Late Carboniferous-Neogene geodynamic evolution and paleogeography of the circum-Carpathian region and adjacent areas

Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae (2 0 0 0 ), vol. 70: 1 0 7 -1 3 6 .

LATE CARBONIFEROUS-NEOGENE GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY OF THE CIRCUM-CARPATHIAN

REGION AND ADJACENT AREAS

Jan GOLONKA, Nestor OSZCZYPKO & Andrzej ŚLĄCZKA

Institute o f Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Oleandry Str. 2a, 30-063 Kraków, Poland

G olonka, J., O szczy p k o , N . & S lączka, A ., 2000. L ate C arb o n ife ro u s-N e o g e n e g eo d y n am ic ev o lu tio n and p a leo g eo g rap h y o f the c ircu m -C arp ath ian re g io n and a d jacen t areas. Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, 70:

107-136.

A b s tr a c t: T w elv e tim e interval m ap s w ere co n stru cted w h ich d epict the p late tecto n ic c o n fig u ratio n , p aleo g eo ­ g rap h y and general lithofacies. T h e aim o f th is p a p er is to pro v id e the geo d y n am ic ev o lu tio n and p o sitio n o f the m ajo r tecto n ic elem en ts o f the a rea w ith in the global fram ew ork.

T he H ercynian o ro g en y w as c o n clu d ed w ith the co llisio n o f G o n d w an a and L au ru ssia, w h e rea s the T ethys O cean form ed the e m b a y m en t b etw een the E u rasian and G o n d w an ian b ran ch es o f Pangea. T he M eso zo ic rifting events resulted in the origin o f th e o cean ic ty p e b asins like M eliata and P ieniny alo n g th e north ern m arg in o f the T ethys. S eparation o f E urasia fro m G o n d w an a resu lted in the form ation o f the A lb o ran -L ig u rian -P ien in y O cean as a p a rt o f the P an g ean b re ak u p tecto n ic sy stem . D u rin g the Late J u ra ss ic -E a rly C retaceo u s tim e, the O u te r C arpathian rift had developed.

L atest C re ta ce o u s-e arlies t P aleo c en e w as the tim e o f the closure o f the P ieniny O cean. A d ria -A lc a p a terranes co n tin u ed th eir n o rth w ard m o v em e n t d uring E o c e n e -E a rly M iocene tim e. T h eir o b liq u e collision w ith the N o rth E uropean plate led to the d ev elo p m en t o f the accretio n ary w edge o f O u te r C arp ath ian s and fo relan d basin. T he form ation o f the W est C arp ath ian th rusts w as co m p leted by the M iocene tim e. T h e th rust fro n t w as still p ro g ressin g eastw ard s in the E astern C arpathians.

A b s tr a k t: D la obszaru w o k ó łk arp ack ieg o sk o n stru o w an o 12 m ap p rz ed staw iają cy ch k o n fig u rację p ły t litosfe- rycznych, p aleo g eo g ra fię i u p ro szczo n y ro z k ła d lito facji w okresie od p ó źn eg o karb o n u po neogen. P rzed staw io n o ew olucję g eo d y n a m icz n ą tego re jo n u n a tle ru c h u p ły t i p o zy cji głó w n y ch elem en tó w tek to n icz n y ch w glo b aln y m u kładzie odniesienia.

O ro g en eza h ercy ń sk a z ak o ń c zy ła się k o liz ją G o n d w an y i L aurusji, a O cean T ety d y u tw o rz y ł z ato k ę po m ięd zy d w o m a ram ionam i T ety d y - G o n d w a n ą i L aurazją. W w y n ik u m ez o zo iczn y ch ryftów w zd łu ż pó łn o cn ej k raw ędzi O cean u T etydy p o w stało szereg b a se n ó w ty p u ocea n iczn eg o takich ja k M elia ta i b asen pien iń sk i. O cean albo- ra ń sk o -lig u ry jsk o -p ien iń sk i p o w sta ł w w y n ik u o d d zielen ia się G o n d w an y i L aurazji ja k o frag m en t tek to n icz n eg o sy tem u ro zp ad u Pangei. W o k re sie o d późnej ju ry do w czesnej kredy ro zw in ął się ry ft K arp at Z ew n ętrzn y ch .

N a p rzeło m ie k redy i p a leo cen u n astąp iło zam k n ięcie b asen u p ien iń sk ie g o pa sa skałkow ego. W ok resie od eocenu do w czesn eg o m io ce n u teran y A d ri-A lk ap y i K arp at W ew n ętrzn y ch k o n ty n u o w a ły ru c h w kieru n k u pó łn o cn y m , a ich k o lizja z p ły tą e u ro az ja ty c k ą d o p ro w a d ziła do p o w sta n ia pryzm y ak recy jn ej K arp at Z ew n ętrz­

n y ch i basenu p rzed g ó rsk ieg o . P rzy k o ń cu m io c e n u śro d k o w eg o u fo rm o w ały się o stateczn ie n a su n ię c ia K arp at Z ach o d n ich , p o d czas gdy w K arp atach W sch o d n ich ru ch y te przetrw ały do k o ń ca p liocenu.

K e y w o rd s : plate tectonics, p a le o g eo g ra p h y , T ethys, M ed iterran ean , C arpathians, C arb o n ife ro u s, T riassic, Jurassic, C retaceous, P aleo g en e, N eogene.

M anuscript received 3 D ecember 1999, accepted 20 June 2000

INTRODUCTION

Twelve time interval maps were constructed which de­

pict the plate tectonic configuration, paleogeography and li­

thofacies for circum-Carpathian region (Fig. 1) and adjacent areas from the Late Carboniferous through Neogene. These maps were derived from the Jan G olonka’s contribution to

the Mobil project, which encompassed 32 global Phanero- zoic paleoenvironment and lithofacies maps aimed to evalu­

ate petroleum systems in time and space. The original maps were constructed in a 1:25,000,000 scale with a full variety o f colors and patterns linked to computer databases. The

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^ esTifRN CARPatH/.

Budapest Debrecen

°J5T Y R IA N

° B A S IN

CARPATHIANS Beograd

Bucuresti M OESIAN PLATFORM

E A S T E R N A L P S A J O

° 0

) O o O

Tertiary Molasse Zone

Pre - Neogene of inner

orogenic zones Neovolcanic areas

Flysch Belt Pieniny Klippen Belt

Neogene basins

F ig . 1. T ecto n ic sketch m ap o f the A lp in e-C arp ath ian -P an n o n ian -D in arid e basin sy stem (a fte r K ovac et cil, 1998; sim plified)

presented version o f circum-Carpathian regional maps was constructed by the authors in 1999-2000 at the Institute of Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University.

The aim o f this paper is to provide the plate tectonic evolution and position o f the major crustal elements o f the area within the global framework (Fig. 2). Therefore, we re­

stricted the number o f plates and terranes modeled, trying to utilize the existing information and degree o f certainty. We tried to apply geometric and kinematic principles, using computer technology, to model interrelations between tec­

tonic components o f the circum-Carpathian area. This gen­

eral framework will provide a basis for the future integra­

tion o f the local tectonics.

MAPPING METHODOLOGY

The maps were constructed using the following defined steps:

1. Construction o f the base maps using the plate tec­

tonic model. These maps depict plate boundaries (sutures), plate position at the specific time and outline o f present day coastlines.

2. Review o f existing global and regional paleogeo- graphic maps.

3. Posting o f generalized facies and paleoenvironment database information on base maps.

4. Interpretation and final assembly o f computer map files.

The maps were constructed using a plate tectonic model, which describes the relative motions between ap­

proximately 300 plates and terranes. This model was con­

structed using PLATES and PALEOMAP software (see Golonka et al., 1994; Golonka & Gahagan, 1997), which in­

tegrate computer graphics and data management technology with a highly structured and quantitative description o f tec­

tonic relationships. The heart o f this program is the rotation file, which is constantly updated, as new paleomagnetic data become available. Hot-spot volcanics serve as reference points for the calculation o f paleolongitudes (Morgan, 1971;

Golonka & Bocharova, 1997). Magnetic data have been used to define paleolatitudinal position o f continents and ro­

tation o f plates (see e.g., Van der Voo, 1993; Besse & Cour- tillot, 1991; Krs et al, 1996). Ophiolites and deep-water sediments mark paleo-oceans, which were subducted and included into foldbelts.

Information from several general and regional paleo- geographic papers were filtered and utilized (e.g., Ronov et a l, 1984, 1989; Dercourt et a l, 1986, 1993; Robertson, 1998; Sengor & Natalin, 1996; Stampfli et a l, 1991; Zie­

gler, 1988; Zonenshain et a l, 1990; Kovac et a l, 1993, 1998; Plasienka, 1999). We have also utilized the unpub­

lished maps and databases from the PALEOMAP group (University o f Texas at Arlington), PLATES group (Univer­

sity of Texas at Austin), University o f Chicago, Institute o f Tectonics o f Lithospheric Plates in Moscow, Robertson Re­

search in Llandudno, Wales, and the Cambridge Arctic Shelf Programme. The plate and terrane separation was

G E O D Y N A M IC E V O L U T IO N A N D P A L E O G E O G R A P H Y , C IR C U M -C A R P A T H IA N R E G IO N

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based on the PALEOMAP system (see Scotese & Langford, 1995), with modifications in the Tethys area (Golonka &

Gahagan, 1997). The contents o f the original maps were supplemented by detailed information concerning paleoge- ography o f the Outer Carpathians basin (Ksi^zkiewicz, 1962; Sl^czka, 1976; Golonka et a l, 1999; Sl^czka et al., 1999, Kovac et al., 1998). The calculated paleolatitudes and paleolongitudes were used to generate computer maps in the M icrostation design format using the equal area Molweide projection. The glossary with the definition o f the plate tec­

tonic is attached at the end o f the paper.

MAP DISCUSSION

Late Carboniferous

The map on Fig. 2 depicts Europe and adjacent parts of North America, Africa, arctic and Siberia after the initial as­

sembly o f the Pangea supercontinent. The Paleotethys Ocean (Sengor & Natalin, 1996) was situated between northern, Laurussian (North America, Baltica and Siberia) and southern, Gondwanian (Africa, Arabia, Lut and other Iranian terranes) branch o f Pangea. The collision between Gondwana and Laurussia (Ziegler, 1989) developed the central Pangean mountain range - Ouachita - Appalachian Mountains in North America (Hatcher et al., 1989), Maure- tanides in Africa and Hercynian m ountains in Europe (Franke, 1989a, b; Ziegler, 1989).

The Hercynian orogeny in Europe was a result o f colli­

sion o f several separate blocks with the Laurussia margin (Franke, 1989b; Lewandowski, 1998), followed by the in­

volvement o f Gondwana continent. W idespread orogenic deformation occurred across western and central Europe in Iberia, Ligerian terrane, M assif Central, Sardinian-Corsi- can, Armorican, Harz Mts., Saxothuringian, Bohemian, and Silesia areas (Yilmaz et al., 1996).

The Hercynian convergence in Europe led to large- scale dextral shortening, overthrusting and emplacement o f parts o f the accretionary complexes. The amount o f conver­

gence was modified by large, dextral and sinistral transfer faults. Late Carboniferous events were also marked in the Alps, Carpathians (Dallmeyer et a l, 1996; Gawęda et al., 1998) and Rhodopes (Yanev, 1992). M ountains formed on the northern margin o f Paleotethys, as results o f these events, were connected with the Hercynian orogen in Europe. North-dipping subduction developed along the Pa­

leotethys margin. This subduction was a major force driving Late Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic movement o f plates in this area.

The basement o f most o f the plates, which play impor­

tant role in the M esozoic-Cenozoic evolution o f the circum-Carpathian area, was formed during the Late Paleo­

zoic collisional events. Moesia, Rhodopes and the Alcapa superterrane (Neubauer et al., 1995), which includes East­

ern Alps, Inner Carpathians, Tisa and adjacent terranes, were sutured to the Laurasian arm o f Pangea, while Adria and adjacent terranes were situated near the Gondwanian (African) arm. The position o f the Bohemian Massif, adja­

cent to the Carpathian plates, according to paleomagnetic

study (Krs et al., 1996) was located near Equator, agrees with the global Pangean model (Van der Voo, 1993;

Golonka et al., 1994).

Triassic

Many o f the continental collisions, which began in the Carboniferous, reached maturity in the Early Permian. A major part o f Pangea was assembled, and the new supercon­

tinent, ringed by subduction zones, moved steadily north­

wards. The formation o f Laurasia reached a main phase, with the suturing o f Kazakhstan and Siberia with Laurussia (Nikishin et al., 1996; Zonenshain et al., 1990; Ziegler, 1989). Carboniferous-earliest Permian rifting o f the Cim­

merian plates (see Sengor & Natalin, 1996; Dercourt et al., 1993; Golonka et al., 1994) from Gondwana turned into drifting during the Permian, marking the inception o f the Neotethys Ocean. Rifting and oceanic type o f basin opening could also have occurred in the Mediterranean, recorded by the deep-water sediments o f Sicily (Catalano et a l, 1991;

Kozur, 1991), Lago Negro (Marsella et al., 1993) and Crete (Kozur & Krahl, 1987).

The subduction zone along the Paleotethys margin (Fig.

3) caused back-arc rifting in the proto-Black Sea area and along the margins o f Scythian-Turan platform (Zonenshain et al., 1990; Kazmin, 1990, 1991). The Tauric basin was formed between the Pontides and the Dobrogea-Crimea segment o f the Scythian platform. The opening o f the Meliata-Halstatt Ocean, between the Eurasian margin and the Hungarian Tisa block (Kazmer & Kovacs, 1989; Kozur, 1991; Plasienka & Kovac, 1999), was geodynamically re­

lated to this event (Fig. 3). In the proto-M editerranean area, rifting and fragmentation o f separated blocks continue to progress (Ricou, 1996; Golonka & Gahagan, 1997). In the Eastern Mediterranean area rifting occurred during the Per­

mian and Triassic time (Stampfli et al., 1991; Guiraud &

Bellion, 1996), accompanied by M id-Late Triassic, exten­

sive, alkaline basalt flows evident between Levant and M o­

rocco. The rifting was followed by sea-floor spreading re­

corded by Triassic Mamonia ophiolites from Cyprus (Rob­

ertson & Woodcock, 1979, Robertson, 1998).

Several blocks o f the Cimmerian provenance (Sengor

& Natalin, 1996) collided with the Eurasian margin in the Triassic-earliest Jurassic Early Cimmerian orogeny. Alborz and South Caspian microcontinent collided with the Scythian platform at an earlier time (Camian), while the Serbo-Macedonian block collided with the Moesia- Rhodopes (Tari et a l, 1997), and the Lut block collided with the Turan platform, at a later (Norian) phase (Zonen­

shain et al., 1990; Kazmin, 1990).

In the western Tethys area, Late Paleozoic and Triassic rifting and sea-floor spreading resulted in several separated carbonate platforms (Philip et al., 1996; Kiessling et al., 1999). The western part o f the Neotethys is known as the Vardar Ocean (e.g., Sengor & Natalin, 1996, 1984; Kazmer

& Kovacs, 1989). The narrow branch o f Neotethys sepa­

rated the Apulia-Taurus platform from the African conti­

nent. The Apulia platform was connected with European marginal platforms. Its northernmost part was possibly separated from the Umbria-M arche region by a rift. The in-

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Siberia

America

Paleotethys

Africa

Arabia

Fig. 2. Paleo en v iro n m en t an d lith o facies o f the circu m -C arp ath ian a rea during L ate C arb o n ifero u s; plates p o sitio n at 302 M a

G E O D Y N A M IC E V O L U T IO N A N D P A L E O G E O G R A P H Y , C IR C U M -C A R P A T H IA N R E G IO N

111

’’M O U N TA IN S’/H IG H LA N D S (active tectonically)

TO PO G R A PH IC H IG H S (inactive tectonically)

TO PO G R A PH IC M ED IU M - LOW (inactive tectonically, non-d ep o sitio n al)

TE RRESTRIA L U N D IFF E R E N T IA T E D

FLUVIAL

FLUVIO - LA CU STRINE

LACUSTRINE

EOL1AN

COASTAL, TRANSITIONAL, MARGINAL MARINE

PARALIC

IN TERTID A L

DELTAIC

S H ALLOW M ARINE, SH E L F

SLOPE

I I I

L L L L L L L L L L L L L L

X X

X >

X X

V V V

V V

LIM ESTO N E

D OLOM ITE

CHALK

EV A PO R ITES U N D IFF ER EN TIA TED

SAND AND SHALE

r J-TJ _ | 1 | I CARBONATE AND SHALE

A__A__ A__A

SAND AND CARBONATE

CARBONATE AND EV A PO RITES

IN TRU SIV ES

EXTRU SIV ES

OCEANIC SPREA D IN G C EN TE R (red line) AND TRA N SFO RM FA U LTS (black line)

IN ACTIVE SPREA D IN G RIDGE

ACTIVE SU BD U CTIO N ZONE

NORMAL FA U LT

( active o r significant to tim e)

D EE P OCEAN BASIN W IT H SED IM EN TS (co ntinental, tran sitio n a l, o r oceanic cru st)

GRAVITY D EP O S ITS (fan, slum p, tu rb id ites)

D E E P OCEAN BASIN W IT H L ITT LE TO NO SED IM EN TS (prim arily oceanic cru st)

CONGLOMERATE

SANDSTONE, SILTSTO N E

SHALE, CLAY, M UD STO N E

B IO G EN IC SILIC EO U S D E P O S IT

T H R U ST FAULT

STRIK E SL IP

P R E S E N T DAY CO ASTLIN E, SU TURE AND LAT/LONG TICS

* EX TEN SION A L OR H O T SP O T VOLCANOES

* SU B D U CT IO N -R EL A TED VOLCANOES

* U N D IF F E R E N T IA T E D VOLCANOES

R EE F

ORGANIC RICH SHALE

L e g e n d to F ig s 2 -1 0 , 1 2 ,1 3 . A b b re v iatio n s o f oceans an d p lates nam es: A d - A d ria (A pulia), A n - A n d ry ch o v ridge, A p - A puseni M ts, B a - B alearic terrane, B1 - B alk an s, B r - B rian ęo n n ais terran e, BS - B lack Sea, C a - C alab ria-C am p a n ia terra n es, C F - C arp ath ian F o re­

deep, C r - C zo rszty n ridge, Di - D in arid es, D u - D u k la b asin , E A - E astern A lps, E M - E astern M ed iterran ean , E P - E astern Pontides, G D - G etic d epression, G r - G reece, G s - G resten b asin, H v - H elvetic zo n e, lb - Ib eria plate, IC - In n er C a rp ath ian s, K i - K irseh ir plate, K r - K ruhel o listolith, L C - L esser C aucasus terra n e, L i - L ig u rian (P iem o n t) O cean, M e - M e lia ta/H alstatt O cean, M B - M o lasse b asin, M g - M ag u ra b asin, M o - M o esia p late, M r - M arm aro sh m a s s if & klippe, O C - O uter C a rp ath ian s, PH - P odhale F ly sch b asin, Pe - P elagonian plate, Pi - P indos O cean, P K B - Pieniny K lip p en B elt b asin, P m - F o re-M ag u ra b asin, Ps - F o re-S ilesia n b asin, R D - R h en o -D an u b ian b a ­ sin, R h - R hodopes, Sa - S akariya plate, SC - S ilesian rid g e (co rd illera), Si - S icily p late, Sk - S kole b asin, SI - S ilesian b asin , Sn - S inaia b asin, St - Ś tram b erk olistolith, T a - T a r ę a u b a sin , T e - T e l e a j e n b asin, T v - T r a n s ilv a n ia n b asin, T u - T a u r u s terran e, T i - T i s a plate, UM - U m b ria-M arch e, V c - V erco rs zone, VI - V a lais tro u g h , V o - V o co n tian tro u g h , W P - W estern P ontides

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Eurasia

America

Neotethys

Africa

C'i LC

F ig . 3. P a leo en v iro n m en t and lithofacies o f the circu m -C arp ath ian iarea d uring L ate T riassic; p lates p o sitio n at 225 M a. F o r e xplanation - see Fig. 2

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cipient Pindos Ocean separated the Pelagonian, Sakariya and Kirsehir block from the Ionian-Taurus platform (Rob­

ertson eta!., 1991, 1996; Stampfli et a l, 1991).

The Northern Calcareous Alps and Inner Catpathians formed the marginal platform o f Europe (Plasienka &

Kovac, 1999). In Late Triassic the Tisa block was fully separated from the European margin by the M eliata-Halstatt Ocean (Kozur, 1991; Channel 1 & Kozur, 1997; Kazmer &

Kovacs, 1989; Stampfli, 1996; Golonka & Gahagan, 1997).

There is a possibility o f existence o f the embayment o f Meliata-Vardar zone between Inner Carpathian, M oesia and European Platform (Fig. 3). The pelagic Triassic pebbles in the exotic pebbles in the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Birkenma- jer, 1988; Birkenmajer et al., 1990) could have originated in this embayment. The Eurasian platform, east o f the Meliata Ocean, was dissected by rift systems, which extended from the Dobrogea, through the Crimean lowland to the North Caucasus, Mangyshlak and southern Am u-Darya (Zonen- shain et a!., 1990; Kazmin, 1991; Kazmin et al., 1986). The Moesian block, the Western and Eastern Pontides, the Tran- scaucasus and the South Caspian blocks were located be­

tween this rifted zone and the remnants o f Paleotethys.

Jurassic

Continued sea-floor spreading occurred during the Ju­

rassic time within the Neotethys. The Pelagonian plate, Kirsehir and Sakariya (Robertson el al., 1991), and perhaps the Lesser-Caucasus-Sanandaj-Sirjan plate (Adamia, 1991;

Golonka & Gahagan, 1997; Golonka, 1999) were drifting of the Apulia-Taurus-Arabia margin. The Neotethys Ocean was divided into northern and southern branches. The Lig­

urian Ocean, as well as the central Atlantic and Penninic Ocean (Dercourt et al., 1986, 1993; Channell, 1996) were opening during Early-M iddle Jurassic. The oldest oceanic crust in the Ligurian-Piedmont ocean is dated as late Middle Jurassic in southern Apennines and in the Western Alps (Ri- cou, 1996). Marshalko (1986) quotes 179, 160 and 156 Ma radiometric data for pebbles from Pieniny Klippen Belt, possibly derived from obducted oceanic basement. Accord­

ing to W inkler & Sl^czka (1994) this Pieniny data fit with the supposed opening o f the Southern Penninic Ocean.

Birkenmajer (1988; Birkenmajer et al., 1990) postulated the earlier - Triassic opening o f the Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean. The oldest well documented deposits in the basinal part o f Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean are o f Early Jurassic age (Birkenmajer, 1986). The Triassic pelagic limestones are known only from exotic pebbles transported from the enig­

matic Andrusov ridge. These Triassic limestones could have been deposited in the mentioned above (Fig. 3) embayment o f the Meliata Ocean. There is also a possibility o f existence o f the another basinal unit (Zlatna) situated south o f the main branch o f Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean, postulated by Sikora (1971). The documented from outcrops extremely deep-water deposits (pelagic limestones and radiolarites) from this basin are o f Middle Jurassic—Early Cretaceous age (Golonka & Sikora, 1981).

Extension o f Neotethys to the northwest into the proto- M editerranean, established a connection with the Central Atlantic (Fig. 4). The Central Atlantic was in an advanced

drifting stage during M iddle-Late Jurassic (Withjack et a l, 1998). Rifting continued in the North Sea and in the north­

ern Proto-Atlantic (Ziegler, 1988; Dore, 1991). The pro­

gressive breakup o f Pangea resulted in a system o f spread­

ing axes, transform faults, and rifts, which connected the ocean floor spreading in the Central Atlantic and Ligurian Sea, to rifting which continued through the Polish-Danish graben to M id-Norway and the Barents Sea (Golonka et al., 1996). Tethys was connected with the Polish-Danish graben (Żytko, 1984, 1985) by transform fault and rift system which preceded opening o f the Outer Carpathian basins.

The Żegocina porfiritic andesite (Ślączka, 1998; Ślączka et a l, 1999) could be a volcanic expression o f the Jurassic desintegration o f the southern margin o f the North Euro­

pean Plate which became later the site o f the Outer Carpa­

thian rifting. It could represent an early stage o f the hot spot activity in this area.

The Inner Carpathian block and the Eastern Alps were moving away from Europe, and, at the same time, Apulia was moving together with Africa (Channell, 1996). Simul­

taneously, the M eliata-Halstatt Ocean began to narrow and subduct northwards under the Inner Carpathian and Eastern Alpine plates (Dallmeyer et al., 1996). The Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean was fully opened by the M iddle-Late Jurassic time (Birkenmajer, 1986). The Czorsztyn ridge separated this basin from the M agura basin (Fig. 4). This Czorsztyn

“pelagic swell” (Birkenmajer, 1986) was covered mainly with relatively shallow-water carbonate deposits an elon­

gated structure limited from both the north and the south by basins with deep-water deposition o f cherty limestones o f the Nannoconus facies (Golonka & Sikora, 1981). The Czorsztyn ridge may be related to the Brianęonnais zone in Alps (Stampfli, 1993), while M agura basin may be con­

nected with the opening Valais trough. The paleogeographic extent o f the Magura basin (Fig. 4) remains somewhat enig­

matic and speculative. Plasienka (1999) represents some­

what different point o f view on the Jurassic development o f the Carpathian area. He divides the Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean into Vahicum and M agura subbasins and separates them by Oravicum ridge. Oravicum is an equivalent o f Czorsztyn ridge, while not very well defined Vahicum could be Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean on our map (Fig. 4).

According to Birkenmmajer (1986), the Czorsztyn ridge could be traced from the vicinity o f Vienna trough Western Slovakia, Poland, Eastern Slovakia to Transcarpathian Ukraine. In the Eastern Carpathians, Bombita et al. (1992) suggest the Liassic-Early Dogger age sediments. The Dog­

ger andesite tuffites, followed by radiolarites and pelagic deposits up to Barremian in the Poiana Botizi Klippe (NW Romania) represent the M agura basin. The andesite tuffites could be an expression o f the early stage o f the hot spot vol- canism. According to Romanian geologists (Sandulescu et a l, 1981; Bombita et al., 1992), the M armarosh M assif is situated north o f the M agura basin (see also Żytko, 1999b).

The ophiolite blocks in M armarosh area (Lashkevitch et al., 1995) indicate existence o f M esozoic oceanic crust in this area. According to Ślączka (2000), one should look perhaps within the Magura basin for the continuation o f the Marma­

rosh ridge. The existence o f the Cordillera separating the southernmost part o f the M agura basin (Hulina unit =

114

Ameri

Atlantic

Neotethys

A frica

Arabia

■ J ^a a a a a a) ^ :

Fig. 4. P aleo en v iro n m en t and lithofacies o f th e circu m -C arp ath ian area during M id d le -L a te Ju rassic ; p lates p o sitio n at 152 M a. F or ex ­ p lan atio n - see Fig. 2

G E O D Y N A M IC E V O L U T IO N A N D P A L E O G E O G R A P H Y , C IR C U M -C A R P A T H IA N R E G IO N

115

Grajcarek unit sensu Birkenmajer, 1977, 1986) from the re­

maining part o f this basin was postulated by Sikora (1971;

Golonka & Sikora, 1981). These connections remain specu­

lative and require future research.

Latest Late Jurassic-earliest Lower Cretaceous

In the Alpine-Carpathian area in Europe the subduction o f the M eliata-Halstatt Ocean and the collision o f the Tisa block with the Inner Carpathian terranes was concluded at the end o f Jurassic (Froitzheim et al., 1996; Dallmeyer et al., 1996; Plaśienka, 1999) (Fig. 5). Subduction jum ped at this time to the northern margin o f the Inner Carpathian ter­

ranes and began to consume the Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean (Birkenmajer, 1986, 1988). In the area south o f the Rho­

dopes in southeastern Europe, subduction was characterized by northward polarity (Shanov et al., 1992). A northward- dipping subduction existed also along the southern margin o f Eurasia, between Rhodopes (Bulgaria) and Tibet-Lhasa (Ricou, 1996; Kazmin et al., 1986; Sengor & Natalin,

1996).

Major plate reorganization happened during the Titho- nian time. The Central Atlantic began to propagate to the area between Iberia and the N ew Foundland shelf (Ziegler, 1988). According to Driscoll et al. (1995), sea-floor spread­

ing did not propagate beyond the Figueiro Fracture until the Aptian time. The Ligurian-Pieniny Ocean reached its maxi­

mum width and stopped spreading (Golonka et al., 1996;

Golonka & Bocharova, in print). The Tethyan plate reor­

ganization resulted in extensive gravitational faults m ove­

ment. Several tectonic horsts and grabens were formed, re­

juvenating some older, Eo- and M eso-Cimmerian faults.

Initial stages o f subduction o f the oceanic crust o f the Pien­

iny Klippen Belt Ocean, under the northern, active margin o f the Inner Carpathian plate, may have been related to these movements (Birkenmajer, 1986, 1988). The Outer Carpa­

thian rift (Silesian basin) had developed with the beginning o f calcareous flysch sedimentation and m ay be the earliest phase o f the teschenites extensional volcanism (Książkie- wicz, 1977a, b; Narębski, 1990). The M agura and perhaps Silesian basins were connected with Rheno-Danubian and Vocontian rift zones in Alps (Fig. 5). The Silesian basin probably extended in the Eastern Carpathian into Ceahleau (Sinaia) and may be “black flysch” zone. Rifting also devel­

oped in the Balkan area (Bulgaria), between M oesia and Rhodopes (Tchoumatchenko & Sapunov, 1994). The Mar- marosh M assif was located at the junction o f Pieniny K lip­

pen Belt Ocean, Balkan rift, Czorsztyn ridge, and Magura basin. The rifting in the Balkan area had impact on the fu­

ture movement o f the M armarosh terrane.

The Polish-Danish rift turned into aulacogen (Żytko, 1984, 1985) with marginal marine, sometimes evaporitic sediments. The remnants o f carbonate platforms w ith reefs (Stramberk) along the margin o f Silesian basin were results o f the fragmentation o f the European Platform in this area.

The Silesian ridge (Książkiewicz, 1977a, b) separated the Silesian and Magura basins. The subsidence in the Silesian basin was accompanied by the extrusion o f basic lavas (tes­

chenites) in the W estern Carpathian and diabase-melaphyre within the “black flysch” o f the Eastern Carpathians

(Ślączka et al., 1999). The subsidence reached as much as 69 m/Ma during the earliest Cretaceous, while the forami- niferal assemblages implies gradual deepening o f the basin (Ślączka et al., 1999).

Early Cretaceous

During Hauterivian-A ptian the Ligurian Ocean entered into its compressional phase (Marchant & Stampfli, 1997).

Subduction was active on the southern margin o f the Pien­

iny Klippen Belt Ocean (Birkenmajer, 1986, 1988).

In the Black Sea area in southeastern Europe a rift de­

veloped between the Western Pontides and adjacent parts o f Ukraine (Fig. 6). Spreading continued in the Greater Cauca- sus-proto-Caspian Ocean (Kazmin, 1990; Banks & Robin­

son, 1997). The drift o f the Taurus plate opened again the Eastern M editerranean basin and formed its oceanic crust (Bogdanov et al. 1994; Robertson, 1998).

In the Alpine-Carpathian area, the Rheno-Danubian and Outer Carpathian troughs, on the partially oceanic crust and partially on the attenuated continental crust, were open dur­

ing this time (Golonka & Gahagan, 1997; W inkler &

Ślączka, 1994; Ślączka, 1996a). To the west, this troughs extended into the Valais Ocean, which entered into a sea- floor spreading phase (M archant & Stampfli, 1997; Froitz­

heim et al., 1996), and further into the area between Spain and France and to the Biscay Bay (Stampfli, 1993, 1996).

To the east, the through system was connected with the sub­

siding Balkan area. Main phase o f intrusion o f teschenites occurred in the W estern Carpathians during H auterivian- Barremian time (Ślączka et al., 2000). These intrusions dis­

play the features o f oceanic islands and were perhaps gener­

ated by a hot spot activity. It looks like there were two hot spots in the Carpathian region. The first one, in the Western Carpathians was connected with the Jurassic Żegocina an- desites and Early Cretaceous teschenites. Today, the W est­

ern Turkey and Northern Aegean volcanics are located at the same latitude and longitude. The second hot spot, in the Eastern Carpathians was connected with the Jurassic an- desitic tuffites and Early Cretaceous diabase-melaphyre.

Today, the Levantine (e.g., Dead Sea) hot spot volcanics are located at the same latitude and longitude (see Golonka &

Bocharova, in print).

During A ptian-A lbian (Fig. 6) complex tectonics began to take place in the future Alpine belt zone, between south­

ern Europe and North Africa/Arabia. Continued closure o f the western part o f Neotethys was related to the subduction along the Neotethys margin. This closure was marked by collisional deformation in the early stage o f Trupchun phase in Alps (Froitzheim et al., 1996) and by the formation o f ec- logites in Austroalpine units. The thrusting and shortening was also noted in the Inner Carpathians (Plaśienka, 1999).

Convergent margin and north-dipping subduction along the Western Pontides block caused the southward movement o f this terrane and the opening o f the western Black Sea as a back-arc basin (Kazmin, 1990; Banks & Robinson, 1997).

The north-dipping subduction was consuming the main branch o f Neotethys, between the Pontides, Sakarya and Kirsehir plates (Yilmaz et al., 1996).

Spreading continued in the Eastern M editerranean (Ri-

116

t ^{- ;}

Africa

Neotethys

Fig. 5. P aleo en v iro n m en t an d lithofacies o f th e circu m -C arp ath ian area during latest L ate Ju ra ss ic -e a rlie s t L o w e r C retaceous; plates p o sitio n at 140 M a. F o r ex p lan atio n - see F ig. 2

G E O D Y N A M IC E V O L U T IO N A N D P A L E O G E O G R A P H Y , C IR C U M -C A R P A T H IA N R E G IO N

117

America \ Eurasia

Atlantic

N eotethy

Africa

Fig. 6. P aleo en v iro n m en t and lith o facies o f the circu m -C arp ath ian area during latest u p p e r A p tia n -m id d le C en o m an ian ; p lates p osition at 112 M a. F o r explanation - see Fig. 2

118

cou, 1996; Robertson et al., 1991, 1996) and also in the area between Arabia and the Taurus plate o f southern Turkey (Guiraud & Bellion, 1996). The proto-South C aspian- Greater Caucasus ocean was widely open (Golonka, 1999).

Opening o f the western Black Sea occurred by rifting and drifting o f the western-central Pontides away from the Moe- sian and Scythian platform o f Eurasia (Kazmin et a l, 1986;

Kazmin, 1990; Banks & Robinson, 1997).

The Outer Carpathian basin reached its greatest width during the H auterivian-Aptian time. W ith the widening o f the basin, several subbasins (troughs) began to show their distinctive features (Fig. 6). These subbasins, like Silesian, Sub-Silesian, Skole, Dukla, Tarcau, were locally separated by uplifted areas, e.g. Andrychów zone (Książkiewicz, 1960). The general downwarping o f the Silesian basin was probably due to the cooling effect o f the underlying litho­

sphere (Ślączka et al., 1999). The sedimentation o f calcare­

ous sediments pass upwards gradually into black shales with turbiditic sequences in the Silesian trough.

The compressional event took place in the south­

eastern part o f the Carpathians (Sandulescu, 1988; Ślączka et al., 1999). Intensive folding, accompanied by the deposi­

tion o f coarse clastic sediments was completed by the Ap- tian-A lbian time. The northward movem ent o f the Marma- rosh terrane (Bucovinian or Sub-Bucovinian nappes, see Sandulescu et a l, 1981; Kropotkin, 1991; Gnylko, 1999) perhaps caused this folding. In the W estern Carpathians, the uplifting o f the intrabasinal ridges manifested this period of compression. This period was followed by regional down­

warping o f the Outer Carpathian basin and short period of

“starved basin” slow, very deep-water deposition.

Cenom anian-Cam panian

The main line o f spreading in the Atlantic realm began to be established along the Biscay Bay - Labrador Sea line (Ziegler, 1988; Golonka & Bocharova, 1997) (Fig. 7).

Spreading continued in the Eastern M editerranean and be­

tween the Arabian and Taurus plates (Ricou, 1996; Robert­

son et al., 1991, 1996). The proto-South Caspian-G reater Caucasus Ocean was actively spreading (Golonka, 1999).

The rotation o f Africa and spreading in the Eastern Mediterranean caused the Apulian plate to converge with Europe. Later phases o f the Cretaceous Trupchun orogeny in the Alps (Froitzheim et al., 1996) caused a subduction o f the small terranes together with the oceanic crust o f the Lig­

urian ocean. These terranes were subject o f an eclogite metamorphism. The subduction was accompanied by the decollement o f ophiolites and the Ligurian-Piemont sedi­

ments and their emplacement as the earliest nappes o f the Alpine evolution (Debelmas, 1989). The compressional de­

formation o f the Inner Carpathians formed the stacking o f nappes (Ellouz & Roca, 1994; Plasienka, 1999). The Pien­

iny Klippen Belt Ocean narrowed significantly, while the Outer Carpathian basin remained widely opened and con­

nected with the European shelf basins. During the Cenoma- nian, a period o f slow and uniform sedimentation embraced all Carpathian basins, and well-oxygenated conditions be­

gan to develop (Bieda et a l, 1963). Ślączka et al. (1999) have distinguished the uppermost A lbian-earliest Turonian

stage o f the development o f the Outer Carpathian basin.

During this stage all the sources o f siliciclastic material ceased to be active and generally uniform pelagic sedimen­

tation started: green, radiolarian shales with radiolarites in part o f the Outer Carpathian basin, followed by red shales.

At the beginning o f this stage, the rate o f sedimentation radically decreased to 4 -6 m/Ma, whereas the paleobathy- metry reached abyssal depth (Sl^czka et al., 1999).

C am panian-early Paleocene

Throughout the C am panian-early Paleocene Africa was moving northwards closing the gap between its north­

ern margin and the Taurus plate (Fig. 8), and causing a ces­

sation (Campanian time) o f spreading in the East M editerra­

nean (Ricou, 1996; Sengor & Natalin, 1996). The collision between Kirsehir, Sakariya and the Pontides (Yilmaz et a l,

1996) closed the northern branch o f Neotethys. The oceanic basins between Taurus and Kirsehir remained open. The northward movement o f the Shatski terrane began closing o f the proto-Black Sea and opening o f the eastern Black Sea (Kazmin, 1990).

According to Froitzheim et a l (1996), the collision be­

tween the Austroalpine units and the Briangonnais terrane in the Alps started in the early Paleocene. Latest Creta­

ceous-earliest Paleocene (Fig. 8) was also the time o f the closure o f the Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean and the collision o f the Inner Carpathians terranes with the Czorsztyn ridge (Birkenmajer, 1986; W inkler & Sl^czka, 1994). The com­

plex fold-and-thrust system has developed in the Pieniny Klippen Belt. The prim ary shortening events in the Balkans occurred in Bulgaria (Sinclair et a l, 1997). The Vardar Ocean was closed during Paleocene time (Sengor & Nata­

lin, 1996).

The Atlantic passive margins were uplifted (Wernicke

& Tilke, 1989). The widespread inversion in the North Sea (Huyghe & Mugnier, 1994; Dronkers & Mrozek, 1991) and in Central Europe (Ziegler, 1988; Baldschuhn et a l, 1991) could have been a result o f the stress induced by the m ove­

ment o f Europe and ridge push from the Bay o f Biscay spreading. The direction o f the Late Cretaceous Subhercyn- ian and Laramide structures (Ziegler, 1988) was parallel to the Bay o f Biscay and perpendicular to the Alpine-W est Carpathian front, as well as to the future spreading in the North Atlantic, between Norway and Greenland. According to Baldschuhn et al. (1991), the Coniacian to Campanian time o f inversion in northwestern Germany did not coincide with the continent-continent collision events in the Alpine realm. U ntem ehr & Van Den Driessche (1977) argue that the North Sea compressive tectonics were not restricted to basin inversion, but instead involved crust and/or litho- spheric buckling, and that there was a close connection be­

tween the North Atlantic opening and compression in the southern North Sea during the Late Cretaceous. This tec­

tonic events caused, among the others, formation o f the Holy Cross Mountains by inversion o f the Polish-Danish aulacogen (Zytko, 1984).

The subduction zone jum ped from the southern margin o f the Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean to the northern margin o f the Czorsztyn ridge (Fig. 8) and began consume the Magura

G EO DYNAM IC EVO LUTION AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY, CIRCU M -CA RPATHIAN REGION

119

1 L^ L L _ G r - t . L L L

Eurasia

Neotethys / Atlantic

Fig. 7. Paleoenvironm ent and lithofacies o f the circum -Carpathian area during late C enom anian-m iddle Campanian; plates position at 90 Ma. For explanation - see Fig. 2

120

America Eurasia

Atlantic

Africa i i s §

F ig. 8. Paleoenvironm ent and lithofacies o f the cireum -Carpathian area during late C am panian-early Paleocene; plates position at 65 Ma. For explanation - see Fig. 2

OEODYNAM IC EVO LUTIO N AND PA LEO GEOG RAPH Y, CIRCU M -CA RPATHIAN REGION

121

F ig. 9. Paleoenvironm ent and lithofacies o f the circum -Carpathian area during L utetian-B artonian; plates position at 45 Ma. For expla­

nation — see Fig. 2

122

Eurasia

Atlantic

Arabia Africa

Fig. 10. Paleoenvironm ent and lithofacies o f the circum-Carpathian area during Priabonian; plates position at 36 Ma. For explanation - see Fig. 2

GEODYNAM IC EVO LUTIO N AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY, C IRCU M -CA RPATHIAN REGION

123

basin (Birkenmajer, 1986). The Paleocene subsidence in the Magura basin was related to the development o f the trench connected with this subduction zone (Oszczypko, 1998).

The sedimentation and subsidence rate accelerated dis­

tinctly in the Silesian basin more than in the M agura basin, and were accompanied by a continuos uplifting o f the Sile­

sian cordillera, as well as o f southern margin o f the Euro­

pean Platform, Marmarosh M assif and also o f the southern margin o f the Magura basin. This uplift produced an enor­

mous amount o f the clastic material. The development o f the accretionary prism may be started at this time.

Late Paleocene-Eocene

The process o f the closing o f Neotethys by the Alpine and Himalayan orogenies continued. The Adria (Apulia) plate was continuously moving northwards together with the Eastern Alpine (Austroalpine) and Inner Carpathian blocks (Fig. 9). Their collision with the European plate be­

gan in the Alps about 47 Ma (Decker & Peresson, 1996).

The Valais Ocean in the Alps finally closed (Froitzheim et a l, 1996; Stampfli, 1996). According to Plasienka & Kovac (1999), the Alcapa block was formed at that time by weld­

ing together Eastern Alps, Inner Carpathian, Tisa as well as smaller terranes, like Biikk, Transdanubian or Getic. The main phase o f compression and formation o f the thrust belt o f the Balkanides in Bulgaria occurred during the Eocene time (Tari et a l, 1997; Sinclair et a l, 1997). The closing of the Pieniny Klippen Belt Ocean in the Carpathians was also concluded, and Pieniny domain accreted to the M agura ba­

sin (Birkenmajer, 1986; Winkler & Sl^czka, 1994). The folding o f the Rheno-Danubian zone occurred in the late Eocene.

The M agura basin narrowed significantly due to the northward Alcapa movement (Oszczypko, 1992, 1999). The M aastrichtian-Paleocene inversion was followed by a new episode o f subsidence which began at the end o f Paleocene and accelerated during Lutetian and Priabonian (Osz­

czypko, 1999). The load o f the accretionary prism caused the migration o f depocenters northward. Thin-bedded flysch deposits passed into a thick complex o f turbidites and fluxoturbidites. The Dukla, Silesian, Fore-Silesian, and Skole-Tarfau basins remained open with the flysch mainly in the southern part (Dukla and Silesian basins) and pelagic facies sedimentation farther towards the north (Fig. 9) (Bieda et a l, 1963).

Foreland basin development proceeded in southern Europe, coinciding with a general uplift o f European conti­

nent. The closure o f the Pindos Ocean began (Robertson et a l, 1991). Compression continued in the Balkan area in Bulgaria (Tari et a l, 1997).

Collision between Kirsehir, Sakariya and Pontides was concluded (Yilmaz et al., 1996). The Lesser Caucasus, Sanandaj-Sirjan and Makran plates were sutured to the Iranian-Afghanistan plates in the Caucasus-Caspian Sea area (Adamia, 1991; Golonka, 1999). A north dipping sub­

duction zone jum ped to the Scythian-Turan Platform.

Early Oligocene

Collisions continued in the area between Africa and Eurasia. The conclusion o f the compression o f the Bal­

kanides, in Bulgaria, occurred during the Oligocene time (Sinclair et al., 1997). The Pindos Ocean was finally closed (Robertson et al., 1991) (Fig. 10). The collision o f Apulia as well as the Alpine-Carpathian terranes with the European Plate continued (Decker & Peresson, 1996). The metamor­

phism o f the undercrusted Penninic nappes in the Alps reached peak thermal conditions at about 30 Ma (Kurz et al., 1996). The Calabrian terranes in the Western Mediterra­

nean began to progress eastward (Van Dijk & Okkes, 1991).

In the Carpathians, the subduction consumed part o f the Magura basin (Oszczypko, 1992, 1998). After the late Oli­

gocene folding, the M agura Nappe thrust northward and covered the remnant o f the Silesian ridge, and in the more outer part o f the Carpathian basin (Dukla, Silesian- Subsilesian, Skole-Tarcau), flysch sedimentation continued during the Oligocene (F ig.10, 11). Initial folding occurred in a part o f Silesian basin (Żytko, 1999a). Restricted basin with organic-rich M enilitic shales sedimentation was formed. Sedimentation o f the Podhale Flysch covering parts o f Inner Carpathian terrane was fully developed during the Oligocene time (Książkiewicz, 1977b).

The Paratethys sea developed in Europe and central Asia, ahead o f the progressing northwards orogenic belts (Dercourt et al., 1986, 1993). Geodynamic evolution o f the basins in the Alpine belt led to a transition from flysch to molasse type o f sedimentation.

Rifting events were initialized during the Oligocene time in the several countries in Europe between France and Ukraine (Ziegler, 1988; Bois, 1993; Wilson & Downes, 1991; Żytko et al., 1989) and were associated with the alka­

line volcanism. According to Bois (1993), extension oc­

curred in part o f the European plate, with the rifting o f the Rhine, Limagne and Bresse Trough, contemporaneous o f the climax o f Alpine compression. Part o f this rift system in­

cluded the G ulf o f Lions, associated with the mantle plume, expressed by volcanics in the M assif Central and Provence, and on Corsica and Sardinia (Wilson & Downes, 1991).

Rifting in this area was followed by oceanic sea-floor spreading and drifting o f the Corsican and Sardinian plates (Bois, 1993; Ricou, 1996). North Sea subsidence, renewed during the Tertiary (Joy, 1992) could have been related to Central European rifting.

Chattian-Aquitanian

Collisions continued in the area between Africa and Eurasia. Thrusting occurred in the R iff area in Africa and the Betic area in the southern Spain, due to the collision o f the Alboran Sea arc (Morley, 1993; Vissers et al., 1995) (Fig. 12). Transpressive thrusting in the Balearic margin was related to the displacement o f the Alboran block (Ve­

gas, 1992). The movement o f Corsica and Sardinia caused the plates to push eastwards in the future, resulting in defor­

mation o f the Alpine-Carpathian system. This deformation reached as far as to Romanian Carpathians (Ellouz & Roca, 1994; Royden, 1988) and continued throughout the Neo-

124

Late Jurassic

North European Plate Magura basin Czorsztyn ridge Pieniny basin Inner Carpathians

Skole Sub-Silesian Silesian Silesranridge

Early Cretaceous

Magura basin Czorsztyn ridge Pieniny basin Inner Carpathians

Skole Sub-Silesian Silesian Silesian ridge

Campanian

Magura basin Czorsztyn ridge Pieniny basin Inner Carpathians

. Early Eocene

Skole Sub-Silesian Silesian Magura basin

■

Inner Carpathian units

Outer Carpathian accretionary wedge

Eocene/Oligocene

Skole Sub-Silesian Silesian Silesian ridge Magura basin PKB lnner Carpathians

Late Burdigalian

oc©3nic crust

Carpathian Foredeep Outer ( ^ ^ a t h ^ ^ PKB Inner Carpathians

Pieniny Klippen Belt (PKB) !

Podhale Flysch Molasses

Fig. 11. The Late Jurassic-L ate Burdigalian palinspastic evolution model o f the W est O uter Carpathians (after Oszczypko, 1999)

gene. The Calabrian terranes in the W estern Mediterranean continued to progress eastwards (Dewey et al., 1989; Van Dijk & Okkes, 1991). Corsica and Sardinia pushed the Umbria-Marche terrane towards collision with the Apulian block. The thrust-and-fold-belt o f the Apennines began to develop (Pialli & Alvarez, 1997).

The Apulia and the Alpine-Carpathian terranes were moving northwards, colliding with the European plate, until 17 Ma (Decker & Peresson, 1996). This collision caused the foreland to propagate north. The north to NNW -vergent thrust system o f the Eastern Alps was formed. Oblique col­

lision between the North European plate and the overriding Western Caipathian terranes led to the development o f the outer accretionary wedge, the built up many flysch nappes and the formation o f a foredeep (Kovac et al., 1993, 1998;

Ślączka, 1996a, b). These nappes were detached from their original basement and thrust over the Paleozoic-M esozoic deposits o f the North European Platform covered partly by Tertiary deposits. This process was completed in the Vienna basin area and then progressed northeastwards (Oszczypko, 1997). After the Late Oligocene folding, the Magura nappe was thrust northward in the direction o f the terminal Krosno flysch basin (Oszczypko, 1999). Synorogenic basin with the flysch sedimentation Krosno beds formed during Oligocene as a continuation o f the older Fore-M agura (with the outer part o f Magura), Dukla, Silesian-Subsilesian, Skole-Taręau, and other units o f the Outer Carpathian. The initial folding in this zone also occurred.

The Alboran Sea extensional basin developed in the western Mediterranean behind the arc located between Ibe­

ria and Northern Africa (Watts et al., 1993; Morley, 1993;

Vissers et al., 1995). The first stage o f rifting in Valencia Trough (Vegas, 1992) was initiated. Crustal extension o f the internal zone o f the Alps started in the Early Miocene, dur­

ing the continued thrusting (Decker & Peresson, 1996).

Early to M iddle M iocene extension and back-arc type rift­

ing resulted in the formation o f a intramountain Pannonian basin in Central Europe (Royden, 1988; Decker & Peresson, 1996). A new period o f extension began in the Pontides- Sakariya continent in Turkey (Yilmaz et al., 1996).

Burdigalian-Serravallian-R ecent

This was the time o f the major Alpine orogenic phase, the formation o f mountains in the Alpine-Carpathian area, the Mediterranean, Central Asia and the Himalayans (Fig.

13). The continued o f thrusting occurred in the R iff area in Africa and in the Betic area in southern Spain as a result o f the collision o f the Alboran Sea arc with the Africa and Ibe­

rian plates (Morley, 1993; Vissers et al., 1995). The Calab­

rian arc and subduction zone collided with A frica and the Southern Sicilian-Maltese platform (Dewey et al., 1989;

Van Dijk & Okkes, 1991; Ricou, 1996). The wing o f this collision formed the southern Apennines. Thrusting also continued in the northern Apennines.

During the Early Burdigalian the front of the Magura nappe in Outer Carpathians reached the S part o f the Sile­

sian basin (Oszczypko, 1998). This was followed by a pro­

gressive migration o f axis o f subsidence northward. During the course o f the Burdigalian transgression, part o f the M a­

gura basin was flooded and the seaway connection with the Vienna basin via Orava was probably established (Osz-

GEODYNAM IC EVO LU TIO N AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY, CIRCU M -CA RPATHIAN REGION

125

Atlantic

Africa

Fig. 12. Paleoenvironm ent and lithofacies o f the eireum-Carpathian area during C hattian-A quitanian; plates position at 22 Ma. For ex­

planation - see F ig .2

126

Eurasia

Atlantic

Africa Arabia

Fig. 13. Paleoenvironm ent and lithofacies o f the circum -Carpathian area B urdigalian- Serravallian; plates position at 14 Ma. For expla­

nation - see Fig. 2

G EODYNAM IC EVOLUTIO N AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY, CIRCU M -CA RPATHIAN REGION

127

K ra ków

B rn o

CWC

B an ska K o sice B y s tric a

B ra tis la v a

D e brece n

APUŚENI

Mts. . 1500

S ib iu

lu cu re sti

[

___ |

21

2 12

22

3 13 23

14 2000 15 / / 16 / 17 ^ 18 19

24 25 * 26

10

20

Fig. 14. A lpine-C arpathian-Pannonian-D inaride region palinspastic map during Late Badenian (Kovac et al., 1998; simplified). 1 - up­

lifted area o f the platform; 2 - uplifted area o f the Rhenodanubium Flysch zone and Outer Carpathians; 3 - uplifted area o f the Alcapa and Tisza - Dacia microplates; 4 - Pieniny Klippen Belt; 5 - N orthern Calcareous Alps; 6 - terrestrial-fluvial paleoenvironm ent; 7 - brackish- lacustrine paleoenvironm ent; 8 - marine paleoenvironm ent; 9 - expected marine paleoenvironm ent; 10 - lagoonal paleoenvironment; 11 - areas without information; 1 2 -direction o f sedim ent transport; 13 - delta; 1 4 -axis o f subsidence; 15 - thickness o f sediments; 16- p a s ­ sive fault; 17 - active normal fault; 18 - active strike-slip; 19 — future thrust; 20 - passive thrust; 21 - active thrust; 22 - present front o f the Carpathians; 23 - present margin o f the Carpathian foredeep; 24 - present contours o f mountains; active volcanic centers: 25 - basic; 2 6 - acid and calc-alkaline

czypko et a l, 1999). The thinned continental crust o f the re­

sidual flysch basin was under thrust beneath the overriding Carpathian orogen. This underthrusting was connected with the Intra-Burdigalian folding and uplifting o f the Outer Car­

pathians. The formation o f the W est Carpathian thrusts was completed (Kovac et al., 1993, 1998; Ślączka, 1996a, b;

Oszczypko, 1997) (Fig. 13, 14). The Carpathians continued overriding the Eurasian Platform and caused flexural de­

pression - a peripheral foreland basin related to the moving Carpathian front (Oszczypko, 1998). The thrust front was still migrating eastwards in the Eastern Carpathians. The Carpathian foreland basin continued its development partly

on the top o f the thrust front with mainly terrestrial deposits forming the clastic wedge. This clastic wedge along the Carpathians could be comparable with the lower-freshwater Molasse o f the Alpine Foreland basin. During Serravallian, the marine transgression flooded the foreland basin and ad­

jacent platform. After Serravallian the sea retreated from the Carpathian peripheral foreland basin. This was followed by the last overthrust o f the Carpathians toward their present- day position (Oszczypko, 1998). During Tortonian-Gela- sian time, Carpathian thrusting progressed east and south- eastwards, with a strong element o f translation (Ellouz &

Roca, 1994; Royden, 1988; Linzer, 1996). The thrusting

128

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MEDITERRANEAN AFRICA

Fig. 15. Plate tectonic profiles. Central E urope-C arpathians-G reece. 1 - continental crust (including obducted; allochtonous rocks and sedimentary cover); 2 - oceanic crust (including deposits); 3 - upper mantle; 4 - direction o f plate m ovem ent