THE IMPACT OF WEATHER TYPES ON AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH OF THE RESIDENTS OF KRAKOW (POLAND)
PIOTROWICZ KATARZYNA1, CIARANEK DOMINIKA1
ABSTRACT. The impact of weather types on air pollution and health of the residents of Krakow (Poland). This study set out to identify the impact of weather types in Krakow on the frequency of suicides by hanging in the period 1991-2002, on cases of acute coronary syndrome (2002-2004), high concentration of suspended particles PM10 and tropospheric ozone (2005-2012) and on the pollen seasons of hazel and birch (1991-2012). Attention was also given to trends of change in selected weather types over the study period (1901-2012). The weather types to be investigated were identified using a number of factors, including: air temperature, relative sunshine duration, precipitation, snow cover, thunderstorms, and sultriness. It was found that some of these weather types could have an adverse effect on human health and even contribute to death.
Keywords: weather types, human health, bioclimatology, Krakow, Poland.
1. INTRODUCTION
At the turn of the 21st century, Central Europe experienced an increased incidence of particularly warm winters and very hot summers. Theseperceptibly higher temperatureshad an adverse influence on human health, well-being and economic activity. Urban dwellers, elderly people and those suffering from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases are especially prone to changes in the weather and extreme atmospheric events (Kuchcik 2006, Kuchcik and Błażejczyk 2005).
The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that the climate change contributes to more than 150 thousand deaths (0.3% of all deaths) and at least 5 million illnesses (0.4%) every year (Patz et al. 2005, Revich 2008). The most striking example of health problems caused directly by the weather was the increase in the mortality rate in Europe in the summer of 2003 (Fink et al. 2004, Kyselý 2004, Twardosz and Kossowska-Cezak 2013). It is estimated that the heat wave of that year contributed to between 22-25 thousand and 70 thousand deaths (Patz et al. 2005). During hot and sultry weather, mortality linked with vascular diseases increases on average by 18-22% and in extreme cases by up to 62-64%
(Kuchcik 2006).
Poor aerosanitary conditions can affect health in urban areas (Kuchcik 2001). Bokwa (2010) observes that while emissions are the chief drivers of air pollution its concentration (imissions) also depends on the geographic environment
1 JagiellonianUniversity, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Krakow, Poland e-mail: k.piotrowicz@uj.edu.pl,dominika.ciaranek@uj.edu.pl
and especially on the weather. In this respect Krakow suffers from its location at the bottom of a peculiar area along the Vistula river valley which features frequent temperature inversions and poor ventilation, which exacerbate adverse bioclimatic influences.
Particles below 10 micrometres in size are absorbed in the upper respiratory tract and in the bronchi. This causes coughs, breathing problems and shortness of breath, especially during physical exercise. The particles can also increase the risk of infections of the respiratory tract and the acuteness of allergic symptoms, such as asthma, hay fever and allergic conjunctivitis. Another air- pollution-related condition is pollen allergy caused mainly by allergens of anemophilous plant pollen, including hazel (Corylus), birch (Betula) and grasses (Poaceae) (Obtułowicz et al. 2000, Piotrowicz 2009).This effect has been on the rise in Poland and has been observed particularly strongly in urban areas (Peternel et al. 2004). Indeed, it is widely accepted that urban air pollution may contribute to an increased frequency of allergy-based illnesses and to an increase in the severity of symptoms in patients.
The paper discusses the potential impacts of these factors on the living conditions, health, well-being and economic activity of the city’s residents presented against a broader picture of multi-annual trends of change in weather types in Krakow (Poland)documented by measurements and observations since 1901. Furthermore, the study quotes examples of the impact of weather types on, among other things, suicides by hanging in the years 1991-2002, acute coronary syndrome (2002-2004), high suspended dust concentrations (PM10), tropospheric ozone (2005-2012) and the pollinating seasons of the allergenic plants: hazel (Corylus) and birch (Betula) (1991-2012).
2. DATA AND METHODS
The study uses daily values of air temperature, precipitation, sunshine duration, snow cover, vapour pressure, and storms registered at the historicweather station of the Jagiellonian University (UJ) in Krakow (50°04’N, 19°58’E, 220 m a.s.l) from the period 1901-2012.
The section on suicides is based on archival postmortem data from the Institute of Forensic Medicine, UJ. Cases of violent suffocation through hanging were selected to achieve certainty of the suicidal intentions of the victims and to exclude the possibility of an accident. Data on cases of acute coronary syndrome were sourced from the Departmant of Haemodynamics and Angiocardiography in Institute of Cardiology of theJagiellonian University.The data about PM10 and ozonecome from the National Air Quality Monitoring System in Krakow. Pollen concentrations (hazel and birch) were monitored near the historic weather station by the Department of Clinical Environmental Allergy UJ.
The study identified 12 thermal weather types, 9 weather subtypes (involving only relative sunshine duration and precipitation), 6 weather classes (determined using snow cover, storms and vapour pressure) and 225 weather types
that took into account all five weather elements (Table 1; Piotrowicz 2010). The weather on each single day was coded to simplify subsequent analysis.
Table 1. Classification of weather types and their frequency [%] in Krakow (1901-2012)
Code Partition Names of weather Year
Air temperature
Thermal weather types
33 tmean>25.0°C; tmin&tmax>0.0°C hot 0.5 03 tmean 15.1-25.0°C; tmin&tmax>0.0°C very warm 28.9 22 tmean 10.1-15.0°C; tmin&tmax>0.0°C warm 18.1 02 tmean 5.1-10.0°C; tmin&tmax>0.0°C moderately warm 16.1 01 tmean 0.1-5.0°C; tmin&tmax>0.0°C cool 10.4 04
tmean>5.0°C; tmin≤0.0°C;
tmax>0.0°C
ground-frost, moderately
cool 0.9
05
tmean0.1-5.0°C; tmin≤0.0°C;
tmax>0.0°C ground-frost, very cool 8.7
06
tmean-5.0-0.0°C; tmin≤0.0°C;
tmax>0.0°C
ground-frost, moderately
cold 6.7
07
tmean<-5.0°C; tmin≤0.0°C;
tmax>0.0°C ground-frost, very cold 0.1
08 tmean-5.0-0.0°C; tmin& tmax≥0.0°C moderately frosty 4.0 09
tmean-15.0÷-5.1°C; tmin&
tmax≥0.0°C fairly frosty 5.0
00 tmean<-15.0°C; tmin& tmax≥0.0°C very frosty 0.4 Relative sunshine duration
Subtypes
0- ≤33% cloudy 55.3
1- 33.1-67% sunny 26.2
2- ≥67.1% very sunny 18.5
Precipitation
-0 < 0.1 mm day without precipitation 52.4
-1 0.1-4.9 mm
day with a slight
precipitation 36.3
-2 ≥5.0 mm day with high precipitation 11.3
Snow cover
Classes
0-- day without snow cover without snow cover 84.3
1-- day with snow cover day with snow cover 15.7
Storm
-0- day without storm without storm 93.5
-1- day with storm day with storm 6.5
Sultry days (e –vapour pressure)
--0 e<18.8 hPa day without sultriness 93.5
--1 e≥18.8 hPa sultry day 6.5
E.g. 33_10_011 – hot day, sunny, no precipitation, without snow cover, with storm and sultriness
3. RESULTS
During the period 1991-2002, there were 1467 cases of successful suicide attempts by hanging, including 156 in 2002 alone (Fig. 1). In that time, there were 1244 days with suicides, which including 172 days with two suicides and 25 days with three. The highest number of suicides was recorded in May (on average 13.7,
or 11%) and between May and July (40%). The lowest number was recorded in October (on average 8.0, or 6.5%) and in winter (20%) (Fig. 1).
60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Jan Feb Mar May Apr Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
number of cases
100 110 120 130 140 150 160
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
number of cases
Fig. 1. Number of cases of suicide in the each year and particular months
The investigation of the impact of the weather on suicides by hanging involved calculating the frequency of the various weather types on days with these suicides. It was found that in January, February and November, the highest percentage of suicides (20.0-26.3%) was committed on days with moderately warm weather involving precipitation (02_01_000), i.e. on days with unusually warm temperatures for a winter season. Also in April and May, the number of suicides increased on days with weather types more characteristic of summer than of spring.
The occurrence of warm (22) and very warm (03) days shortly after the cool winter period has a particularly strong psychologically stimulating effect. These conditions contribute to the occurrence of a lack of well-being (heavy fatigue, sleepiness, apathy and depression), which is an effect of lower physiological and mental resilience, higher heart rate and lower blood pressure. It seems plausible then that the occurrence of days with weather types 22_--_000 and 03_--_000 could be among the causes of high numbers of suicides committed in April and May. These types of days have been on the increase in recent years (Fig. 2). In summer (Jun.-Aug.), on the other hand, when the human body is better adapted to very hot weather, higher suicide rates occurred on days when hot weather was accompanied by a sense of sultriness and/or the occurrence of thunderstorms (03_-- _010, 03_--_001 or 03_--_011). Thunderstorms are accompanied by a rapid change of several meteorological elements (pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind speed and direction) and of electromagnetic field and air ionisation. Strong atmospheric discharges cause powerful acoustic stimuli, which increase the sense of anxiety, fear and agitation.
0 5 10 15 20 25
1901 1906 1911 1916 1921 1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
Days with very warm weather types (03_--_000) in May
Fig. 2. Number of days with warm weather in April (22_--_000) and very warmwather in May (03_--_---) in Krakow (1901-2012)
0 5 10 15 20 25
1901 1906 1911 1916 1921 1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
number of days
Days with warm weather types (22_--_000) in April
It may be somewhat surprising that even in summer suicides by hanging did not occur on days with hot weather types (33_--_---), i.e. with an average daily temperature above 25° C.
In September and October, increased rates of suicides by hanging were recorded on days with warm to very warm weather (22_--_000, 03_--_000), just as in April and May. Other research suggests that in these months the foehn wind in the Tatra Mountains may have contributed to an increased likelihood of suicides (Trepińska et al. 2006). This phenomenon involves a rapid temperature increase, a drop in humidity, pressure fluctuations and gusts of wind. Strong wind is known to cause anxiety and sleep disorders or sleeplessness. Pulsating winds, i.e. ones with very strong gusts, can be particularly irritating, in particular by causing strong acoustic stimuli such as the rustle of trees which can be disturbing to humans.
In December, the largest proportion (40.0%) of suicides occurred on fairly frost days, cloudy, without precipitation, with snow cover and without thunderstorms or sultriness (09_00_100). Few such days were recorded in recent years (Fig. 3), which contributed to the 40% likelihood of suicide on such days.
Results somewhat similar to the above findings were obtained from a study of acute coronary syndrome (ACS) given urgent treatment by means of coronary angioplasty in Krakow in the period 2002- 2004 and its vicinity(Janas et al. 2005). In
summer, an increased rate of ACS cases was observed on very warm and hot days with a thunderstorm and/or sultriness (03_--_010 or 33_--_011). There was just one single day when an increased incidence of ACS occurred during hot dry and sultry weather with a great deal of sunshine (33_20_001). In spring and autumn, ACS risk increased on moderately warm/warm days with precipitation (02_-1_000 or 22_-1_000). These two weather types were linked with the foehn wind in the Tatras. In winter, ACS was most frequent during cool (01) or moderately warm (02) weather, which was rather untypical for this season. The frequency of this weather type has, unfortunately, been on the rise (Fig. 4).
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
1901/02 1906/07 1911/12 1916/17 1921/22 1926/27 1931/32 1936/37 1941/42 1946/47 1951/52 1956/57 1961/62 1966/67 1971/72 1976/77 1981/82 1986/87 1991/92 1996/97 2001/02 2006/07 2011/12 Days with cold weather types (01_--_---) in winter
number of days
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
1901/02 1906/07 1911/12 1916/17 1921/22 1926/27 1931/32 1936/37 1941/42 1946/47 1951/52 1956/57 1961/62 1966/67 1971/72 1976/77 1981/82 1986/87 1991/92 1996/97 2001/02 2006/07 2011/12 Days with moderately warm weather (02_--_---) in winter
Fig. 4. Number of days with cold (01_--_---) and moderately warm wather types (02_--_---) in winter (Deb.-Feb.) in Krakow (1901-2012)
Fig. 3. Number of days with 9_00_100 weather types in December
in Krakow (1901-2012)
0 2 4 6 8 10
1901 1906 1911 1916 1921 1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
number of days
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
1901 1906 1911 1916 1921 1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
number of days
Air pollution has a strong impact on human health and well-being in urban areas. This study investigated the relationship between weather types and very high concentrations of suspended particles (PM10) and ground level ozone (O3), which, according to Peters et al. (2000), are among the most serious urban problems.
In winter (Dec.-Feb.), PM10 concentration in Krakow oscillates permanently within the range 80 to 100 µg·m-3 and the permitted daily norm is exceeded on nearly all days of that season(50 µg·m-3). During the study period, there were 37 days when the daily concentration exceeded the alert threshold of 200 µg·m-3 (15 each in December and January and 7 in February). During the remaining months, there were far fewer cases of these norms being exceeded. It was found that on the largest number of days when the norms were exceeded with a particular weather,the weather was fairly frost, dry or with low precipitation (<5 mm) and snow cover (09_--_100; 63,9%).
Tropospheric ozone (O3), also known as “bad ozone” because of its direct toxicity to living organisms, is a derived pollutant. It is produced in chemical reactions between other pollutants under the influence of ultraviolet radiation (including in photochemical smog) and causes conditions similar to those mentioned in relation to particle pollution. Atmospheric discharges constitute a natural source of ozone in the lower troposphere.
The alert-level of O3 is exceeded if for three consecutive hours its concentration is higher than 240 µg·m-3. In this study, the average daily O3
concentration values were taken into account due to the overall research method.
The value of 76µg·m-3 was adopted as the threshold, after the crossing of which the ozone concentration was regarded as extremely high for the purpose of correlating it with the weather type on that day. The threshold value is similar to the value of the 99th percentile and is higher than the average plus 2.5 standard deviations.
High daily O3 concentrations were noted between April and August and in 61.5% of cases this coincided with the hot weather type (33_--_---), and in 30.8%
of cases with very warm weather (03_--_---).. Among these days very sunny days (03_2-_--- or 33_2-_---) were clearly the most frequent (69.2%), but there were also days with precipitation, including thunderstorm precipitation (for example
weather types 03_21_011 and 33_22_011). The frequency of occurrence of these weather types has been on the rise since the beginning of the 21st century and high ozone concentrations may be expected to occur more frequently as well (Fig. 5).
Typical allergic reactions to pollen include: rhinitis (periodic or chronic), conjunctivitis, bronchial asthma or skin lesions. In Krakow, hazel Fig. 5. Number of days with hot and
very sunny (33_2-_---) weather types in warm months (Apr.-Aug.) in
Krakow (1901-2012)
pollinates first and the weather can assist in accelerating this process, such that even short spells of warmer weather when the average daily temperature is higher than 5.1°C and there is no snow cover (type 02_--_000) can initiate pollination.
Birch tree pollen, as well as grass pollen, is the most wide spread vegetal allergen that causes allergic responses in Poland. Indeed, nearly 50% of people affected by allergy to pollen respond to birch tree pollen, of which group 10-15%
are only allergic to this pollen type (monovalent sensitivity) (Myszkowska, Piotrowicz 2009). Two types of birch tree pollen seasons occur in Krakow: short- duration (compact seasons) and long-duration (protracted seasons). The season begins with warm weather in March, but this typically cools down at the turn of April, thus extending the entire season. When the seasons are short and compact the dominant weather is very warm (03_--_---) to warm (22_--_---), sunny to very sunny and dry (-_10_--- and -_20_---).
5. CONCLUSIONS
The seasonality of some of the weather types may contribute to a deterioration of human well-being and health and possibly also contribute to death.
Human sensitivity to weather conditions, known as meteoropathy, and related ailments are combining into an increasing medical and societal problem. The adverse effect of the “weather stress” on productivity is difficult to estimate.
One of the consequences of mild winters is an increase in the frequency of weak and moderate thermal stimuli. Weak thermal stimuli are regarded as adverse, because they causethe human body to become overdelicate and lose its capability to adaptto stronger stimuli. This increases the frequency of infections. Also, the rate of plant growth increases often leading to very early pollinating seasons in hazel, which is the earliest flowering plant with allergenic properties.
In the warm half of the year, the thermal and humidity conditions causing adverse bioclimatic effects leading to overheating are intensified. Particularly strong thermal stimuli start appearing in April or May, i.e. at a time when the human body has only just started to adapt to higher temperatures after wintertime.
Heatwaves, which in Central Europe typically occur in July and August, are especially dangerous in large cites. The rising temperatures are frequently accompanied by an increase in air pollution, including tropospheric ozone.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The authors are grateful to the Polish-Hungarian bi- lateral project, TÉT_10-1-2011-0037 for the partial support.
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