Wood properties from roundwood to timber engineering

Wood properties from roundwood to timber engineering

Van De Kuilen, Jan Willem G

Publication date 2016

Document Version Final published version Published in

WCTE 2016 - World Conference on Timber Engineering

Citation (APA)

Van De Kuilen, J. W. G. (2016). Wood properties from roundwood to timber engineering. In J. Eberhardsteiner, W. Winter, A. Fadai, & M. Pöll (Eds.), WCTE 2016 - World Conference on Timber Engineering (pp. 60-69). Vienna University of Technoclogy.

Important note

To cite this publication, please use the final published version (if applicable). Please check the document version above.

Copyright

Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download, forward or distribute the text or part of it, without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license such as Creative Commons. Takedown policy

Please contact us and provide details if you believe this document breaches copyrights. We will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim.

This work is downloaded from Delft University of Technology.

  

:22'3523(57,(6)5205281':22'727,0%(5

(1*,1((5,1*





-DQ:LOOHPYDQGH.XLOHQ









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





 ,1752'8&7,21





(NNL

'XULQJ WKH WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ SKDVH D QXPEHU RI WHFKQRORJLFDOSDUDPHWHUVQHHGWREHDGGUHVVHGEHIRUHLW FDQEHDSSOLHGDVSDUWRIDQHQJLQHHUHGZRRGVWUXFWXUH$V VWUXFWXUHVDUHGHVLJQHGDFFRUGLQJWRSULQFLSOHVDQGUXOHV LQ GHVLJQ FRGHV WKH WLPEHU LQGXVWU\ QHHGV WR SURYLGH VWUXFWXUDO HQJLQHHUV ZLWK VXIILFLHQW DQG UHOLDEOH GDWD RI WKHLUSURGXFWV0XFKRIWKLVGDWDLVUHWULHYHGGXULQJWKH SURGXFWLRQ SURFHVVHV LQ VDZPLOOV DQG PDQXIDFWXULQJ SODQWV WKDW SURGXFH SURGXFWV OLNH VDZQ WLPEHU JOXODP */7 RU FURVV ODPLQDWHG WLPEHU &/7 &RQVHTXHQWO\ ERWKJUDGLQJDQGJOXLQJDUHWZRHVVHQWLDOVWHSVGXULQJWKH SURGXFWLRQ+RZHYHUJUDGLQJDORQHLVQRWVXIILFLHQWDV JUDGLQJRIWHQRQO\VHUYHVWRDVVLJQERDUGVDQGEHDPVWR VWUHQJWKFODVVHVVXFKDVWKRVHOLVWHGLQ(1>@7KLV VWDQGDUGQRZQRWRQO\FRQWDLQVFODVVHVEDVHGRQEHQGLQJ VWUHQJWKEXWFRQWDLQVDGGLWLRQDOWDEOHVIRUZRRGWKDWLV SULPDULO\ORDGHGLQWHQVLRQ7KLVRSWLRQDOORZVIRUIXUWKHU RSWLPL]DWLRQRIPDWHULDOXVH0RVWLPSRUWDQWSDUDPHWHUV IRU FODVVLILFDWLRQ DUH VWUHQJWK EHQGLQJ RU WHQVLRQ PRGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\DQGGHQVLW\7KHODWWHULVQHFHVVDU\ DVLQSXWIRUWKHGHWHUPLQDWLRQRIWKHHPEHGGLQJVWUHQJWK LQRUGHUWREHDEOHWRGHWHUPLQHWKHORDGFDUU\LQJFDSDFLW\ RIWLPEHUMRLQWV $VWKHFHQWUDO(XURSHDQWLPEHULQGXVWU\LVH[SORULQJWKH XVHRIRWKHUVSHFLHVWKDQVSUXFHDQGSLQHRWKHUVWUHQJWK  _{-DQ:LOOHPYDQGH.XLOHQ7HFKQLFDO8QLYHUVLW\RI0XQLFK} *HUPDQ\ 'HOIW8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\WKH1HWKHUODQGV YDQGHNXLOHQ#KIPWXPGH   

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

 675(1*7+*5$',1*

 *5$',1*

6WUHQJWK JUDGLQJ LV WKH SURFHVV RI DVVHVVLQJ ZRRG SDUDPHWHUVZLWKWKHJRDORIHVWLPDWLQJVWUHQJWKPRGXOXV RIHODVWLFLW\DQGGHQVLW\7KLVFDQEHGRQHHLWKHUYLVXDOO\ RUE\PDFKLQHEXWFRPELQDWLRQVDUHDOVRSRVVLEOH(YHQ WKRXJK PDFKLQHV SHUIRUP EHWWHU VRPH NLQG RI YLVXDO JUDGLQJLVDOZD\VSDUWRIWKHSURFHVVDV(1

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WRWDNHXSWRRPXFKRIWKHFURVV VHFWLRQ&URVVJUDLQDVVKRZQLQ)LJXUHPD\QRWEHPRUH WKDQ$QRWKHUGHIHFWWKDWFDQVRPHWLPHVEHSUHVHQWLQ ZRRGDUHFRPSUHVVLRQIDLOXUHVRUEULWWOHKHDUW'HWHFWLRQ RIFRPSUHVVLRQIDLOXUHV&)RUEULWWOHKHDUWLVGLIILFXOWEXW ZLWK&76FDQQLQJWKHIDLOXUHVFDQDFWXDOO\EHGHWHFWHG DVVKRZQLQ)LJXUH>@ 2WKHUJUDGHGHWHUPLQLQJIHDWXUHVVXFKDVVORSHRIJUDLQ DQGWRSIDOOFDQDOVREHGLIILFXOWWRGHWHFW7KHODWWHUFDQ EHDVHULRXVSUREOHPLQVPDOOFURVVVHFWLRQHOHPHQWVIRU LQVWDQFH IRU WKH SURGXFWLRQ RI ,EHDPV 7KH WHQVLOH VWUHQJWK LV VHULRXVO\ UHGXFHG $Q H[DPSOH RI IDLOXUH LV VKRZQLQ)LJXUH9LVXDOJUDGHUVQHHGWREHVSHFLILFDOO\ IRFXVVHGRQWKLVIHDWXUHDVERDUGVZLWKDILEUHDQJOHRI DERXWƒOHDGWRDVHULRXVUHGXFWLRQLQWHQVLOHVWUHQJWK ZKLFKZDV1PP_{DWDGHQVLW\RINJP}_LQWKH FDVHRI)LJXUH    

Figure 1: Cross grain in an azobé board loaded in

flatwise bending.



 

Figure 2: Brittleheart failure, Sectional images (A, B, and

C) and 3D image (D) of a sapupira sample – CF grade 4. Red cross indicates the position in the cube. 3D illustration shows higher densities where ‘white’ bands are present [18].



 

Figure 3: Top fall causing a serious reduction in tensile

strength parallel to the grain.

 0$&+,1(*5$',1*

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



 67$7,67,&$/9$5,$7,216,1*5$'(' 7,0%(5

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 LVVPDOOHUIRUWKHVDPSOHVWKDWKDYHEHHQJUDGHGLQWKH FRPELQDWLRQWKXVDOORZLQJIRUVPDOOHUVDIHW\IDFWRUV7KH GLIIHUHQFH VKRZV LWVHOI LQ D PXFK ORQJHU WDOH LQ WKH IUHTXHQF\GLVWULEXWLRQZKHQJUDGHGIRU&DQGEHWWHU 7KLVUHVXOWVLQGLIIHUHQWVDIHW\OHYHOVIRUVWUXFWXUHVPDGH ZLWK&WLPEHUDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\GLIIHUHQWVDIHW\IDFWRUV

VKRXOGEHDSSOLHGIRUWKHGLIIHUHQWJUDGLQJRSWLRQV$VWKLV LVQRWFRQVLGHUHGIHDVLEOHDPRUHUHVWULFWLYHDSSURDFKWR JUDGLQJ SROLFLHV VKRXOG EH LQFRUSRUDWHG LQ WKH UHOHYDQW VWDQGDUGV>@>@)RUWKHWZRJUDGLQJRSWLRQVRIWKHVDPH EDWFKDVSUHVHQWHGKHUHDVDIHW\IDFWRUȖ0RIFRXOG

EH DSSOLHG IRU PDWHULDO JUDGHG LQ WKH FRPELQDWLRQ && ZKHUHDV D VDIHW\ IDFWRU RI Ȗ0 !  ZRXOG EH

UHTXLUHG IRU WKH & FODVV JUDGHG RQ LWV RZQ 7KH HVWLPDWLRQRIWKHȖ0IDFWRUVLVSHUIRUPHGXVLQJWKHPHWKRG

VSHFLILHGLQ,62>@ 

 Figure 4: CFD´s for a batch of timber, graded to C24 and

C35/C24 respectively.



 

Figure 5: Frequency distributions a batch of timber,

graded to C24 and C35/C24 respectively.



 0(',80'(16(+$5':22'6

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

LQVRXWKHUQ*HUPDQ\DQGLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWK(1>@ 6RPH RI WKHVH WHVWV KRZHYHU UHTXLUH FRQVLGHUDEOH VSHFLPHQ SUHSDUDWLRQ EHIRUH WHVWLQJ FDQ FRPPHQFH HVSHFLDOO\LQWKHFDVHRIVKHDUDQGWHQVLRQSHUSHQGLFXODU WRWKHJUDLQWHVWLQJ,Q)LJXUHWKHFXPXODWLYHVWUHQJWK DQGPRGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQVDUHVKRZQRIDWHVW VHULHVRQDVKDQGEHHFKZLWKVSUXFHDVDFRPSDULVRQ   Figure 6: Cumulative frequency distributions of the

strength of ash and beech loaded perpendicular to the grain.



 Figure 7: Cumulative frequency distributions of the

modulus of elasticity of ash and beech loaded

perpendicular to the grain

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

LQFUHDVLQJ GHQVLW\ RWKHUZLVH WKHUH LV QR FRUUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ GHQVLW\ DQG VWUHQJWK QHLWKHU LQ WHQVLRQ QRU LQ FRPSUHVVLRQ)URPWKHWHVWUHVXOWVLWFDQEHFRQFOXGHG WKDW WKH SXEOLVKHG YDOXHV LQ (1  >@ IRU WKH WHQVLOH VWUHQJWK SHUSHQGLFXODU WR WKH JUDLQ DUH WRR FRQVHUYDWLYHDQGFRQVHTXHQWO\KLQGHUWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRI FXUYHGJOXHGODPLQDWHGWLPEHURQWKHPDUNHW    

Figure 8. Relationship between density and tensile

strength (upper) and density and compression strength

(lower) perpendicular to the grain.



 7,0%(5-2,176

 5(/$7,216+,3%(7:((1'(16,7<$1' /2$'&$55<,1*&$3$&,7<2)-2,176

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



 Figure 9: Embedding strength and strength class

boundaries of EN 338.



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RUWKHPHDQGHQVLW\RIDERDUGLVPHDVXUHGDQG XVHGDVDJUDGLQJSURSHUW\DQGPDFKLQHJUDGLQJ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p lophira alataFRYHULQJDGHQVLW\UDQJHIURPWR NJP_{VHH)LJXUH}   +,*+675(1*7+67((/)$67(1(56 8QWLOUHFHQWO\VWHHOGRZHOJUDGHVZHUHUHJXODWHGLQWKH VHQVHWKDWGRZHOVZHUHJHQHUDOO\RUGHUHGLQDFFRUGDQFH ZLWK(XURSHDQVWDQGDUG(1DOORZLQJDPD[LPXP JUDGHRI6$V(XURFRGHKDVQRUHVWULFWLRQVKLJKHU VWHHOJUDGHVDUHDOVRSRVVLEOH,QRUGHUWRVHHZKHWKHUWKH ORDGFDUU\LQJFDSDFLW\RIWLPEHUMRLQWVZLWKGRZHOW\SH IDVWHQHUV FDQ EH LQFUHDVHG MXVW E\ FKDQJLQJ WKH VWHHO JUDGH D QXPEHU RI WHVWV KDYH EHHQ SHUIRUPHG ZLWK

YDU\LQJGRZHOGLDPHWHUDQGRQVSHFLHVOLNHVSUXFHEHHFK D]REpDQGEHHFK/9/

 

Figure 10: Correlation between density and normalized

load carrying capacity of timber joints, modified from [20].

 Figure 11: Influence of spruce density on the normalized

load carrying capacity of three different types of joints [21].

Figure 12: Influence of wood density on the load carrying

capacity of 12 and 24 mm dowelled joints of beech and azobé [22].



$FRQVLGHUDEOHLQFUHDVHLQORDGFDUU\LQJFDSDFLW\FDQEH REVHUYHGLQDOOFDVHVERWKZRRGZRRGMRLQWVDVZHOODV MRLQWV ZLWK VORWWHG ±LQ VWHHO SODWHV :LWK LQFUHDVLQJ IDVWHQHU VWUHQJWK WKH ORDG FDUU\LQJ FDSDFLW\ LQFUHDVHV FRQVLGHUDEO\DQGWKHDSSOLFDELOLW\RIWKH(XURSHDQ<LHOG 0RGHOFRXOGEHFRQILUPHG:LWKUHVSHFWWREHHFK/9/ WKHUHZDVDQLQWHUHVWLQJILQGLQJLQWKHIDFWWKDWLQVLQJOH GRZHO WHVWV ZLWK RUGLQDU\ VWHHO WKH VWHHO ORDG FDUU\LQJ FDSDFLW\LQVKHDUZDVUHDFKHGEHIRUHIDLOXUHRIWKHZRRG SDUWV7KLVKDSSHQHGLQDQXPEHURIWHVWVVKRZLQJWKDW y=0.0009x+0.5832 R²=0.4788 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 300.00 350.00 400.00 450.00 500.00 550.00 R e la ti v e lo a d ca rr y in g ca p a ci ty (Ͳ ) Density(kg/m3₎ Normalizedloadcarryingcapacityforthreetest seriesofdowelledtimberͲtoͲtimberjoints                 'HQVLW\NJP 5 HO DW LY H MR LQ WV WUH QJ WK > @ 1DLOHGMRLQWV 7RRWKHGSODWHMRLQWV 6SOLWULQJMRLQWV

WKH KLJK ORDGFDUULQJ FDSDFLW\ RI WKH EHHFK/9/ PLJKW LQGXFH IDLOXUHPRGHV WKDW DUH JHQHUDOO\ QRW FKHFNHG E\ VWUXFWXUDOHQJLQHHUVDVWKH\DUHQRWVWDQGDUGSUDFWLVHWR YHULI\ ,Q WKH WHVW VHULHV VKHDU IDLOXUH RI WKH VWHHO ZDV REVHUYHGRQO\LQVLQJOHGRZHOWHVWV:LWKUHJDUGWRWKH VWHHO JUDGH LW ZDV FRQILUPHG WKDW RUGLQDU\ VWHHO KDG FRQVLGHUDEOHKLJKHUWKDQH[SHFWHGVWUHQJWKYDOXHV>@ 

 7,0(72)$,/85($1$/<6,62)-2,176

(XURFRGH  LQGLFDWHV WKDW IRU WKH ORQJ WHUP VWUHQJWK RI WLPEHUMRLQWVWKHVDPHPRGLILFDWLRQIDFWRUVIRUGXUDWLRQ RIORDGFDQEHDSSOLHGDVIRUZRRGDQGJOXHGODPLQDWHG WLPEHU$W WKH VDPH WLPH FUHHSIDFWRUV IRU MRLQWV DUHD IDFWRU WZR KLJKHU WKDQ IRU WLPEHU ,Q D ODUJH UHVHDUFK SURMHFWLQLWLDWHGLQE\9HUPH\GHQWKHLQIOXHQFHRI ORDGOHYHORQWKHWLPHWRIDLOXUHRIMRLQWVKDVEHHQXQGHU LQYHVWLJDWLRQ>@2QO\UHFHQWO\LQWKHSURMHFW WHUPLQDWHGZKHQWKHODVWQDLOHGMRLQWVZHUHUHPRYHGIURP WKHWHVWULJDQGVKRUWWHUPWHVWHGIRUUHVLGXDOVWUHQJWK    Figure 13: Beech LVL joints: slotted in steel plate with

single dowel. Upper: HSS grade 12.9, Lower: ordinary steel grade S235. (Steel plate not shown).



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 UHODWHV WKH FRQVWDQW ORDG ZLWKWKHWLPHWRIDLOXUHLQDWHVW  ORJ f s C C t f σ = −  

ZKHUHσ VWUHVVfV PHDQVKRUWWHUPVWUHQJWKDQGtI 

WKH WLPHWRIDLOXUH $ OLQHDU UHODWLRQVKLS LV JHQHUDOO\ IRXQGDQGDOVRWKHEDVLVIRUWKHkPRGIDFWRUVLQ(XURFRGH

)RUZRRG&JHQHUDOO\WDNHVDYDOXHRIDURXQGWR

ZKHUHDV&KDVDYDOXHRIDURXQGWR>

@ +RIIPH\HU DQG )ULGOH\ >@ IRXQG FRPSDUDEOH YDOXHVEXWIRUQRQFRQVWDQWFOLPDWLFFRQGLWLRQVWKHWLPH WRIDLOXUHOLQHVQHHGHGWREHVKLIWHGWRWKHOHIW6RPHWLPHV DGHOD\WLPHFRXOGEHREVHUYHGLQGLFDWLQJWKDWDQXPEHU RI GHIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVHV LV DFWLQJ ZLWK GLIIHUHQW WLPH VFDOHVVLPLODUWRFUHHS

 Figure 14: Results of time-to-failure tests on nailed,

toothed-plate and split-ring joints.



,Q>@DWKRURXJKDQDO\VLVRIWKHUHVXOWVRI)LJXUHZDV SHUIRUPHG ERWK RQ MRLQW W\SH OHYHO DV ZHOO DV RQ WKH FRPSDULVRQ$VFRQVLGHUDEOHVFDWWHUFDQEHREVHUYHGLQ WKHWLPHWRIDLOXUHUHVXOWVEXWWKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIQDLOHG MRLQWVLVFOHDUO\DGYDQWDJHRXVRYHUWKHPRUHEULWWOHMRLQWV 7KHVFDWWHUIRUQDLOHGMRLQWVLVPXFKVPDOOHUDQGDVORDG UHGLVWULEXWLRQ LV SRVVLEOH IRU LQVWDQFH ZKHQ FUDFN IRUPDWLRQ XQGHU WKH QDLOV LQLWLDWHV QRW RQO\ D PRUH IDYRXUDEOHVDIHW\IDFWRULVMXVWLILHGDOVRPRUHIDYRXUDEOH

kmod IDFWRUV ,Q 7DEOH  WKH VFDWWHU IRU WKH VKRUW WHUP

VWUHQJWKLVDQDO\VHGLQUHODWLRQWRWKHUHTXLUHGVDIHW\IDFWRU LQ DFFRUGDQFH ZLWK ,62  >@ ,Q (XURFRGH  WKH VDIHW\IDFWRUIRUFRQQHFWLRQVLVVRIRUWRRWKHGSODWH MRLQWV DQG VSOLWULQJ MRLQWV WKLV VHHPV WR EH UHDVRQDEOH ZKHUHDVIRUQDLOHGMRLQWVWKLVVHHPVWREHSXQLVKLQJ

Table 1: Statistical data of joints and safety factors

-RLQWW\SH $YHUDJH VWUHQJWK N1 6W GHY N1 &29  6DIHW\IDFWRU,62 Ȗ0 1DLOHG     7RRWKHG SODWH     6SOLWULQJ     2Q WKH EDVLV RI WKH WLPHWRIDLOXUH UHVXOWV RI WKH WKUHH GLIIHUHQWMRLQWW\SHVLWFDQEHFRQFOXGHGWKDWkmodIDFWRUV

IRU QDLOHG MRLQWV DUH RQ WKH FRQVHUYDWLYH VLGH EXW IRU WRRWKHGSODWHMRLQWVDQGVSOLWULQJMRLQWVWKDWEHKDYHUDWKHU EULWWOHLWVHHPVWKH\DUHRQWKHXQFRQVHUYDWLYHVLGH)URP )LJXUHLWFDQEHVHHQWKDWRQDORDGOHYHOIDLOXUHV GRRFFXUZLWKLQWKHILUVW\HDUVRIORDGLQJ,QRUGHUWR DFFRXQWIRUWKHUHGXFHGORQJWHUPVWUHQJWKIDFWRU&LQ HTXDWLRQVKRXOGEHDURXQGRUKLJKHUWKDQ WKDWIRUZRRG>@'HSHQGLQJRQWKHW\SHRIUHJUHVVLRQ DQGWKHGHOD\WLPHFKRVHQWKHUHJUHVVLRQHTXDWLRQFDQEH ZULWWHQDV                 5 HO DW LY H OR DG OH YH O 7LPH\HDUV 7LPHWRIDLOXUHRIWLPEHUMRLQWV 1DLOHGMRLQWV 7RRWKHGSODWHMRLQWV 6SOLWULQJMRLQWV

 ORJ f s t f σ = −  

ZLWKtfLQKRXUVDQGSURSRVHGkmodYDOXHVDUHJLYHQLQ

7DEOH

Table 2: Duration of load factors for timber joints

/RDG GXUDWLRQ

FODVV $FFXPXODWHGORDGWLPH tfLQHT kPRG 3HUPDQHQW !\UV \UV  /RQJWHUP PWK±\UV \UV  0HGLXPWHUP ZHHN±PWK PWK  6KRUWWHUP OHVVWKDQZHHN ZHHN   0RUHDGYDQFHGPRGHOVWRGHVFULEHWKHWLPHWRIDLOXUHDUH DYDLODEOH>@DQGEDVLFDOO\LPSURYHWKHPRGHOVLQWKH VHQVHWKDWWKHGLIIHUHQWWLPHGHSHQGHQWSURFHVVHVLQVLGH WKHPDWHULDODUHLQFRUSRUDWHGLQDVLQJOHPRGHO$SSO\LQJ DQRQOLQHDUWLPHWRIDLOXUHOLQHWRWKHGDWDRIWKHWRRWKHG SODWHMRLQWVUHVXOWVLQ)LJXUH$WKUHVKROGOHYHOIRUW  ’EHORZZKLFKQRGDPDJHDFFXPXODWHV LV HVWLPDWHG DW DURXQGRQWKHEDVLVRIWKHDYDLODEOHGDWD  Figure 15. Non-linear time to failure line for

toothed-plate joints.



8VLQJ WKH FKHPLFDO NLQHWLFV DSSURDFK WKH UDWH RI ERQG EUHDNLQJ FDQ EH H[SUHVVHG DV GDPDJH DQG D GDPDJH DFFXPXODWLRQFDQEHFDOFXODWHG7KLVLVVKRZQLQ)LJXUH  IRU WKH VDPH GDWD RI )LJXUH  'HSHQGLQJ RQ WKH DSSURDFK WDNHQ OLQHDU RU QRQOLQHDU WLPHWRIDLOXUH SURFHVVHV D GLIIHUHQW GDPDJH DFFXPXODWLRQ FXUYH LV IRXQG7KHGLIIHUHQFHVDUHSDUWO\EDVHGRQWKHDVVXPHG SURFHVV DQG SDUWO\ RQ WKH VWDWLVWLFDO UHJUHVVLRQ GLIIHUHQFHV

 Figure 16. Time-to-failure and damage accumulation

lines for toothed-plate joints (damage development calculated at 50% load level).



7KHGDPDJHDFFXPXODWLRQOLQHVLQZKDWHYHUIRUPFDQEH D JRRG WRRO WR DQDO\VH WKH ORQJWHUP EHKDYLRXU RI VWUXFWXUHV XQGHU YDU\LQJ ORDGV DQG ZKHQ VWUXFWXUDO GHJUDGDWLRQ WDNHV SODFH ,W LV FOHDU KRZHYHU IURP WKH GDPDJH FXUYHV WKDW WKH DFWXDO IDLOXUH SURFHVV QHDU WR FROODSVHWDNHVSODFHLQDYHU\VKRUWWLPHVSDQ,Q>@WKLV LV UHIHUUHG WR DV VRFDOOHG NLOOHU ORDGV 7KH GDPDJH FRQFHSWLVDOVRDSSOLFDEOHRQIDWLJXHSUREOHPVDQGVLPLODU FXUYHVFDQEHIRXQGEDVHGRQWKHDPRXQWRIORDGF\FOHV LQVWHDG RI RQ WKH WLPH 7KH DGYDQWDJH LV WKDW GLIIHUHQW WKUHVKROGUDWLRVFDQEHGHILQHGIRUGLIIHUHQWVWUHVVVWDWHV ,Q ZRRG WKH IDWLJXH OLIH LQ FRPSUHVVLRQ LV FOHDUO\ IDYRXUDEOH FRPSDUHG WR WHQVLRQ DQG WKXV D KLJKHU WKUHVKROGFDQEHGHILQHGIRUW ’$OVRDUDWLR5 LV PRUH GDPDJLQJ WKDQ D UDWLR 5  LQGLFDWLQJ D ORZHU WKUHVKROGYDOXH$TXDOLWDWLYHJUDSKRIZKDWLVSRVVLEOH ZLWKQRQOLQHDUIDWLJXHFXUYHVEDVHGRQDERQGEUHDNLQJ GDPDJH DFFXPXODWLRQ DSSURDFK LV VKRZQ LQ )LJXUH  7KHDUURZVLQGLFDWHKRZWKHSDUDPHWHUVRIWKHPRGHOPD\ LQIOXHQFH WKH ORFDWLRQ RI WKH FXUYH DQG LWV VKDSH 7KLV GHSHQGV DPRQJ RWKHUV RQ WKH GHOD\ WLPH WKH WKUHVKROG OHYHODQGWKHDPRXQWRIGDPDJHSHUF\FOH



 Figure 17. Non-linear fatigue curves for wood. Arrows

indicate how model parameters may influence the location and shape of the curves.



7KHSUREOHPVZLWKIDWLJXHPRGHOOLQJRIZRRGDQGMRLQWV DUHKRZHYHUQXPHURXV $VZRRG LV DQRQOLQHDUYLVFR HODVWLFPDWHULDODQGKLJKO\DQLVRWURSLFLWLVQRWRQO\WKH DPRXQW RI F\FOHV DQG WKH VWUHVV UDQJH WKDW JRYHUQ WKH IDWLJXHOLIH$SDUWIURPWKHVWUHVVUDQJH5 PLQLPXP VWUHVVPD[LPXPVWUHVVDOVRWKHVWUHVVUDWLRU VWUHVV OHYHOVKRUWWHUPVWUHQJWKDQGWKHIUHTXHQF\SOD\DUROH LQWKHIDWLJXHEHKDYLRXU7KLVPDNHVLWGLIILFXOWWRHVWLPDWH WKHYDOXHVRIWKHSDUDPHWHUVWKDWGHWHUPLQHWKHORFDWLRQ DQGWKHVKDSHRIWKHIDWLJXHFXUYHVSURSHUO\ 

 180(5,&$/02'(//,1*2)

7,0%(5-2,176

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

           /R DG OH YH O 7LPHWRIDLOXUHKUV 1RQOLQHDUWLPHWRIDLOXUHOLQHIRUWRRWKHGSODWHMRLQWV                        ' DP DJ H IX QF WLR Q ) UH V  /R DG OH YH O 7LPHWRIDLOXUHKUV 7LPHWRIDLOXUHDQGGDPDJHOLQHIRUWRRWKHGSODWHMRLQWV WHVWUHVXOWV 1RQOLQHDUWWIOLQH /LQHDUWWIOLQH 1RQOLQHDUWWIGDPDJHGHYHORSPHQW /LQHDUWWIGDPDJHGHYHORSPHQW 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08

Lo a d le v e l Loadcycles Indicativeexampleoffatiguecurvesusingbondbreakingmodel Variationsincurveshapes Tension(R=0.1) Tension(R=Ͳ1.0) Bending Compression

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 VKHDU WHQVLOH SHUSHQGLFXODU WR WKH JUDLQ DQG IULFWLRQ )ULFWLRQ DOVR GHSHQGV RQ WKH VWHHO JUDGH DQG WKH VPRRWKQHVVRIWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHGRZHOV>@ ,Q )LJXUH  WKH ORDGVOLS FXUYH IURP D WHVW DQG D VLPXODWLRQ LV VKRZQ FRYHULQJ ERWK VRIWZRRG DQG KDUGZRRGEHKDYLRXU>@7KHJRRGDSSUR[LPDWLRQZDV REWDLQHG E\ DSSO\LQJ WKH +LOO FULWHULRQ >@ ZKHUH WKH \LHOG VWUHVV ZDV UHODWHG WR WKH HPEHGGLQJ VWUHQJWK RI ZRRG



 Figure 18. FEM-model simulating the load slip curve

including the loop in EN 26891 [44].



6DQGKDDVGHYHORSHGDQXPHULFDOPRGHOEDVHGRQ FRQWLQXXPGDPDJHPHFKDQLFVDQGDQDO\VHGWKH EHKDYLRXURIWLPEHUMRLQWVZLWKDQGGRZHOVLQD URZZLWKVSUXFHEHHFKDQGD]REpDVVSHFLHVDQGWZR VWHHOJUDGHVDQGGLDPHWHUV>@$QH[DPSOHRIWKH GDPDJHHYROXWLRQXQGHUDGRZHOLQDMRLQWWKDWLVIDLOLQJ SODVWLFDOO\LVVKRZQLQ)LJXUHVKRZLQJWKHSRWHQWLDO RID&'0DSSURDFK

Figure 19. Damage model showing compression

damage parallel to the grain under a fastener [44].

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



 

Figure 20. Parallel to the grain damage (a) and

perpendicular to the grain damage (b), for a joint made

of beech with three 24 mm high strength steel dowels [44].



 287/22.

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VFRPSOH[LW\LQ XQGHUVWDQGDEOH PRGHOV UHPDLQV D FKDOOHQJLQJ WDVN ZKHUHDV DW WKH VDPH WLPH WKH PRGHOV PXVW EH FRPSUHKHQVLEOH DQG DSSOLFDEOH IRU HQJLQHHUV DV ZHOO 7KH\VKRXOGEHQHLWKHUWRRFRPSOH[QRUWRRVLPSOH  

$&.12:/('*(0(17

7KLVSDSHULVWKHUHVXOWRIWKHZRUNPDQ\ERWKFROOHDJXHV DQGVWXGHQWV:LWKRXWSUHWHQGLQJRIEHLQJFRPSOHWH,GR OLNHWRH[SUHVVP\VLQFHUHJUDWLWXGHWR0DUFR%DOOHULQL $OIUHGR 'LDV :ROIJDQJ *DUG $QGUHD 0LVFRQHO 3HWHU 6WDSHO $QGUHDV 5DLV *HHUW 5DYHQVKRUVW &DUPHQ

6DQGKDDVDQG3HWHUGH9ULHVIRUWKHIUXLWIXOGLVFXVVLRQV RYHU WKH \HDUV GXULQJ WKH UHVHDUFK SURMHFWV SDUWO\ SUHVHQWHGDQGGLVFXVVHGLQWKLVFRQWULEXWLRQ

7KH RUJDQLVDWLRQ RI :&7(  LV VLQFHUHO\ DFNQRZOHGJHG IRU WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ JLYHQ WR SUHVHQW WKLV SDSHU

/DVWEXWQRWOHDVWPDQ\WKDQNVJRWR7RPYDQGHU3XW +DQV%ODVVDQG$ULR&HFFRWWLIRUOD\LQJWKHIRXQGDWLRQV IRU WKHLU VSLULW IRU WKH \HDUV RI FRRSHUDWLRQ DQG WKH VWLPXODWLQJ WDONV DQG GLVFXVVLRQV ZHYH KDG RYHU WKH \HDUV



5()(5(1&(6

>@ 36WDSHO-:*YDQGH.XLOHQ(IILFLHQF\RIYLVXDO VWUHQJWK JUDGLQJ RI WLPEHU ZLWK UHVSHFW WR RULJLQ VSHFLHV FURVV VHFWLRQ DQG JUDGLQJ UXOHV D FULWLFDO HYDOXDWLRQRIWKHFRPPRQVWDQGDUGV+RO]IRUVFKXQJ '2,KI

>@ $ 5DLV + 3UHW]VFK -:* YDQ GH .XLOHQ 5RXQGZRRG SUHJUDGLQJ ZLWK ORQJLWXGLQDO DFRXVWLF ZDYHV IRU SURGXFWLRQ RI VWUXFWXUDO ERDUGV (XU - :RRG3URG'2,V >@ 36WDSHO-:*YDQGH.XLOHQ(IIHFWVRIJUDGLQJ

SURFHGXUHVRQWKHVFDWWHURIFKDUDFWHULVWLFYDOXHVRI (XURSHDQ JURZQ VDZQ WLPEHU 0DWHULDOV DQG 6WUXFWXUHV'2,V >@ $‘YUXP*,9HVW¡O0RGHOLQJWKHHIIHFWRI

OHQJWK RQ \LHOG RI VDZQ WLPEHU JUDGHV LQ 1RUZD\ VSUXFH3LFHDDELHV/.DUVW(XURSHDQ

-RXUQDO RI :RRG DQG :RRG 3URGXFWV  ± GRLV

>@ $ ‘YUXP *, 9HVW¡O 2$ +¡LE¡  0RGHOOLQJWKHHIIHFWVRIWLPEHUOHQJWKVWDQGDQGWUHH SURSHUWLHV RQ JUDGH \LHOG RI 3LFHD DELHV WLPEHU 6FDQGLQDYLDQ -RXUQDO RI )RUHVW 5HVHDUFK  ± '2,

>@ $5DLV-:*YDQGH.XLOHQ&ULWLFDOVHFWLRQHIIHFW GXULQJ GHULYDWLRQ RI VHWWLQJV IRU JUDGLQJ PDFKLQHV EDVHG RQ G\QDPLF PRGXOXV RI HODVWLFLW\ :RRG 0DWHULDO 6FLHQFH  (QJLQHHULQJ '2, 

>@ , &]PRFK 6 7KHODQGHUVVRQ +- /DUVHQ  (IIHFW RI ZLWKLQ PHPEHU YDULDELOLW\ RQ EHQGLQJ VWUHQJWK RI VWUXFWXUDO WLPEHU 3URFHHGLQJV RI &,% :PHHWLQJ2[IRUG(QJODQG >@ )/DP(9DURJOX(IIHFWRIOHQJWKRQWKH WHQVLOHVWUHQJWKRIOXPEHU)RUHVW3URGXFWV-RXUQDO ± >@ 7,VDNVVRQ67KHODQGHUVVRQ(IIHFWRIWHVW VWDQGDUGOHQJWKDQGORDGFRQILJXUDWLRQRQEHQGLQJ VWUHQJWKRIVWUXFWXUDOWLPEHU&,%:SDSHU &RSHQKDJHQ >@+- %ODVV 0 6FKPLG  4XHU]XJIHVWLJNHLW YRQ 9ROOKRO] XQG %UHWWVFKLFKWKRO] +RO] DOV 5RK XQG:HUNVWRII

>@67RUQR0.QRU]-:*YDQGH.XLOHQ6XSSO\RI EHHFKODPHOODVIRUWKHSURGXFWLRQRIJOXHGODPLQDWHG WLPEHU,6&+3)ORUHQFH,WDO\

>@0 :HVWHUPD\U  4XHU]XJIHVWLJNHLW YRQ %XFKHQ XQG (VFKHQKRO] (UPLWWOXQJ YRQ .HQQZHUWHQ PLWWHOV ',1 (1  %DFKHORUDUEHLW780QFKHQLQ*HUPDQ >@*66FKDMHU/XPEHUVWUHQJWKJUDGLQJXVLQJ;UD\ VFDQQLQJ)RUHVW3URGXFWV-RXUQDO >@$2OVVRQ-2VFDUVVRQ(6HUUDQR%.lOOVQHU0 -RKDQVVRQ%(QTXLVW3UHGLFWLRQRIWLPEHUEHQGLQJ VWUHQJWK DQG LQPHPEHU FURVVVHFWLRQDO VWLIIQHVV YDULDWLRQRQWKHEDVLVRIORFDOZRRGILEUHRULHQWDWLRQ (XU-:RRG3URG

>@:)*DUG*-35DYHQVKRUVW-:*YDQGH.XLOHQ &RQVLVWHQF\ RI YLVXDO VWUHQJWK JUDGLQJ RI WURSLFDO KDUGZRRGVLQ(XURSH,6&+3)ORUHQFH,WDO\ >@-'LQZRRGLH)DLOXUHLQWLPEHU3DUW0LFURVFRSLF FKDQJHV LQ FHOOZDOO VWUXFWXUH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK FRPSUHVVLRQ IDLOXUH - ,QVW :RRG 6FL  

>@0 $UQROG 5 6WHLJHU 7KH LQIOXHQFH RI ZLQG LQGXFHG FRPSUHVVLRQ IDLOXUHV RQ WKH PHFKDQLFDO SURSHUWLHVRIVSUXFHVWUXFWXUDOWLPEHU0DWHULDOVDQG 6WUXFWXUHV

>@+ .XLVFK :) *DUG ( %RWWHU -:* YDQ GH .XLOHQ %ULWWOHKHDUW DV D FULWLFDO IHDWXUH IRU YLVXDO VWUHQJWKJUDGLQJRIWURSLFDOKDUGZRRG±$SSURDFKRI GHWHFWLRQ:&7($XFNODQG1HZ=HDODQG >@&6DQGKDDV*-35DYHQVKRUVW+-%ODVV-: *YDQGH.XLOHQ(PEHGPHQWWHVWVSDUDOOHOWRJUDLQ DQGGXFWLOLW\DVSHFWVXVLQJYDULRXVZRRGVSHFLHV(XU - :RRG 3URG  ± '2, V] >@-YDQ*URHVHQ0.UDQHQEXUJ+RXWYHUELQGLQJHQ PHWKRJHVWHUNWHVWDDO%DFKHORUWKHVLV)DFXOW\RI &LYLO(QJLQHHULQJ8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\'HOIW 7KH1HWKHUODQGV>LQ'XWFK@ >@-:*YDQGH.XLOHQ7KHUHVLGXDOORDGFDUU\LQJ FDSDFLW\RIWLPEHUMRLQWV+HURQYROXPHQU S

>@& 6DQGKDDV 0HFKDQLFDO EHKDYLRU RI WLPEHU MRLQWV ZLWKVORWWHGLQVWHHOSODWHV'LVVHUWDWLRQ78'HOIWWKH 1HWKHUODQGV

>@$ 0LVFRQHO 0 %DOOHULQL -:* YDQ GH .XLOHQ 6WHHOWRWLPEHUMRLQWVRIEHHFK/9/ZLWKYHU\KLJK VWUHQJWKVWHHOGRZHOV:&7(9LHQQD$XVWULD >@3 .REHO 5 6WHLJHU $ )UDQJL ([SHULPHQWDO

DQDO\VLV RQ WKH VWUXFWXUDOEHKDYLRXURI FRQQHFWLRQV ZLWK/9/PDGHRI%HHFKZRRG5LOHP0DWHULDOV DQG-RLQWVLQ7LPEHU6WUXFWXUHV6SULQJHU >@3'5RGG7KHDQDO\VLVRIWLPEHUMRLQWVPDGH

ZLWK FLUFXODU GRZHO FRQQHFWRUV 3K' WKHVLV 8QLYHUVLW\RI6XVVH[

>@%9UHHVZLMN  9HUELQGLQJHQ LQ KDUGKRXW 0DVWHU WKHVLV )DFXOW\ RI &LYLO (QJLQHHULQJ 8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\'HOIW

>@39HUPH\GHQ'XXUSURHYHQWHUEHVWXGHULQJYDQKHW YHUEDQG WXVVHQ EHODVWLQJGXXU HQ VWHUNWH ELM KRXWYHUELQGLQJHQ 2YHU]LFKW SURHYHQVHULHV 5HSRUW +'78'HOIWLQ'XWFK

>@- .XLSHUV (IIHFW RI DJH DQGRU ORDG RQ WLPEHU VWUHQJWK,8)526&,%:)ORUHQFH ,WDO\

>@-:* YDQ GH .XLOHQ 'XUDWLRQ RI ORDG HIIHFWV LQ WLPEHUMRLQWV3K'WKHVLV78'HOIWWKH1HWKHUODQGV 

ORDGLQJ(QJLQHHULQJ1HZVUHFRUG 

>@5*3HDUVRQ7KHHIIHFWRIGXUDWLRQRIORDGRQWKH EHQGLQJVWUHQJWKRIZRRG+RO]IRUVFKXQJ 

>@3 +RIIPH\HU )DLOXUH RI ZRRG DV LQIOXHQFHG E\ PRLVWXUH DQG GXUDWLRQ RI ORDG 3K' 7KHVLV 6WDWH 8QLYHUVLW\RI1HZ<RUN

>@.-)ULGOH\5&7DQJ/$6ROWLV7KHUPDOHIIHFWV RQ ORDG GXUDWLRQ RI VROLG OXPEHU :RRG DQG )LEHU 6FLHQFH >@.-)ULGOH\5&7DQJ/$6ROWLV7KHUPDOHIIHFWV RQORDGGXUDWLRQRIOXPEHU3DUW,(IIHFWRIFRQVWDQW WHPSHUDWXUH :RRG DQG )LEHU 6FLHQFH    >@.-)ULGOH\5&7DQJ/$6ROWLV7KHUPDOHIIHFWV RQORDGGXUDWLRQRIOXPEHU3DUW,,(IIHFWRIF\FOLF WHPSHUDWXUH :RRG DQG )LEHU 6FLHQFH    >@.-)ULGOH\5&7DQJ/$6ROWLV7KHUPDOHIIHFWV RQORDGGXUDWLRQRIOXPEHU3DUW,(IIHFWRIFRQVWDQW UHODWLYH KXPLGLW\ :RRG DQG )LEHU 6FLHQFH   >@.-)ULGOH\5&7DQJ/$6ROWLV7KHUPDOHIIHFWV RQORDGGXUDWLRQRIOXPEHU3DUW,,(IIHFWRIF\FOLF UHODWLYHKXPLGLW\:RRGDQG)LEHU6FLHQFH  >@')&DXOILHOG$FKHPLFDONLQHWLFVDSSURDFKWRWKH GXUDWLRQRIORDG SUREOHP LQ ZRRG :RRG DQG ILEUH VFLHQFHV9RO1RSS

>@7$&0YDQGHU3XW$PRGHORIGHIRUPDWLRQDQG GDPDJHSURFHVVHVEDVHGRQWKHUHDFWLRQNLQHWLFVRI ERQG H[FKDQJH 3DSHU  &,%:,8)52 6PHHWLQJ)ORUHQFH,WDO\

>@52)RVFKL=&<DR$QRWKHUORRNDWWKUHHGXUDWLRQ RI ORDG PRGHOV 3DSHU  &,%:,8)52 6PHHWLQJ)ORUHQFH,WDO\

>@/ 1LHOVHQ $ OLIHWLPH DQDO\VLV RI FUDFNHG OLQHDU YLVFRHODVWLF PDWHULDOV ± ZLWK VSHFLDO UHIHUHQFH WR ZRRG 3URF ,QWHUQDWLRQDO ZRUNVKRS RQ GXUDWLRQ RI ORDG)RULQWHN9DQFRXYHU&DQDGD >@'95RVRZVNL:0%XOOHLW/RDGGXUDWLRQHIIHFWV LQZRRGPHPEHUVDQGFRQQHFWLRQVRUGHUVWDWLVWLFV DQGFULWLFDOORDGV6WUXFWXUDO6DIHW\  >@: +ZDQJ .6 +DQ &XPXODWLYH GDPDJH PRGHOV DQG0XOWLVWUHVV)DWLJXH/LIH3UHGLFWLRQ-RXUQDORI FRPSRVLWH0DWHULDOV9ROSS >@$30*'LDV-:*YDQGH.XLOHQ+03&UX]

605 /RSHV 1XPHULFDO PRGHOLQJ RI WKH ORDG GHIRUPDWLRQ EHKDYLRXU RI GRZHOHG VRIWZRRG DQG KDUGZRRG MRLQWV :RRG DQG )LEUH 6FLHQFH  2FWREHUSS

>@$30*'LDV-:*YDQGH.XLOHQ605/RSHV +03 &UX] $ QRQOLQHDU ' )(0 PRGHO WR VLPXODWH WLPEHU±FRQFUHWH MRLQWV $GYDQFHV LQ (QJLQHHULQJ6RIWZDUH±

>@+LOO57KHPDWKHPDWLFDOWKHRU\RISODVWLFLW\ &ODUHQGRQ3UHVV2[IRUG8.SS

>@%6   9LVXDO JUDGLQJ RI KDUGZRRG ± 6SHFLILFDWLRQ%6, ± %ULWLVK 6WDQGDUGV ,QVWLWXWLRQ

/RQGRQ8.

>@,62  *HQHUDO SULQFLSOHV RQ UHOLDELOLW\ IRU VWUXFWXUHV

>@(16WUXFWXUDOWLPEHU6WUHQJWKFODVVHV&(1

%UXVVHOV

>@(1  GUDIW 6WUXFWXUDO WLPEHU  6WUHQJWK

FODVVHV&(1%UXVVHOV

>@(1  6WUXFWXUDO WLPEHU²GHWHUPLQDWLRQ RI FKDUDFWHULVWLF YDOXHV RI PHFKDQLFDO SURSHUWLHV DQG GHQVLW\&(1%UXVVHOV >@(17LPEHU6WUXFWXUHV±'HWHUPLQDWLRQRIVRPH SK\VLFDODQGPHFKDQLFDOSURSHUWLHV >@(1  5RXQG DQG VDZQ WLPEHU 1RPHQFODWXUHRIWLPEHUVXVHGLQ(XURSH(XURSHDQ &RPPLWWHHIRU6WDQGDUGL]DWLRQ%UXVVHOV >@(1 $ 7LPEHU VWUXFWXUHV  6WUHQJWK JUDGHG VWUXFWXUDO WLPEHU ZLWK UHFWDQJXODU FURVV VHFWLRQ  3DUW  *HQHUDO UHTXLUHPHQWV (XURSHDQ&RPPLWWHHIRU6WDQGDUGL]DWLRQ%UXVVHOV

>@(1(852&2'(²'HVLJQ RI WLPEHU

VWUXFWXUHV 3DUW  JHQHUDO²FRPPRQ UXOHV DQG UXOHVIRUEXLOGLQJV&(1%UXVVHOV

>@(1 7LPEHU VWUXFWXUHV²VWUHQJWK

JUDGHG VWUXFWXUDO WLPEHU ZLWK UHFWDQJXODU FURVV VHFWLRQ²3DUW  0DFKLQH JUDGLQJ DGGLWLRQDO UHTXLUHPHQWVIRULQLWLDOW\SHWHVWLQJ&(1%UXVVHOV   3DUW  3DUW  0DFKLQH JUDGLQJ DGGLWLRQDO UHTXLUHPHQWVIRUIDFWRU\SURGXFWLRQFRQWURO

>@(16WUXFWXUDO7LPEHU6WUHQJWKFODVVHV

$VVLJQPHQWRIYLVXDOJUDGHVDQGVSHFLHV(XURSHDQ

&RPPLWWHHIRU6WDQGDUGL]DWLRQ%UXVVHOV

>@(1±+RW UROOHG SURGXFWV RI VWUXFWXUDO

VWHHOV

>@1(1  4XDOLW\ UHTXLUHPHQWV IRU

KDUGZRRGV LQ FLYLO HQJLQHHULQJ ZRUNV DQG RWKHU VWUXFWXUDO DSSOLFDWLRQV 1HGHUODQGV 1RUPDOLVDWLH

LQVWLWXXW'HOIW7KH1HWKHUODQGV

>@1)%9LVXDOFODVVLILFDWLRQIRUWKHXVH RI IUHQFK VRIWZRRG DQG KDUGZRRG VSHFLHV LQ VWUXFWXUHV ² 3DUW  0DVVLYH ZRRG$VVRFLDWLRQ

)UDQoDLVH GH 1RUPDOLVDWLRQ $)125 /D 3ODLQH 6DLQW'HQLV&HGH[)UDQFH

>@SU(1  6WUXFWXUDO WLPEHU  9LVXDO VWUHQJWK JUDGLQJRIWURSLFDOKDUGZRRG

>@(1  7LPEHU VWUXFWXUHV ± -RLQWV PDGH ZLWK PHFKDQLFDO IDVWHQHUV ± *HQHUDO 3ULQFLSOHV IRU WKH 'HWHUPLQDWLRQ RI 6WUHQJWK DQG 'HIRUPDWLRQ &KDUDFWHULVWLFV%UXVVHOV&(1