makes it pos si ble to both ex actly pre dict the po si tion of the ore bod ies and con struct drill ing plans.
RECONSTRUCTION AND DISCUSSION
The Early Moscovian olistostrome in the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan fields con tains frag ments of both the parautochthon and lower nappes of the north ern (Bukantau–Kokshaal af ter Biske, 1996, 2015) branch of the South ern Tian Shan nappe belt. There fore the olistostrome was formed as re sult of de nu - da tion of the up lifted nappe belt, and can be de scribed as a sub-nappe olistostrome in a collisional tec tonic set ting (sensu Fes ta et al., 2016). Such olistostromes have been de scribed in many orogens (Leonov, 1981; Fes ta et al., 2016 and ref er - ences therein). They have also been ob served by the au thor in the Ukrai nian Flysch Carpathians, where their iden ti fi ca tion is dif fi cult be cause the olistoliths and ma trix are com posed of the same flysch (Hnylko, 2000) or molasse (Hnylko, 2014) de pos - its, un like in the South ern Tien Shan area stud ied, where the blocks and ma trix are dif fer ent in li thol ogy.
In most geodynamic mod els, the for ma tion of the north ern branch of the South ern Tian Shan nappe belt is as so ci ated with subduction of the Turkestan Ocean crust and sub se quent col li - sion of the Alay and Kyrgyz–Kazakh con ti nents. The col li sion was ac com pa nied by in cor po rat ing the north ern pas sive mar gin of the Alay microcontinent into the subduction zone in clined to the north be neath the ac tive Kyrghyz-Kazakh con ti nen tal mar -
Fig. 11A–F – olistoliths of the Alay lime stones among de bris-flow/turbidite de pos its of the Tolubai For ma tion (Khaidarkan De posit Field)
For lo ca tion see Figure 7
Fig. 12. Olistoliths and/or olistoplaques of the Alay lime stones in the South ern Plavikovaya Mount area (Khaidarkan De posit Field)
For lo ca tion and ex pla na tions see Figure 8
gin (Fig. 15; Biske, 1996, 2015, 2018; Burtman, 2006, 2015;
Biske and Seltmann, 2010 and ref er ences therein).
The tec tonic units ex posed within the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan de pos its be longed to the north ern pas sive mar gin palaeogeographic el e ments of the Alay microcontinent in mid-Pa leo zoic pre-col li sion time (see Figs. 4 and 15). The el e - ments were rep re sented by the shelf (the Alay sed i men tary suc - ces sion), the con ti nen tal slope and pos si bly the open ocean (terrigenous and pe lagic sed i men tary suc ces sions) and car - bon ate plat forms (the Aktur sed i men tary suc ces sion in the area stud ied). To the north, the Turkestan Ocean marked by Pa leo - zoic (pre-Car bon if er ous) ophiolites was pres ent (Burtman, 1976, 2015). An accretionary prism con tain ing oce anic crust rem nants was formed and subduction vol ca nism took place pe - ri od i cally on the Kyrgyz–Kazakh ac tive con ti nen tal mar gin (Biske, 1996, 2015; Burtman, 2006, 2015 and ref er ences therein).
As a re sult of the col li sion and in cor po ra tion of the Alay microcontinent into the subduction zone, the palaeogeographic el e ments of the Alay microcontinent pas sive mar gin were de - tached from the base ment, added to the accretionary prism of the Kyrgyz–Kazakh ac tive mar gin and thrusted onto the Alay microcontinent. The accretionary-collisional prism was formed (now rep re sented by the north ern Bukantau–Kokshaal branch of the South ern Tian Shan nappe belt). The nappe move ment to the south (onto the Alay microcontinent) is re flected by the nappe se quence (see Porshnyakov, 1973; Biske, 1996; Biske and Seltmann, 2010), by re ju ve na tion of synorogenic flysch from the up per nappes to the lower nappes (Biske, 1996, 2015) and by struc tural anal y sis data (Burtman and Schmidt, 1970;
Bolgar and Rezvoy, 1971; Burtman, 1976, 2006).
The foredeep ba sin was formed on the sub sid ing car bon ate shelf ahead the ad vanc ing front of the accretionary-collisional prism. Tur bid ity and de bris-flow sed i ments (Tolubai For ma tion) Fig. 13. Olistoliths and/or olistoplaques of the Alay lime stones among the de bris-flow/turbidite de pos its of the Tolubai
For ma tion (Khaidarkan De posit Field)
A – amal gam ated large lime stone olistoplaques and thin lenses of de bris-flow de pos its be tween the olistoplaques; B – de bris-flow sdeposits sit u ated be tween lime stone olistoplaques con tain clasts of the Alay lime stone and cherts of the Tomasha For ma tion; C, D – Alay lime stone olistoplaque over ly ing de bris flow/flysch de pos its con tain ing clasts of both lime stone (Alay-type) and cherts (Tomasha For ma tion, pe lagic suc ces sion); E, F – olistoliths and/or olistoplaques of the Alay lime stones over ly ing de bris-flow/flysch de pos its of the Tolubai For ma tion; for lo ca tion and ex pla na tions see Fig ures 7 and 8
Fig. 14. Sche matic for ma tion of the olistostrome now de vel oped in the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan fields among the flysch de pos its of the Tolubai For ma tion; Early Moscovian
No scale; in part us ing the re con struc tions of Biske (1996, 2015, 2018) and Burtman (2006, 2015)
Fig. 15A – paleogeographic/tec tonic re con struc tion of the Tian Shan re gion for the Mid dle Car bon if er ous (ap prox i mately 315 Ma) be fore the col li sion of the Alay and Kyrgyz–Kazakh con ti nents pic tured by black lines, no scale, af ter Biske (2018) slightly sim pli - fied and mod i fied; the po si tion of the accretionary-collisional prism af ter this col li sion as well as the olistostrome lo ca tion in the Early Moscovian (ap prox i mately 310 Ma) is pic tured by red lines; B – con tours of the main con ti nents and oceans in the Early Car - bon if er ous (338–323 Ma) af ter Golonka et al. (2006, sim pli fied) and lo ca tion of Fig ure 15A
As a re sult of con ti nen tal subduction, the Alay microconti - nent car bon ate shelf (parautochthonous tec tonic unit) was partly tec toni cally dis mem bered and imbricated into thrust lime - stone sheets at tached to the accretionary prism from be low.
These struc tur ally low est sheets were thrusted onto the foredeep ba sin sed i ments. Fron tal parts of the thrust sheets were dis in te grated, broke away and grav i ta tion ally slid into un - con sol i dated sed i ments of the foredeep ba sin, form ing large lime stone olistoliths and olistoplaques. This pro cess is cap tured on the east ern flank of the Kadamzhai field in the Karabiy and Aktash moun tains, where the Alay lime stones are tec toni cally imbricated into thrust lime stone sheets, ex fo li ated from the parautochthon and wedged into the flysch de pos its of the Tolubai For ma tion (see Figs. 6 and 9). The tec tonic sheets are lat er ally re placed by an olistostrome for ma tion to the south (see Fig. 10C, D) sug gest ing synsedimentary pro tru sion of lime - stone wedges into the flysch foredeep ba sin. In ad di tion, such lat eral struc ture in di cates grav i ta tional dis place ment of the slides/de bris-flows to the south, which is the same as the move - ment di rec tion of the tec tonic nappes.
Thus, tec toni cally imbricated Alay lime stone sheets ex fo li - ated from the parautochthon were synsedimentarily thrusted to the south onto the sed i ments of the flysch foredeep ba sin as well as be ing the source for the lime stone olistoplaques and olistoliths. Olistoliths com pris ing frag ments of the terrigenous and pe lagic sed i men tary suc ces sions were slid from the lower nappes. Sub ma rine slid ing was ac com pa nied by de bris flows and tur bid ity cur rents (see Fig. 14).
Lime stone, and es pe cially si li ceous-clay strata, in cor po - rated into the nappe pile (accretionary prism), un der went tec - tonic de for ma tion up to trans for ma tion into melange. Blocks of these dis lo cated/melange rocks were slid from the up lifted prism into the foredeep olistostrome ba sin. The re sults of this pro cess are well doc u mented at the Haidarkan de posit, where in some out crops, the Tomasha For ma tion shales/cherts are tectonized up to melange only within olistoliths lo cated in a non-tectonized olistostrome ma trix. Tec tonic/meta mor phic pro - cesses within the accretionary prism were de vel oped on the con tin u a tion of the mapped struc ture (the Isfairam River val ley, 10 km south of the Chauwai fields, see Fig. 3) in the accretionary melange where greenstone and even glaucophanå schists are pres ent as blocks in the melange ma trix (Biske, 1983, 1996).
In the fi nal collisional stage, the olistostrome was emplaced be neath the accretionary-collisional prism, and was cov ered by the lower nappes made of terrigenous and pe lagic sed i men tary suc ces sions.
CONCLUSIONS
A Late Car bon if er ous (Early Moscovian) olistostrome is de - vel oped on the Kadamzhai and Khaidarkan fields and con tains the olistoliths/olistoplaques com posed of: (1) mas sive and bed - ded shal low-wa ter Alay lime stones rep re sented by the Peshkaut (C1ps), Gaz (C1-2gz) and Pyrkaf (C2pr) for ma tions; (2)
(D-C1tm) and lime stones of the Bidana For ma tion (Cbd); (3) frag ments of the terrigenous sed i men tary suc ces sion with turbidites and black and green shales of the Dzydala For ma tion (S2-D1dz). The olistostrome ma trix com prises de bris-flow de - pos its which of ten un der lay the olistoliths and form sed i men tary lenses within the fine-me dium and coarse-grained turbidites of the Tolubay For ma tion (C2tl).
The olistostrome ac cu mu lated in a foredeep ba sin ahead the ad vanc ing front of the accretionary-collisional prism formed as a re sult of the Turkestan Ocean litho sphere subduction and sub se quent col li sion of the Alay microcontinent and Kyrgyz– Ka zakh con ti nent as well as in cor po rat ing the pas sive mar gin of the Alay microcontinent into the subduction zone. In mid-Pa leo zoic pre-col li sion time, the Alay microcontinent pas - sive mar gin in cluded shelf (the Alay lime stones), con ti nen tal slope, and pos si bly open ocean (terrigenous and pe lagic sed i - men tary suc ces sions). These paleogeographic el e ments of the pas sive mar gin were de tached from the base and added to the accretionary prism as a re sult of in cor po rat ing the Alay microcontinent. The new accretionary-collisional prism (=north - ern Bukantau–Kokshaal branch of the South ern Tian Shan nappe belt in the Alay seg ment) be gan to in clude both the up - per nappes (rem nants of the Turkestan ocean) and the lower nappes (pas sive mar gin terrigenous and pe lagic sed i men tary suc ces sions as well as car bon ate plat forms) cov er ing the parautochthon (Alay lime stones).
The parautochthon was partly tec toni cally dis mem bered into thrust lime stone sheets at tached to the prism. Fron tal parts of these thrust sheets dis in te grated and were grav i ta tion ally slid into the foredeep ba sin form ing the large olistoliths and olistoplaques. Olistoliths made of frag ments of the terrigenous and pe lagic sed i men tary suc ces sions were slid from the lower nappes. Sub ma rine slid ing was ac com pa nied by de bris flows and tur bid ity cur rents.
Tec tonic brec cia up to melange is pres ent in some olisto - liths (es pe cially those made of shales and cherts) lo cated in the non-tectonized olistostrome ma trix. This ob ser va tion sug gests tec tonic pro cesses ac tive within the accretionary prism and sub se quent slid ing of the tectonized blocks into the olistostro - me ba sin.
The Late Car bon if er ous olistostrome can be re garded as a sub-nappe olistostrome in a collisional tec tonic set ting (sensu Fes ta et al., 2016).
Ore-bear ing si lici fied rocks (“jasperoids”) with an ti - mony-mer cury and gold min er al iza tion are lo cated pre dom i - nantly along the con tacts of the Tolubai For ma tion terrigenous rocks and the Alay lime stones in clud ing the olistolith/olisto - plaque bound aries.
Ac knowl edg ments. We thank Real Gold Re sources Cor - po ra tion and the Adyshev In sti tute of Ge ol ogy of the Na tional Acad emy of Sci ence of the Kyrgyz Re pub lic for sup port of the geo log i cal re search and ac cess to min eral de pos its in Kyrgyzstan. We are very grate ful to Prof. Yu.S. Biske, Prof. V.S.
Burtman and Dr. M. Krobicki for con struc tive com ments and use ful re marks.
REFERENCES
Alexeiev, D.V., Kröner, A., Hegner, E., Rojas-Agramonte, Y., Biske, Y.S., Wong, J., Geng, H.Y., Ivleva, E.A., Mühlberg, M., Mikolaichuk, A.V., Liu, D., 2016. Mid dle to Late Or do vi cian arc sys tem in the Kyrgyz Mid dle Tianshan: from arc–con ti nent col li - sion to sub se quent evo lu tion of a Palaeozoic con ti nen tal mar - gin. Gond wana Re search, 39: 261–291.
Aristov, V.A., Chernyshuk, V.P., 1984. New data on stra tig ra phy of si li ceous sed i ments of the South ern Tien Shan (in Rus sian).
Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 274: 417–421.
Belousov, V.I., 1998. On the role of olistostromes and nappes in the ge ol ogy of the Turkestan–Alay (in Rus sian). Geologiya i razvedka, 6: 33–45.
Belousov, V.I., Beer, M.A., 1989. Flysch-olistostrome for ma tion of the Alay (in Rus sian). Izvestiya vysshikh uchebnykh zavedeniy.
Geologiya i razvedka, 6: 3–12.
Belov, S.I., Aksenov V.A., Aksenenko V.V., 1991.State geo log i cal map of the USSR. Scale 1:50,000. South Fergana mer cury-an ti - mony belt. Turkestan-Alay group of the sheets (in Rus sian). Ar - chives of the South Kyrgyz Geo log i cal Ex pe di tion, Osh, Kyrgyztan.
Biske, Yu.S., 1983. Shaly mélange of Maidan and overthrusts of the South ern Ferghana (in Rus sian). Vestnik of Le nin grad Uni ver - sity, Se ries 6: 40–45.
Biske, Yu.S., 1996. Pa leo zoic Struc ture and His tory of South ern Tian-Shan (in Rus sian). Le nin grad State Uni ver sity, Le nin grad.
Biske, Yu.S., 2015. Ge ol ogy and evo lu tion of the Cen tral Asian orogenic belt in Kazakhstan and the west ern Tianshan. In: The Cen tral Asian Orogenic Belt. Ge ol ogy, Evo lu tion, Tec ton ics and Mod els (ed. A. Kro ner): 6–49. Borntraeger Sci ence Pub lish ers, Stuttgart.
Biske, Yu.S., 2018. The South ern Tian-Shan: upgrading the geo - logic syn the sis (in Rus sian). Vestnik of Saint-Pe ters burg Uni - ver sity. Earth Sci ences, 63: 416–452.
Biske, Yu.S., Seltmann, R., 2010. Pa leo zoic Tian-Shan as a tran si - tional re gion be tween the Rheic and Urals-Turkestan oceans.
Gond wana Re search, 17: 602–613.
Bolgar, B.D., Rezvoy, P.D., 1971. Ma te ri als on the mor phol ogy of thrust struc tures in the Alay Range (in Rus sian). Geologicheskiy sbornik Lvovskogo universiteta, 13: 179–182.
Burtman, V.S., 1976. Struc tural Evo lu tion of Pa leo zoic Fold Sys - tems (Variscides of Tian-Shan and Caledonides of North ern Eu - rope) (In Rus sian). Nauka, Mos cow.
Burtman, V.S., 2006. Tien Shan and high Asia. Tec ton ics and Geodynamics in the Pa leo zoic (in Rus sian). GEOS, Mos cow.
Burtman, V.S., 2015. Tec ton ics and geodynamics of the Tian Shan in the mid dle and late Pa leo zoic. Geotectonics, 49: 302–319.
Burtman, V.S., Schmidt, O.A., 1970. In ves ti ga tion of the folded struc ture of the Teghermach Nappe rem nant (in Rus sian). Pro - ceed ings of the USSR Acad emy of Sci ences, 190: 1165–1168.
Cieszkowski, M., Golonka, J., Krobicki, M., Œl¹czka, A., Oszczypko, N., Waœkowska, A., Wendorff, M., 2009. The North ern Carpathians plate tec tonic evo lu tion ary stages and or i - gin of olistoliths and olistostromes. Geodynamica Acta, 22:
101–126.
Cherenkov, I.N., 1964. Land falls and land slides in the flysch de pos - its of the Karavshin river ba sin (north ern slope of the Turkestan Range) (in Rus sian). Litologiya i poleznyye iskopayemyye, 6:
112–115.
Cherenkov, I.N., 1973. Up per Pa leo zoic flysch for ma tion of the Gissar–Alay (in Rus sian). Donish, Dushanbe.
Chernyshuk, V.P., 1986. Olistostromes of the Turkestan-Alay (in Rus sian). Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, seriya geologi - cheskaya, 1: 57–63.
Dobretsov, N.L., Berzin, N.A., Buslov, M.M., 1995. Open ing and tec tonic evo lu tion of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. In ter na tional Ge ol - ogy Re view, 37: 335–360.
Djenchuraeva, A.V., 1979. Stra tig ra phy and foraminifera of Mid dle Car bon if er ous de pos ited north ern slopes of Turkestan-Alay (in Rus sian). Ilim, Frunze.
Fes ta, A., Pini, G.A., Dilek, Y., Cadegone, G., 2010. Mélanges and mélange-form ing pro cesses: a his tor i cal over view and new con - cepts. In ter na tional Ge ol ogy Re view, 52: 1040–1105.
Fes ta, A., Ogata, K., Pini, G.A., Dilek, Y., Alonso, J.L., 2016. Or i - gin and sig nif i cance of olistostromes in the evo lu tion of orogenic belts: a global syn the sis. Gond wana Reseach, 39: 180–203.
Flores, G., 1955. Les résultats des études pour les recherches pétroliféres en Sicile: discussion. Pro ceed ings of the 4th World Pe tro leum Con gress, Sec tion 1/A/2. Casa Editrice Carlo Co - lombo, Rome: 121–122.
Flores, G., 1959. Ev i dence of slump phe nom ena (Olistostromes) in ar eas of hy dro car bon ex plo ra tion in Sic ily. Pro ceed ings 5th World Pe tro leum Con gress, Sec tion 1, pap. 13, Roma:
259–275.
Ghes, M.D., 2008. Ter rain struc ture and geodynamic evo lu tion of Cal edo nian Tian-Shan (in Rus sian). Na tional Acad emy of Sci - ence of Kyrgyzstan, Bishkek.
Golonka, J., Krobicki, M., Paj¹k, J., Nguyen Van Giang, Zuchiewicz, W., 2006. Global Plate Tec ton ics and Paleogeography of South east Asia. Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy, Geo - phys ics and En vi ron men tal Pro tec tion, AGH Uni ver sity of Sci - ence and Tech nol ogy, Kraków, Po land.
Golonka, J., Krobicki, M., Waœkowska, A., Cieszkowski, M., Œl¹czka, A., 2015. Olistostromes of the Pieniny Klippen Belt, North ern Carpathians. Geo log i cal Mag a zine, 152: 269–286.
Hsü, K.J., 1974. Mélanges and their dis tinc tion from olistostromes.
Spe cial Pub li ca tion. So ci ety of eco nomic Pa le on tol o gists and Min er al o gists, Tulsa: 321–333.
Hnylko, O.M., 2000. Cha otic for ma tion of south-west ern part of the Krosno Zone – the prod ucts of or i gin and de vel op ment of Dukla Nappe (Ukrai nian Carpathians) (in Ukrai nian). Geodynamics, 3:
65–74.
Hnylko, O., 2014. Olistostromes in the Mio cene salt-bear ing folded de pos its at the front of the Ukrai nian Carpathian orogen. Geo - log i cal Quar terly, 58 (3): 381–392.
Konopelko, D., Wilde, S.A., Seltmann, R., Romer, R.L., Biske, Yu.S., 2018. Early Perm ian in tru sions of the Alai range: un der - stand ing tec tonic set tings of Hercynian post-collisional magmatism in the South Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan. Lithos, 302–303: 405–420.
Kukhtikov, M.M., Vinnichenko, G.P., Cherenkov, I.P., 1983.
Olistostromes of the folded re gions of the Pamir and Gissar-Alay (in Rus sian). In: Tektonika Tyan’-Shanya i Pamira (eds. I.E.
Gubin and S.A. Zakharov): 78–86. Sci ence, Mos cow.
Kurenkov, S.A., 1978. Ser pen tin ite melange and olistostrome com - plexes of the Alay Range (South Tien Shan) (in Rus sian).
Geotektonika, 5: 84–93.
Leonov, M.G., 1981. Olistostromes in the struc ture of the folded re - gions (in Rus sian). Nauka, Mos cow.
Lucente, C.C., Pini G.A., 2008. Ba sin-wide mass-wast ing com - plexes as mark ers of the Oligo-Mio cene foredeep-accretionary wedge evo lu tion in the North ern Apennines, It aly. Ba sin Re - search, 20: 49–71.
Mikhailov, A.Y., 1947. On the or i gin of lime stone blocks (cliffs) in the Lower Car bon if er ous sed i ments of the east ern part of the Alay Range (in Rus sian). Byulleten’ Mokovskogo obshchestva ispytateley prirody, 22: 33–48.
Nenakhov, V.M., Belov, S.I., 2000. Fea tures of the for ma tion of some dis lo ca tion struc tural-ma te rial com plexes and folded struc tures of the north ern slope of the Alay Range (in Rus sian).
Vestnik Voronezhskogo universiteta, Geologiya, 5: 15–20.
Nenakhov, V.M., Lytochkin, V.Yu., Perfilyev, A.S., Kuznetsov, L.V., Stavsky, A.P., Morozov, O.L., Safonov, V.G., Berezner, O.S., Semenov, G.G., Mukhaylenko, V.G., 1992. Geo log i cal map ping of cha otic com plexes (in Rus sian). Roskomnedra, Geokart, Mos cow.
Nevolko, P.A., Hnylko, O.M., Mokrushnikov, V.P., Gibsher, A.S., Redin, Yu.O., Zhimulev, F.I., Drovzhak, A.E., Svetlitskaya, T.V., Fomynikh, P.A., Karavashkin, M.I., 2019. Ge ol ogy and
(Kyrgyzstan). Ore Ge ol ogy Re views, 105: 551–571.
Osmonbetov, K.O., Knauf, V.I., Korolev, V.T., eds., 1982. Strat i fied and in tru sive for ma tions of Kyrgyzstan. Vol ume 1 and 2 (in Rus - sian). Ilim, Frunze.
Porshnyakov, G.S., 1968. On the tec tonic po si tion of lime stone with a “mixed” fauna in the Mid dle Car bon if er ous of the Alay (in Rus - sian). In: Voprosy regionalnoy geologii (ed. V.N. Ognev): 44–52.
Le nin grad State Uni ver sity Pub lish ing House, Le nin grad.
Porshnyakov, G.S., 1973. The Hercynides of Alay and Ad ja cent South ern Tien-Shan (in Rus sian). Le nin grad Uni ver sity, Le nin - grad.
Rich ter, D., 1973. Olisthostrom, Olistholit, Olisthorymma und Olisthoplaka als Merkmale von Gleistungsund Resedimenta - tionsvorgangen infolge synsedimentarer tectogenetischer Bewengungen in Geosynklinalbereichen. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Palaeontologie Abhandlungen, 143: 304–344.
Sabirov, A.A., ed., 2012. Strati graphic Dic tio nary of the Phanerozoic of Tajikistan (North ern, Cen tral and South-West ern Tajikistan) (in Rus sian). Nedra, Dushanbe.
Safonova, I., Kotlyarov, A., Krivonogov, S., Xiao, W., 2017.
Intra-Oce anic arcs of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. Gondvana Re - search, 50: 167–194.
Vaulin, O.V., 2016. Struc tur ally-ma te rial com plexes of Turkestan- Alay. Geodynamics. Geo chem is try. Metallogeny. Ore con tent (in Rus sian). Rokizol. Bishkek.
Vishnevsky, L.I., Savochkina, E.N., Soloveva, M.N., 1978. Wild Flysch of the north ern slope of the Alay Range (South Fergana) (in Rus sian). Byulleten’ Moskovskogo obshchestva ispytateley prirody, Otdeleniye geologicheskoye, 1: 146–147.
SSSR (Re ports of the USSR Acad emy of Sci ences), 266:
936–940.
Wendorff, M., 2005. Lithostratigaphy of Neoproterozoic syn-rift sed i men tary megabreccia from Mwambashi, Copperbelt of Zam bia, and cor re la tion with olistostrome suc ces sion from Mufulira. South Af ri can Jour nal of Ge ol ogy, 108: 505–524.
Windley, B.F., Alexeiev, D., Xiao, W., Kro ner, A., Badarch, G., 2007. Tec tonic mod els for ac cre tion of the Cen tral Asian Orogenic Belt. Jour nal of the Geo log i cal So ci ety of Lon don, 164:
31–47.
Zhdan, A.V., 1985. About tec tonic con fine ment of some ore man i - fes ta tions of the Alay Range (in Rus sian). Geotektonika, 2:
57–66.
Zonenshain, L.P., Kuzmin, M.I., Natapov, L.M., 1990. Ge ol ogy of the USSR: a plate-tec tonic syn the sis. Geodynamic Se ries 21.
Amer i can Geo phys i cal Un ion, Wash ing ton.
Zubtsov, S.E., 1997. New in ter pre ta tion of collisional de for ma tions in the Hercynides of the Alay Range (in Rus sian). Vestnik Sankt-Peterburgskogo universiteta, Seriya 7 , 4: 25–40.
Zubtsov, S.E., Porshnyakov, G.S., 1995. The struc ture and his tory of the for ma tion of the Kauzan anticlinaloid (South ern Tien Shan) (in Rus sian). In: Voprosy stratigrafii i regional’noy geologii (eds. V.A. Prozorovsky and V.M. Tzeisler): 166–190.
Pub lish ing House of St. Pe ters burg Uni ver sity, St. Pe ters burg.
Zubtsov, Y.I., Porshniakov, G.S., Yagovkin, A.V., 1974. New sketch of pre-Me so zoic tec ton ics of Tian-Shan (in Rus sian).
Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, 217: 1153–1156.
