Geodynamic evolution of the orogen: the West Carpathian and Ouachitas case study

Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae (2003), vol. 73: 145-167.

GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION OF THE OROGEN:

THE WEST CARPATHIANS AND OUACHITAS CASE STUDY

Jan GOLONKA1, Andrzej SL ^C Z K A 1 & Frank PICHA2

1 Jagiellonian University, Institute o f Geological Sciences, Oleandry Str. 2a, 30-063 Krakow, Poland

~ 650 New Haven Court, Walnut Creek, CA 94598, U. S. A.

Golonka, J., Sl^czka, A. & Picha, F. 2003. Geodynamic evolution of the orogen: the West Carpathian and Ouachitas case study. Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, 73: 145-167.

A bstract: Twelve time interval maps have been presented which depict the plate tectonic configuration, paleogcography and lithofacies for the circum-Carpathian area from the Late Carboniferous through Neogene and for the circum-Ouachita region from Late Cambrian through Early Permian.

The following geodynamic evolutionary stages can be distinguished in these two orogens: Stage I - rifting of terranes off the major continent, forming oceanic basins (Triassic-Early Cretaceous in the Carpathian region, Cambrian-Devonian in the Ouachita region); Stage II - formation o f subduction zones along the active margin, partial closing of oceanic basin, development of deep-water flysch basin associate with this rifting on the platform (passive margin) with the attenuated continental crust (Late Cretaceous-Paleocene in the Carpathian region, Early Carboniferous in the Ouachitas); Stage 111 - collision, perhaps terrane-continent, with the accompanying conver­

gence o f two large continents, development o f accretionary prisms, Eocene-Early Miocene time in the Carpathian region, Late Carboniferous in the Ouachitas; and Stage IV - postcollisional, (Miocene-Present-future? in the Carpathians, Permian-Triassic in the Ouachitas). Both, Carpathians and Ouachitas are accretionary prisms formed in response to terrane-continent and continent-continent collision. The paleogcographic approach we have taken shows how these mountain belts were constructed through the orogenic cycle, which reflects complex plate tectonic processes. Carpathians and Ouachitas record complete and homologous Wilson cycle.

Key w ords: Plate tectonics, paleogeography, orogen, accretionary prism, Wilson cycle, Ouachita, Carpathians.

Manuscript received 12 March 2003, accepted 5 November 2003

INTRODUCTION

The aim o f this paper is to com pare the plate tectonic evolution and position o f the m ajor crustal elem ents o f the C arpathians, and O uachita M ountains w ithin a global fram ew ork and to show the relationship betw een tectonic processes and sedim entary record during their orogenic cy­

cles. T he C arpathian and O uachita M ts are geographically distant. The age o f the form ation o f each orogen is also quite different. The C arpathians m ountain b e lt form ed during M esozoic and C enozoic tim e, w hile th e O uachitas fo rm e d in the P aleozoic; their tectonostratigraphic history, h ow ­ ever, displays striking sim ilarities.

B oth orogens have been the subject o f num erous classic sedim entological studies o f the d eep-w ater flysch deposits (K siqzkiew icz, 1954; D zulynski & Slqczka, 1958; Dzu- lyriski et al., 1959; D zulynski & W alton, 1965; C line, 1960, 1970; Lowe, 1976, 1989; M cB ride, 1975; M orris, 1974, 1989; M oiola & S hanm ugan, 1984; P escatore & Sl^czka, 1984; S hanm ugan & M oiola, 1995; Picha, 1996). The O uachita orogenic belt w as also a subject o f a tectonic syn­

thesis from the point o f view o f W ilson cycle (V iele & T ho­

m as, 1989). T he history o f the w hole circum -C arpathian realm is m ore com plex (e.g., see G olonka et al., 2000, 2003a), if w e concentrate how ever on the W est C arpathians, the orogenic cycle is also clear and evident. Thus, these tw o orogens could provide a good exam ple to com pare the m od­

ern and ancient orogens.

T w elve tim e interval m aps have been presented w hich depict the p late tectonic configuration, paleogeography and lithofacies for the circum -C arpathian region and adjacent areas from the L ate C arboniferous through N eogene and for the circum -O uachita reg io n from the L ate C am brian through E arly Perm ian.

The m aps w ere constructed u sin g the follow ing defined steps:

1. C onstruction o f the base m aps using the plate te c­

tonic m odel. These m aps depict plate boundaries (sutures), plate position at the specific tim e and outline o f present day coastlines.

2. R eview o f existing global and regional paleogeo- graphic maps.

146

Tertiary Molasse Zone Pre - Neogene of inner orogenic zones

Flysch Belt Neovolcanic areas

B

100 km

~ E A S T E R

ESIAN PLATFORM

Fig. 1. Tectonic sketch map o f the Alpine-Carpathian-Pannonian-Dinaride basin system (after Kovac et a l, 1998; simplified)

3. Posting o f generalised facies and paleoenvironm ent database inform ation on base maps.

4. Interpretation and final assem bly o f com puter m ap files.

T he m aps w ere constructed u sin g a p late tectonic m odel, w hich describes the relative m otio n s betw een ap­

proxim ately 300 plates and terranes. T his m odel w as con­

structed using PLA TES and P A L E O M A P softw are (see G olonka et a/., 1994, 2000, 2003a) w hich integrate co m ­ p uter graphics and data m anagem ent technology w ith a highly structured and quantitative description o f tectonic re­

lationships. The heart o f this program is the rotation file, w hich is constantly updated, as new paleom agnetic data be­

com e available. H ot-spot volcanics serve as reference points for the calculation o f paleolongitudes (G olonka & B ocha­

rova, 2000). O phiolites and d eep-w ater sedim ents m ark paleo-oceans, w hich w ere subducted and included into fold- belts. M agnetic data have been used to define paleolatitu- dinal position o f continents and ro tation o f plates (see e.g.

V an dcr V oo; 1993; B esse & C ourtillot 1991; K rs et a l, 1996). A n attem pt has been also m ade to utilise the p aleo ­ m agnetic date from m inor plates and allochtonous terranes (see e.g. P atrascu et a l, 1992, 1993; P echersky & Safronov 1993; Beck & Scherm er 1994; C hannell et al., 1992, 1996;

M auritsch et al., 1995, 1996; Feinberg et al., 1996; K rs et al., 1996; M arton and M artin 1996; M arton et al., 1999, 2000; H aubold et al., 1999; M uttoni et al., 2000a, b; Gra- bow ski, 2000). T he nature o f rotation indicated b y paleo- m agnetism m easured in sedim entary rocks in allochthonous terranes rem ains som ew hat uncertain. It cou ld be caused by

the rotation o f crustal (basem ent) elem ents, rotation o f blocks separated by dextral faults (e.g. M arton et al., 2000) o r rotation o f thrust sheets (e. g. M uttoni et al., 2000b).

M easurem ent in flysch deposits cou ld also indicate the ar­

rangem ent o f m agnetised grains (dom ains) by turbiditic cur­

rents. F or exam ple, the m agnetic declination o f Podhale Flysch in Poland records perhaps the sedim entological ar­

rangem ent o f grains (see the m aps o f sedim entological transport in th e C arpathian flysch, e.g. K siazkiew icz, 1962) changed b y the crustal ro tation o f th e Inner C arpathian plate to the presen t position. T he crustal rotation in a range o f 2 0 -3 0 ° agrees w ith the general geodynam ic evolution o f the area (G olonka et a l, 2000).

Inform ation from several general and regional paleo- geographic papers w as filtered and u tilized (e.g., R onov et al., 1984, 1989; D ercourt et a l, 1986, 1993, 2000; Ziegler, 1988, 1989; Stam pfli et a l , 1991, 1998, 2001; Stam pfli, 2001; K ovac et a l , 1998; Plasienka, 1999; N eugebauer et a l, 2001; G olonka & Ford, 2000; G olonka et a l, 2000, 2003a). The authors o f this p aper also used unpublished m aps and databases from the P A L E O M A P group (U niver­

sity o f T exas at A rlington), PLA T E S group (U niversity o f T exas at A ustin), U niversity o f C hicago, Institute o f T ec­

tonics o f L ithospheric P lates in M oscow , R obertson Re­

search in L landudno, W ales, and the C am bridge A rctic S h elf Program m e. The p late and terrane separation was b ased on the P A L E O M A P system (see Scotese & Lanford, 1995), w ith m odifications in the T ethys area (G olonka et a l , 2000, 2003a). The calculated paleolatitudes and pale­

olongitudes w ere u sed to generate com puter m aps in the M i­

WEST CARPATHIANS AND OUACHITAS

147

European platform general Inner Carpathian Paleogene

= = = Alpine-Carpathian foredeep + + + Inner Carpathian Paleozoic and Mesozoic

Outer Carpathian flysch Neogene Volcanics

Pieniny Klippen Belt Neogene of Pannonian and Vienna Basins

Fig. 2. Geological map o f West Carpathians and adjacent areas. (Modified from Wessely and Liebl, 1996). Abbreviations: ZG - Zglobice-Wieliczka Unit, CA - Chamahora-Audia Unit, PC - Porkulec-Convolute Unit

crostation design form at using the equal area M olw eide pro­

jection.

This paleogeographic approach show s how a m ountain belt w as constructed through the orogenic cycle, w hich re­

flects com plex plate tectonic processes. Som e unsolved questions and problem s could be answ ered by a com parison b etw een one and another orogen.

TECTONIC SETTING

WEST CARPATHIANS

T he C arpathians form a great arc o f m ountains, w hich stretches m ore than 1 300 km from the V ien n a F orest to the Iron G ate on the D anube (Fig. 1). O n the w est the C arpathi­

ans are linked w ith the eastern A lps and on the east pass into the B alkan chain. T raditionally the C arpathians are subdi­

v ided into the W est and E ast C arpathians (M ahel, 1974).

The W est C arpathians consists o f an o lder range know n as the Inner or C entral C arpathians and the y o u n g er one,

know n as the O uter or F lysch C arpathians (M ahel, 1974;

K si^zkiew icz, 1977; Sl^czka & K am inski, 1998). A t the boundary o f these tw o ranges lies the P ieniny K lippen Belt (PK B) (Fig. 2). The Inner C arpathians are regarded as a pro­

longation o f the N orthern C alcareous A lps, and form ed part o f the A pulia plate in regional sense that is a prom ontory o f the A frican p late (Picha, 1996). T hey are divided into the T atric, V eporic and G em eric nappes (Fig. 2) that are the prolongation o f the Low er, M iddle and U pper A ustroalpinc nappes respectively (P escatore & Sl^czka, 1984). The Inner C arpathians nappes contact along a T ertiary strike-slip boundary w ith P ieniny K lippen B elt (Fig. 2, 3). T he P ieniny K lippen B elt (PK B ) is com posed o f several successions (m ainly deep and shallow -w ater lim estones), covering a tim e span from the Early Jurassic to P aleogene (G olonka &

S ikora, 1981; B irkenm ajer, 1986). T his strongly tectonized structure is a terrain o f about 800 km long and 1 to 20 km w ide, w hich stretches from V ien n a on the W est to the M ara- m ures (or P oiana B otizii area, N E R om ania) on the E ast (Fig. 2). T he PKB is in the w estern p art o f the area thrust over the O uter C arpathian nappes (Fig. 3), in Poland and

148

NW SE

L _____ O uter Carpathians ^ L Inner Carpathians

I_____i_____i_____i_____i_____I

Fig. 3. Generalized cross-section across Carpathian-Pannonian region (Picha, 1996)

E astern S lovakia is separated from the O u ter C arpathians by a M iocene subvertical strike-slip fault (B irkenm ajer, 1986).

The O uter C arpathians are built up o f a stack o f nappes and thrustsheets changing along the C arpathians, built m ainly o f continual flysch sequences up to six kilom eters thick rep re­

senting the tim e span from the upperm ost Jurassic up to the L ow er M iocene. All the O uter C arpathian nappes are over­

thrust onto the southern part o f the N orth E uropean platform covered by the autochtonous M iocene deposits o f the C ar­

pathian Foredeep on the distance o f 70 km , at least (K siąż- kiew icz, 1977; P escatore & Ślączka, 1984). D uring over­

thrusting m ovem ent the n o rthern C arpathians nappes b e­

cam e uprooted from the basem ent and only their basinal parts w ere preserved (Fig. 3). A narrow zone o f folded M io ­ cene deposits w as developed along the frontal C arpathian thrust i.e. and Z głobice W ieliczka U nit in the N o rth ern C ar­

pathians (ZG - Fig. 2) and S ubcarpathian (B o risla v -S am - b o r-R o zn ia to v U nit) o f the U krainian and R om anian parts o f the Eastern C arpathians (Fig. 2; K siążkiew icz, 1977;

P escatore & Ślączka, 1984; K ruglov, 1989).

The deep structure o f the Polish O u ter C arpathians and its basem ent, that is southern prolongation o f the N orth E uropean Platform , has been recognised by deep boreholes as well as by m agnetotelluric, gravim etric, m agnetic, g eo ­ m agnetic, and deep seism ic sounding profiles (Ślączka, 1976; O szczypko et al., 1989; Picha, 1996; G uterch et al., 2001). Tens o f deep (up to 4500 m eters) boreholes, w hich reached the C arpathian substratum allow ed, recognise depth o f C arpathian thrust plane, its m inim al range as w ell as ch aracter o f substratum . G enerally the th ru st plane o f the C arpathians deep slow ly to the south in th e ir w estern part.

Seism ic data provides sim ilar value o f the thrust plane depth. The position o f the crust-m antle boundary (M oho) has been recognised along several seism ic (G uterch et al., 2001). The depth to the M oho discontinuity generally ranged from 30^10 km at the front o f th e central part o f the C arpathians and increases to 50 km south o f the N ow y Sącz.

South o f PKB this value decreases to 3 6 -3 7 km . D epth o f consolidated basem ent b eneath C arpathian is situated at depth o f 10-18 km. The thickness o f the lithosphere in the Polish C arpathians varies from 160 km n ea r K raków to 100 km in the PKB.

OUACHITA FOLDBELT

The O uachita M ountains in O klahom a and A rkansas are a surface expression o f the O uachita belt (Fig. 4), w hich continues in the subsurface to the southw est, surfacing once again in the M arathon region o f W est Texas near the M exi­

can border (A rbenz, 1989; V iele & Thom as, 1989). The continuation o f the foldbelt beneath the surface into M exico is at least u n certain and speculative. Structural, lithofacies and Pb isotopic data (e.g. D ickinson & Law ton, 2001) do not support this continuation. To the east, the O uachita oro- genic b elt converges w ith the southern A ppalachian belt in the area o f the central M ississippi uplift (beneath a thick M esozoic cover). O ur know ledge o f this junction rem ains speculative (Thom as, 1977, 1989).

S tructures in the ex posed part o f th e O uachita orogenic belt are folds and thrusts v ergent tow ard the N o rth A m eri­

can craton w ith m ajor decollem ents thrusts visible espe­

cially along som e parts o f the orogenic front (Fig. 5). In m ost o f the O uachita M ountains, the structures trend east, but curve strongly to the southw est at the w estern end in O klahom a and slightly southeastw ard at their eastern end in Arkansas.

A m ong the structures there are several anticlinoria such as the B roken Bow (B R U ), B enton (B U ) and Potato Hill (PH - Fig. 4) uplifts, w here older ro ck s o f the O uachita fa­

d e s are exposed (A rbenz, 1968, 1989; V iele & Thom as, 1989).

G enerally all the exposed rocks in the O uachita M oun­

tains are strongly allochthonous and have been thrust as far as 80 kilom eters northw ard from th e ir form er position. The overthrust surface is steep in the northern part o f orogen, southw ard it is nearly horizontal. T he m ajor elevated zone can be distingushed here (e.g., zone drilled b y th e H assie H unt C arl N eely w ell on Fig. 5). T he slope o f the southw est surface is strongly d ependent on the basem ent configuration (Lillie et al., 1983; G olonka, 1988).

The orogenic belt faces northw estw ard and northw ard tow ard the craton w here v ariable thicknesses o f Paleozoic rocks lie on the P recam brian basem ent. P ositive basem ent areas include: the N ashville dom e, O zark U plift, the Ar- buckle (A M ) and W ichita M ountains (W M ) (southw estern O klahom a) and the Llano uplift o f C entral T exas (Fig. 4).

WEST CARPATHIANS AND OUACHITAS

149

Foreland basins, synorogenic shelf-delta clastic wedge

Synorogenic deep-water clastic wedge of Ouachita Mountains and Marathon region Subsurface Ouachita rocks: includes both pre- and synorogenic strata

Mesozoic-Tertiary strata of Gulf Coastal Plain Foreland tectonic features, includes Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks

Uplifts of pre-orogenic, off-shelf strata

__

Fig. 4. Map of the Ouachita foldbelt (after Viele, 1989, Viele & Thomas, 1989, Arbenz, 1989, modified). B-B’ - Location of cross- section (fig.5). Abbreviations: AM - Arbuckle mountains, ATF - Appalachians tectonic front, BRU - Broken Bow Uplift, BU - Benton Uplift, WM - Wichita Mountains

В В’

A R B U C K L E M N T S S A B IN E U P L IF T

OUACHITA I tOCKS

TRIASSIC

OUACHITA ROCKS BASEMENT

deco lem ent M O B IL

C O L C L A Z IE R F O R E L A N D

H A S S IE H U N T C A R L N E E L Y

JURASSIC - CENOZOIC

m e t a m q r p h icz o n e LATEST PALEOZOIC7-TRIASSIC

B AS E M E N T

Fig. 5. Generalized cross section across Ouachita foldbelt between Arbuckle Mountains and Sabine Uplift, based partially on seismic reflection line GC36 (unpublished, courtesy o f Mobil Exploration and Producing Technical Center, Dallas, Texas)

150

The negative areas are: the B lack W arrior, A rkom a, Fort W orth and Val V erde basins (V iele & T hom as, 1989) (Fig.

4).

T he A rbuckle and W ichita structures are foreland struc­

tures related to the O uachita orogeny. G enerally there are tw o uplifted zones - A rbuckle and W ichita M ountains with the exposed P recam brian and L ow er C am brian crystalline rocks, separated b y the A rdm ore and A nadarko basins (H am , 1950, 1969). T hey are characterized by a system o f faults trending east and southeast, as w ell as uplifts and gra- bens. Structural re lie f from uplift to b asin floor is as m uch as 9 km (Lillie et al., 1983; G olonka, 1988). The faults are high angle, often overthrust. T hese structures continue southw ard beneath the overthrust, allochthonous O uachita orogenic belt. B ased on seism ic and w ell data there are tw o uplifted zones, separated by a depression zone (G olonka, 1988) (Fig. 4). The northern uplift is the continuation o f the A rbuckle M ountains. It is bordered on the north by the A na­

darko basin. The depression zone is related to the Fort W orth and A rdm ore basins. T he axis o f the uplift trends northeast through O klahom a and A rkansas beneath the P o­

tato Hills.

GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTIONARY STAGES

F our m ain geodynam ic stages can b e distinguished du r­

ing the evolution o f the both, the C arpathians and O uachitas regions. These stages are m arked b y th e general changes in the developm ent o f basins and orogens (T able 1 and 2). The stages usually can be divided into m ore local substages.

STAGE I - SYNRIFT

This stage is characterized by rifting o f terranes o ff the m ajor continent and form ation o f o ceanic type o f basins (Table 2).

The West Carpathians (Triassic/Jurassic-Early Cretaceous) ± 135 My

T he basem ent o f m ost o f the plates th at play an im por­

tant role in the M e so zo ic -C en o z o ic evolution o f the circum -C arpathian area, w as form ed during the L ate P aleo­

zoic collisional events (G olonka et al., 2000, a). M oesia, E astern A lps (EA ), Inner C arpathians (IC ), T isa (Ti - Fig.

7A ) and adjacent terranes, w ere sutured to the Eurasian (L aurasian) arm o f P angea (Figs. 6, 7A ), w hile A dria and adjacent terranes w ere situated near th e G ondw ana (A fri­

can) arm . The equatorial position o f the B ohem ian M assif, adjacent to the C arpathian plates, agrees w ith the global Pangean m odel o f G olonka (2000, 2002). The P aleotethys O cean w as located south o f E urasia and w as established in southern and central E urope during P erm ia n -T ria ssic tim e.

The M e lia ta-H alstatt O cean (M e - Fig. 7B) form ed as a re­

sult o f rifting o f the Tisa terrane from E urasia during Trias- sic tim e. The V ardar (V a )-T ran sy lv a n ian (Tr) O cean sepa­

rated the T isa (B ih o r-A p u sen i) block from the M o e sia n - E astem E uropean P latform (Sandulescu, 1988; Sandulescu

& V isarion, 2000). T here is a p ossibility o f existence o f the em baym ent o f V ard ar-T ran sy lv an ia n oceanic zone betw een

Inner C arpathian and E uropean P latform (G olonka et al., 2000, 2003a). P elagic lim estones o f T riassic pebbles in the exotic sequences in the P ieniny K lippen B elt (B irkenm ajer, 1988; B irkenm ajer et al., 1990) and M agura U nit (Sotak, 1986) could have originated in this em baym ent. The em bay­

m ent position and its relation to the other parts o f Tethys, V ardar O cean and M e lia ta -H a lsta tt O cean(PD , Fig. 7B) re­

m ain quite speculative.

The T riassic shallow w ate r lim estones, m arls and dolo­

m ites w ith num erous reefs (K iessling et al., 1999) prevailed in the Inner C arpathians platform areas and w ere under- Iayed by the U pper Perm ian and L ow er T riassic clastic de­

posits. The sedim entary sequence rests on m etam orphic and granitic rocks o f the Late P aleozoic age.

The above m entioned perio d o f sedim entation w as fol­

lowed by the Jurassic opening o f the L ig u rian -P en n in ic -P i- eniny K lippen B elt/M agura O cean (Figs. 7B, C). This open­

ing resulted in the rifting o f A lp in e -In n e r C arpathian ter­

ranes o ff Eurasia. S everal basins separated b y carbonate platform s developed in the C arpathian region. A local rift w ith the andesitic volcanics developed also along the south­

ern m argin o f the N orth E uropean platform (Sl^czka, 1998).

Stam pfli (2001) recently postulates a single Penninic Ocean (Pe, Fig. 7B) separating A pulia and E astern A lps blocks from Eurasia. W e proposed a sim ilar m odel for the Pieniny K lippen B elt O cean in the C arpathians. The orientation o f the P ieniny K lippen B elt O cean w as S W -N E (see discus­

sion in G olonka & K robicki, 2001). T his ocean w as divided into the northw estern (M agura basin, M g - Fig. 7C) and southeastern (Pieniny B asin - Fig. 7B, C) basins by the mi- doceanic C zorsztyn Ridge (C R - Fig. 1C). The deepest part o f the southeastern basin is docum ented by extrem ely deep w ater Ju rassic-E arly C retaceous deposits (pelagic lim e­

stones and radiolarites) o f Z latna unit (Sikora, 1971; G o­

lonka & Sikora, 1981) later described also as U ltrapieninic unit or V ahicum (e.g., P lasienka, 1999). The transitional slope sequences betw een deepest basinal units and ridge units are k n ow n as P ieniny, B ranisko (K ysuca), N iedzica and C zertezik successions (Fig. 8). T he shallow est ridge se­

quences are know n as the C zorsztyn Succession. D ark Low er Jurassic shales (Table 1) in this succession are fol­

low ed by M iddle Ju rassic -e a rlie st C retaceous crinoidal and nodular lim estones and C retaceous variegated m arls. S edi­

m entation o f pelagic lim estones, m arls, cherts, cherty lim e­

stones and som e syn-rift turbiditic deposits occurred during this period in the basinal areas, w hereas on the uplifted parts m ore shallow , calcareous sedim ents developed. The deepest part o f the northw estern b asin is represented by extrem ely deep-w ater condensed Ju ra ssic -E a rly C retaceous deposits (pelagic cherty lim estones and radiolarites) o f the southern M agura (or G rajcarek o r H ulina) unit (G olonka & Sikora, 1981; B irkenm ajer, 1986; G olonka et al., 2000, 2003a). The paleogeographic extent o f the M agura B asin rem ains som e­

w hat enigm atic and speculative. A lso speculative is exis­

tence o f o ceanic crust b elo w the w hole M agura basin. The transitional slope sequence is know n from som e outcrops located n orth o f the C zorsztyn R idge (such as Z aw iasy and Stare Bystre in Poland) (G olonka & Sikora, 1981). Ridge sequences as w ell as transitional slope sequences are also called O ravicum (e.g., Plasienka, 1999).

WEST CARPATHIANS AND OUACHITAS

C om parative stratigraphic chart

151

T a b le 1

O UACH ITAS C A R PA TH IA N S

Time Ouachita A rbuckle Tim e M agura-Pieniny O uter subbasins

StageIV (290-225Ma) Triassic

Clastic red beds o f W agle Mills Formation

C lastic red beds o f W agle M ills Formation

StageIV (20-0 Ma) Plio-Quat.

Fluvial and continental strata Fluvial and continental strata

Permian

Fluvial-deltaic and continental strata

Fluvial-deltaic and continental strata

M. Miocene

Continental shales and sandstones with marine intercalations

Brackish sandstones, shales and lim estones. M arine, fine grained and clastic sedim ents; limestones, evaporites including salt, locally olistostrom es

Stage III (325-290Ma) Late Carboniferous (325-290) Poorly sorted sandstones and dark gray shales, som etim es limestones (Atoka Fill). Olistostrom es with enorm ous blocks o f lim estone, chert, and black shale; black shales and \ thin-bedded sandstones (Johns Valley). Flysch and olistostrom es (Jackfork sandstone)

Poorly sorted sandstones and dark gray shales, som etim es lim estones (Atoka Fm).

Lim estone, shale and sandstone

(W apanucka lim estone)

StageIII (55-20Ma) EarlyMiocene

M edium- and thin-beddcd sandstones (M alcov Fm.)

Basal conglom erates passing upwards to brackish and marine sandstones, shales and marls, locally salt. Olistostrom es.

Sandstones, shales and gray marls (K rosno beds)

Oligocene

M edium- and thin-bedded sandstones (M alcov Fm.) Flysch, marls, proximal turbidites (M agura Fm.)

Sandstones, shales and gray marls (K rosno beds), olistostrom es. Dark brown bitum inous shales and cherts (M enilite Shales, locally sandstone subm arine fans (M szanka, Cergowa, Kliwa sandstones), olistostrom es

Eocene

Globigerina m arls Flysch, Variegated shales, proximal turbidites (M agura Fm.)

G lobigerina m arls Flysch, Variegated shales, proxim al turbidites (Ciężkowice sandstone)

Stage II (365-325Ma)

Flysch with tuffs, shales and cherts (Stanley shale).

Black shales, cherts (W oodford chert)

Black shales and sandstones (Springer Fm.) dark-colored Caney shale.

Sycam ore lim estone.

Black shales, cherts

(W oodford chert) StageII (100-55Ma) Paleocene

Flysch (Ropianka),variegated shales, marls

Thick bedded, coarse-grained turbidites and fluxoturbidites (Istebna,

Ciężkow ice), m arls (W ęglówka), variegated shales.

L. Cretaceous

Flysch (Ropianka), calcareous turbidites m arls, radiolarites, green and red shales

Thick bedded, coarse-grained turbidites and fluxoturbidites (Godula, Istebna), flysch (R opianka), marls, (W ęglówka, Frydek)

Stage I (500-365 Ma) Devonian

Black shales, cherty limestones, cherts (A rkansas Novaculite)

Black shales, cherts (W oodford chert)

Stage I (235-100 Ma) E. Cretaceous

Black shales, turbiditic sandstones, marls, pelagic cherty lim estones, cherts (radiolarites), nodular lim estones

Black shales, carbonate turbidites (Cieszyn, Sinaia), turbiditic sandstones, coarse-grained subm arine fans, olistostrom es (Bucegi-Soym ul)

Siluria

n Turbiditic sandstones, siltstones and shales (M issouri M ountain Shale, Blaylock Sandstone)

Lim estones and shales (Hunton)

Late Jurassic

Pelagic cherty limestones, cherts (radiolarites), nodular lim estones

Carbonate turbidites, black shales and m arls

Ordovician

Turbiditic sandstones and limestones, graptolitic shales, cherts,

coarse-grained subm arine slides (Blaylock, Polk Creek, Bigfork, W omble, Blakely, Mazarn, Crystal M ountain, Collier)

Lim estones, dolom ites, shales, cherts (Hunton, Sylvan, Viola,

Simpson, A rbuckle) MiddleJurassic

Crinoidal limestones, cherts (radiolarites)

Cambrian

Collier graptolitic shake w ith lenses and beds o f lim estones o f a distal turbiditic character

Arbuckle Group, H oney Creek lim estones, Reagan transgressive sandstone

EarlyJurassic

Dark shales, pelagic limestones, turbiditic sandstones and lim estones

Triassic

Pelagic lim estones

152

Table 2

T ectonostratigraphic com parison

OUA C H ITA S C A R PA TH IA N S

Time Tectonic events and elem ents Sedim entary style Tim e Tectonic events and elem ents Sedim entary style

Paleozoic-Triasic Perm.Triassic(290-225 Ma)

Thrusting and inversion, Final formation o f A rkom a foreland basin. Form ation o f

post-orogenic extensional basins

M arine and continental molasse.

V olcanics. Continental red beds

Mesozoic-Cenozoic M. Miocene-Future(20-?Ma)

Thrusting and inversion, Final form ation o f Carpathian foredeep. Form ation o f Pannonian extensional basin

M arine and continental molasse.

V olcanics

Late Carboniferous (325-290 Ma)

Convergence o f South A m erica and North A merica, Sabine - Eurasia collision, thrusting and inversion with the continuing formation o f accretionary prisms. Incipient form ation o f A rkom a foreland basin

Flysch, olistostrom es. M arine and continental m olasse.

V olcanics

Eocene-EarlyMiocene (55-20Ma)

Convergence o f A frica and Eurasia, A lcapa - Eurasia collision, thrusting and inversion with continuing form ation o f accretionary prisms. Incipient form ation o f Carpathian foredeep

Flysch, olistostrom es, pelagic shales, carbonates and biogenic siliceous deposits. Marine and continental m olasse. Volcanics.

Carbonates on ridges

EarlyCarboniferous (365-325Ma)

Subduction along the active m argin o f the O uachita ocean.

Enigm atic Sabine terrane moving north, partial closing o f oceanic basin. D evelopm ent o f main flysch basin on the platform (passive margin Ma) with the attenuated crust and beginning o f form ation o f accretionary prisms

Flysch, olistostrom es, pelagic shales, carbonates and biogenic siliceous deposits. Volcanics

Late Cretaceous—Paleocene (100- 55Ma)

Subduction zones along the active m argin o f the M agura-Pieniny ocean, Inner Carpathian terrane moving north, partial closing o f oceanic basin, nappes with northw ard polarity in the Inner C arpathians, developm ent o f m ain flysch basins on the platform (passive m argin) with attenuated crust and beginning o f form ation o f accretionary prisms

Flysch, olistostrom es, pelagic pelagic shales, carbonates and biogenic siliceous deposits.

V olcanics

Cambrian-Devonian(500-365 Ma)

Rifting o f Precordilleran terrane o ff North America. Formation o f the O uachita ocean

Passive margin, deep water turbidites, pelagic shales, carbonates and biogenic siliceous deposit, volcanics?

Carbonates on surrounding platform

Triassic-EarlyCretaceous (235-100Ma)

Rifting o f Eastern Alps, Inner Carpathians terranes o ff Eurasia. Form ation o f the Pieniny-M agura, O uter Carpathian oceans and basins

Passive margin, deep water turbidites, pelagic shales, carbonates and biogenic siliceous deposits, volcanics.

Carbonates on surrounding platform

D uring the L ate Jurassic (Fig. 1C) the southern part o f the N orth European Platform , north o f the P ieniny/M agura realm , started to be rifted and sm all b asin s (e.g., proto- Silesian B asin in the W estern C arpathians, SI - Fig. 1C), w ith black, m ainly redeposited m arls (?K im m erid g ia n -T i-

thonian) w ere created (P escatore & Slaczka, 1984). The W estern C arpathian S ilesian Basin probably extended in the E astern C arpathian S inaia or “black flysch” B asin (San- dulescu, 1984; K rautner, 1996: K rautner & K rstic, 2000).

The rifting in the eastern C arpathian w as accom panied by

F ig . 6.

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153

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BASIN __ _______ _ ^____ M EDITERRANEAN AFR IC A

Continental crust (including obducted

allochthonous rocks and sedimentary cover) Oceanic crust (including deposits) Upper mantle

Highly schematic (not to scale) plate tectonic profiles (Modified from Golonka et al., 2000). Central Europe - Carpathians

154

urasia

B

Active highlands

Inactive highlands

Non-deposional lowlands

Terrestrial undifferentiated

Coastal, transitional, marginal marine

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Slope

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Fan, slump, turbidites

Ocean basin, little or no sediments

Conglomerate

Sandstone, siltstone

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200 km

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| Limestone

Sand and shale (mainly flysch)

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Spreading center and transform fault

Active subduction zone

Normal fault

Thrust fault

Strike-slip

*

Present day coastline, suture, lat/long

Volcanoe

Reef

Organic rich shale

F ig . 7. Paleogeography and lithofacies o f the circum-Carpathian area (Modified from Golonka et al., 2000, 2003a). A - Late Carbonif­

erous, B - Early Jurassic, C - Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous. Abbreviations: B1 - Balkans, Cr - Czorsztyn ridge, Du - Dukla, EA - East­

ern Alps, Hv - Helvetic, IC - Inner Carpathians, In - Inacovce-Kricevo basin, Mg — Magura basin, Mr - Marmarosh, Pe - Ligurian- Penninic Ocean, PB - Pieniny Basin, Ra - Rakhov basin, RD - Rheno-Danubian basin, SC - Silesian ridge (cordillera), SI - Silesian basin, Sn - Sinaia basin, St - Śtramberk olistolith, Va - Vardar Ocean, Ti - Tisa, Tr - Transilvanian Ocean

the extrusion o f diabase-m elaphyre volcanics (L ashkevitsch et al., 1995; G olonka et al., 2000). T hese basins indicate the beginning o f the O uter C arpathians realm developm ent. The opening is related to the closing o f P ie n in y -M a g u ra (N orth and South P enninic) basin. In the C arpathian region subduc­

tion developed at the end o f Jurassic -b e g in n in g o f the C re­

taceous (Figs. 6, 1C) along the southern m argin o f the n ar­

row ing basin north o f the approaching Inner C arpathian and began to consum e the P ieniny K lippen B elt O cean (B irken- m ajer, 1986).

The rapid supply o f shallow -w ater calcareous m aterial to the new -born basins could be an effect o f the strong tec- tonoeustatic sea-level fluctuations know n from that tim e.

B lack sedim ents m ark the beginning o f an euxinic cycle in the O uter C arpathian b asin that lasted until A lbian. The black m arls pass gradually upw ards into calcareous turbid­

ites (C ieszyn lim estones — S inaia beds) w hich created sev­

eral subm arine fans (Table 1). O ccurrence o f deep-w ater m icrofauna indicates that subsidence o f the basins m ust have been quite rapid (P opraw a et al., 2002a, b). D uring the

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LATEST JURASSIC-EARLIEST CRETACEOUS MIDDLE JURASSIC

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r z n

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Fig. 8. Highly schematic (not to scale) profiles showing the evolution of the Pieniny Klippen Belt-Magura ocean during Jurassic-earli- est Cretaceous time

early part o f the C retaceous the calcareous turbidites gave w ay to black calcareous shales and thin sandstones passing upw ards into black, com m only siliceous shales. T his type o f sedim ents is already know n also from th e o ther O uter C ar­

pathians basins. D uring the H auterivian, B arrem ian and A p­

tian several coarse-grained subm arine fans developed. The supply o f clastic m aterial w as probably co nnected w ith the Early C retaceous uplift know n from the B ohem ian M assif.

T he m ain phase o f the hypabyssal intrusions and extrusions alkaline m agm a (m esocratic teschenites and leucocratic sy­

enites) w as connected w ith the late period o f the N orth E uropean P latform rifting. H ow ever it can n o t be excluded that m agm atic eruptions could have started earlier (S m u­

likow ski, 1980), as in the case o f the E astern C arpathians.

L ack o f changes in foram inifers assem blages through the Early C retaceous tim e suggest lack o f p ronounced changes o f depth o f basins that corresponded g enerally to Recurvoi-

des zone o f H aig. It im plies generally continuos tectonic subsidence o f the basins during that period. This subsidence w as equal to the rate o f sedim entation.

In the early A lbian w ithin the black shales, w idespread turbiditic sedim entation started, that can be connected with a com pressional period very pronounced in the E astern C ar­

pathians. In th at p art o f the C arpathian dom ain the com pres­

sional m ovem ent started during the A ptian and A lbian and the inner p art o f the C arpathians w as folded, nappes form ed and in front o f m oving nappes coarse-grained sedim ents (B ucegi - Soym ul C onglom erates) and olistostrom es devel­

oped (K ruglov, 1989, 2001; S andulescu, 1984, 1988).

The Ouachita J'oldbelt (Cambrian-Devonian) ± 130 Ma T here are tw o m odels explaining the form ation o f the O uachita basin. In one m odel (e.g., K eller and C ebull, 1973) an ocean w ith oceanic crust w as opened during early Paleo-

156

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DEVONIAN

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B A S IN

LATE CARBONIFEROUS - PERMIAN

Y U C A T A N V E N E Z U E L A

S O U T H A M E R IC A

Oceanic crust (including deposits) Upper mantle

Continental crust (including obducted allochthonous rocks and sedimentary cover)

F ig . 9. Highly schematic (not to scale) plate tectonic profiles (modified from Golonka and Sl^czka, 2000). North America-Ouachitas- Yucatan-South America

zoic tim e. A ccording to T hom as & A stini (1999) the A rg en ­ tine P recordillera w as rifted from the O uachita em baym ent o f L aurentia during C am brian tim e. T his m odel is preferred by the authors (Figs. 9, 10A, B; note th at N orth A m erican continent is rotated, see W alker et al., 1995, and for exam ­ ple A ustin, Texas is north o f Little R ock, A rkansas). It agrees w ell w ith the global Phanerozoic plate tectonic m aps (G olonka, 2000, 2002). A lso the lithostratigraphic se­

quences (Tables 1, 2) support the geodynam ic evolution o f the origin from rift through oceanic passive m argin, accre- tionary prism related to basin closure to thrusting and inver­

sion. In the other m odel (e.g., A rbenz, 1989) the O uachita basin w as separated from the m ain (Iapetus-R heic) ocean by poorly defined terranes. P resent day S abine uplift m ay con­

stitute the rem nant o f these terranes. V iele & Thom as (1989) stated that C arboniferous volcanics form ed a part o f

the upper (southern plate). The fragm ents o f these southern terranes are perhaps included into th e Inner O uachita Fold- belt in Texas.

A ccording to T hom as & A stini (1999) the distribution o f synrift rocks and structures indicate diachronous rifting events along the m argin o f L aurentia during C am brian tim e.

T he O uachita rocks are y o u n g er than rocks know n from the B lue Ridge area in A ppalachians. T he tim e o f rifting and form ation o f th e A lab a m a -O k la h o m a transform fault (T ho­

m as, 1991) could be connected w ith an em placem ent o f the igneous rocks in the Southern O klahom a. T hese rocks, as young as 525±25 M a, are overlain by U pper C am brian sandstones. F or the Late C am brian beginning o f sedim enta­

tion in the O uachita basin (Table 1) w e have som ew hat arbi­

trarily assum ed tim e around 500 M a according to the P aleo­

zoic tim e scale by G olonka & K iessling, (2002).

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157

0 200km

Fig. 10. Paleogeography and lithofacies o f die circum-Ouachita area, (modified from Golonka, 2000, Golonka & Ford, 2000. Note:

North American (Laurentia) continent is rotated (see Walker et al., 1995). Spreading and transform faults from Thomas & Astini, 1999, Thomas et al., 2002). A - Late Cambrian, B — Early Ordovician, C - Late Devonian, D - Early Carboniferous, E - Late Carboniferous, F - Early Permian. Legend as on Fig. 7

T w o different facies w ere developed in the E arly P aleo ­ zoic (T able 1): a deep o ff-sh elf w ater passive m arg in facies in the O uachita orogenic belt and a predo m in an tly shallow w ater cratonic facies in the O uachita foreland (H am , 1950, 1959, 1969; C line, 1960, 1970; C line et al., 1959; Flaw n et a l, 1961; Low e, 1985, 1989; M cB ride, 1975; V iele & T ho­

mas, 1989).

T he oldest rock o f the deep w ater o r so-called O uachita facies is the C ollier shale o f L ate C a m b ria n -E a rly O rd o v i­

cian age (A rbenz, 1989; L ow e, 1989). The bulk o f the for­

m ation is bluish-black, g raptolitic shale w ith lenses and beds o f lim estones o f a distal turbiditic character. The next unit is the C rystal M ountain sandstone, w hich overlies the C ollier shale. L ight gray, w ell-sorted, fine to m edium grained, quartz cem ented, th ick-bedded quartz sandstones w ith m inor shales prevail here. The sandstones are proxim al turbidites. A ccording to L ow e (1989) they indicate deposi­

tion from subm arine sedim ent gravity flow s including both

-North America

158

high- and low -density turbidity currents. The M azarn shale conform ably overlies the C rystal M ountain sandstone. It is chiefly dark-gray, lam inated, graptolitic shale w ith num er­

ous thin interbeded distal turbidites, both quartzose as well as carbonate types. A ccording to Low e (1989) they w ere ac­

cum ulated under low energy deep -w ater conditions.

The B lakely sandstone (M iddle O rdovician) w hich overlies the M azarn shale consists o f m assive to thin bed­

ded, w ell-sorted, fine-grained quartz sandstones and vari­

colored silts and shales deposited by sandy high-density tur- biditic currents w ith debris flow s and subm arine slides (Low e, 1989). The W om ble shale conform ably overlies the B lakely sandstone. It consists prin cip ally o f gray-black graptolitic slaty hem ipelagic shale (Low e, 1989; G leason et a/., 2002). N um erous thin-bedded calcareous distal turbid­

ites occur w ithin the low er part, w hereas the upper part con­

tains som e turbiditic siltstones, phosphatic breccias, and gray-black, w ell-sorted, pelletal turbiditic lim estones.

T he B igfork C hert o f M iddle O rdovician age conform a­

bly overlies the W om ble shale. This resistant unit consists o f gray and black, thin-bedded, highly fractured chert with m inor interbeded clay shales, siliceous shales and siliceous lim estones. The lim estones appear to be turbidites w hereas the o ther rocks are pelagic in origin.

C onform ably overlying the B igfork C hert is the Polk C reek shale o f Late O rdovician age (Low e, 1989). T his thin shale unit is black, highly fissile, graptolitic, and carbona­

ceous w ith a few thin beds o f calcareous chert. T he B lay­

lock sandstone o f Silurian and possible partly Late O rdovi­

cian age (Low e, 1989) overlies the P olk C reek shale con­

form ably or w ith a stratigraphic break. T he form ation con­

sists o f subequal proportions o f olive-gray, thin-bedded, lam inated, feldspathic, very fine-grained sandstones and siltstones as w ell as greenish-gray shales th at to g eth er com ­ prise a shaly flysch facies.

T he M issouri M ountain shale (Silurian) is in places transitional into the underlying B laylock sandstone. V ari­

colored shales (or slates) com prise the bulk o f the unit. N ear the top are thin interbeded turbidites com posed o f white, fine to m edium -grained w ell-rounded, silica-cem ented quartz sandstones.

T he next stratigraphic unit is the A rkansas novaculite, w hich includes rocks o f both D evonian and low erm ost M is- sissippian age (Fig. 10C). This d istinctive unit consists chiefly o f novaculite, a light-colored, extrem ely fine­

grained, hom ogenous, highly fractured siliceous rock sim i­

lar to cherts but characterized by a dom inance o f quartz rather than chalcedony. The upper and low er m em bers con­

tain lam inated beds o f rounded and angular quartz grains as w ell as intraform ational breccias o f black chert, phosphate and coarse quartz grains. T hin, graded, lam inated siliceous beds and black shales characterize a m iddle m em ber. A c ­ cording to Low e (1989) breccias w ithin th e novaculite indi­

cate erosion, w hile V iele & T hom as (1989) argue for deep- m arine environm ent o f deposition.

T he cratonic or “A rbuckle” (Table 1) facies overlies P recam brian and C am brian igneous rocks. The o lder sedi­

m entary unit is the T im bered H ills G roup o f L ate C am brian age. It is com posed o f the H oney C reek L im estone and the R eagan Sandstone. The R eagan is a basal transgressive

sandstone th at incorporated m uch w eathered m aterial from underlying igneous rocks during its deposition. The H oney C reek consist chiefly o f coarsely to very coarsely crystal­

line, highly glauconitic fragm ental lim estone. Thin interca­

lated m id-grained lim estone and sandstone is frequent.

The A rbuckle G roup w hich overlies the T im bered Hills G roup is com posed o f m ore than 2000 m (in southern O kla­

hom a) o f carbonates p rim arily lim estones w ith approxi­

m ately 15 percent dolom ites. A ll A rbuckle carbonates are typically sim ilar in lithology, com posed prim arily o f lim e­

stones (fine-grained, strom atolitic, oolitic, or organodetritic lim estones). The differentiation o f the units into form ations and their m apping is b ased largely on variations in the am ount o f quartz sand present and also on color and fossil content. L ocally a distinction o f dolom ite units is also possi­

ble. W hile several form ation nam es are used in the O zark U plift/A rkom a Basin area (G asconade, R oubidoux, Jeffer­

son City, C otter and Powell form ations) the A rbuckle G roup is undivided in the w ells. S im ilar shallow -w ater car­

bonate facies o f O rdovician age are know n in the foreland o f O uachita foldbelt in T exas as the E llenburger G roup and in A ppalachians as the K nox Group.

The S im pson G roup unconform able overlies the A r­

buckle G roup. The thickness o f the Sim pson ranges from 1000 to 2000 feet. The basal form ation o f the Sim pson is lim estone and dolom itic lim estone. T he low er part is cream to brow n dolom ite, very finely sucrose in appearance, the upper is lim estone and usually fossiliferous. The Oil Creek Form ation consists o f gray-green and black shales, w hite to cream dense to fine crystalline lim estone and about 100 feet thickness sand (im portant hydrocarbon producing horizon).

T he follow ing M cLish F orm ation contains m ore lim estone.

T hese lim estones are usually ostracodal, frequently contain coarse b ro w n to gray oolites set in a w hite to cream y m atrix, frequently they becom e sandy and dolom itic. O ccasionally som e m aroon, brow n or olive shale can be found. The u p ­ perm ost B rom ide Form ation consists m ostly o f green shales w ith relatively thin w hite to cream , frequently ostracodal lim estones.

The V iola lim estone (U pper O rdovician) conform ably overlies the S im pson G roup. The low er part is dark brown to alm ost black and very cherty. T here are som e beds o f al­

m ost solid brow n cherts. The upper part is w hite to pink, coarsely crystalline and contains few fossils. The Sylvan Shale represents the upperm ost part o f O rdovician; it is a light green and gray, flaky, splintery, soft shale containing graptolites.

The H unton F orm ation, w hich overlies the Sylvan Shale, is o f O rd o v icia n -S ilu ria n age. It consists o f m arls, dense m arly thin-bedded lim estones and shales. T he W ood­

ford chert (o r shale) o f L ate D evonian and m ay be Early M ississippian age u nconform ably overlies the H unton F or­

m ation. It consists o f alternating beds o f black sapropelic papery shale w ith p hosphate nodules and black cherts.

A m ong the low er P aleozoic rocks o f the A rbuckle fa­

cies, the A rbuckle G roup and S im pson G roup m erit special consideration. Both o f them are the p otential petroleum pro­

ducing horizons, and ad ditionally som e shales w ithin the Sim pson G roup are potential source rocks. D eposition o f graptolitic shales, pelagic, lim estones, flysch deposits,