Zeszyt 1
http://dx.doi.org./10.15762/ZH.2017.06
JAKUB ROGULSKI
(Jagiellonian University in Kraków)
Titles,SealsandcoatsofArmsasSymbolsofpowerandImporta nceofLithuanianDukes
Before the Union of Lublin
Keywords:middleages,theGrandDuchyofLithuania,parallelbranchesofarulinghouse,dukes,demonstrat ionofpower,titulature,sigillography,heraldry
Introduction
Thesymbols1ofpowerandimportanceofLithuaniandukesbeforetheUnionofLubli nhavenotbecomeaseparatesubjectofhistorians’studiessofar.Inthehistoriographythelargestattenti onhasbeendrawntothedemon-
strationofpowerofthegranddukesofLithuania,especiallyfromthejagiel- loniandynasty.2Meanwhile,thesignswhichservedtodisplaythepoweror significanceofotherLithuaniandukeshavebeenraisedincidentallyandse- lectively.3ThereasoncouldbethatintheGrandDuchyofLithuaniathere
1A
symbolisunderstoodinawayproposedbycharlesS.peirce,i.e.amaterialobjectwhichstandsfororsuggestssomet hingelse(anotherobject,idea,meaning,belief,actionetc.)
onlyonthebasisofsocialconvention,incontrasttotheiconicsignbasedonsimilarity,andthe
indexicalsignbasedonmaterialcontact:charlesSanderspeirce,TheEssentialPeirce:SelectedPhilosophicalWritings, Bloomington(Indiana)1998,p.9.Asthiskindofsignwillbethemainsubject of the following analysis, the word“symbol”will be further used interchangeably with the word“sign.”
2See: Ryszard Kiersnowski,Godła Jagiellońskie, Wiadomości Numizmatyczne, vol.
32:1988,pp.1–
27;Zenonpiech,Monety,pieczęcieiherbywsystemiesymboliwładzyJagiellonów,Warszawa2003,wherethereisacompilationo fpreviousliteratureonthissubject;EdmundasRimša,PieczęcieOlgierda,wielkiegoksięcialitewskiego–danehistoriograficznearzeczywistość, [in:]Heraldykai okolice, ed. Andrzej Rachuba, Sławomir Górzyński, Halina Manikow- ska,Warszawa2002,pp.201–215;idem,Heraldika:išpraeitiesįdabartį,vilnius2004;juozas
Galkus,LietuvosVytis,vilnius2009;Rimvydaspetrauskas,TheGediminids,theAlgirdidsand the Jagiellonians – stirps regia in theGrandDuchy ofLithuania,[in:]Lietuva –Lenkija
–Svedija:Europosdinastin,osjungtysiristoriniai-
kulturiniairyiiai,ed.EugenijusSaviščevas,MarijusUzorka,vilnius2014,pp.35–47.
3Interestingly,
mostoftheseworkswerepublishedbeforetheSecondWorldWar:ZygmuntLubaRadzi miński,OtożsamościtytułówkniaźiksiążęwdawnejRzeczypospolitej,Lwów1908;
livedalotofdukes,whowereverydifferentfromeachotherintermsofori- gin,wealthandpoliticalposition.4consequently,atotalityofducalpower symbolsinthemedievalLithuaniaappearstobediverse,incoherentanddif-
ficulttoanalyse.Theresearchofallknownsymbolswouldrequiremuchtime andwork.
Thispaperaimstooutlinetheissuebyanalysingthemostrepresentative
symbolswhichwereusedbyachosengroupofLithuanianprinces.Firstly,theattentionwillbe drawntotitles,sealsandcoatsofarms,sincetheyplayed
abasicroleinthedemonstrationofducalpower,positionandsignificancein theMedievalperiodandlater.5Theycontainedanumberofsymbolicsigns, whichcouldclearlyrepresentducaldignityandauthority,animportantpo-
liticalroleandahighsocialrank.Atthesametime,theycouldbeeasyusedtocreateapropagandaimage.
Additionally,quitealargeamountofasourcema-
terial,mainlydocumentsandseals(boththeportraitonesandthearmorial ones)usedbyLithuaniandukes,havesurvivedtothepresenttimes.6Itena-
MarianGumowski,Pieczęcieksiążątlitewskich,AteneumWileńskie,vol.7:1930,pp.684–672;
WładysławSemkowicz,SfragistykaWitolda,WiadomościNumizmatyczno-Archeologiczne, vol.13:1930,pp.65–
86.RecentlypublishedworkscontaincataloguesofLithuaniandukes’seals:Dokumentystronypolsko- litewskiejpokojumełneńskiegoz1422roku,ed.przemysławNowak,piotr pokora, poznań 2004; Oleh Anatoliyovych Odnorozhenko,Rus’Ki korolivs’ki,hospodars’ki taknyazivs’ki pyechatkyXIII–XVI
st, (Monumenta Rutheniae Heraldica, vol.
2),Kharkiv2009[ОлегАнатолійовичОднороженко,Руськікоролівські,господарськітакнязівськіпєча ткиХІІІ–ХVIст.(MonumentaRutheniaeHeraldica,vol.2),Харків2009].
4A
largenumberofLithuaniandukeswasaresultoftwofacts:firstly,GrandDukesGedi- minasandAlgirdashadnumeroussonsandgrandsons,andsecondly,intheLithuanianstate
therewerealotofotherdukescomingfromlocaldynasties:Lithuanian,RuthenianorevenTatar–
thedivisionintroducedby:józefWolff,Kniaziowielitewsko-ruscyodkońcaczternas- tegowieku,Warszawa1895,p.XXI.Itisestimatedthatinthe15thcentury
therelivedupto80 ducalfamiliesinLithuania–
LidiaKorczak,Monarchaipoddani.SystemwładzywWielkimKsięstwieLitewskimwokresiewczesnojagiello ńskim,Kraków2008,p.60.Inthe16thcentury
thisnumberslightlydecreasedtoabout50–60families–
NatalyaMykolayivnaYakovenko,Ukrayins’KashlyakhtazkintsyaXIVdoseredynyXVIIstolittya.Volyn’i Tsentral’NaUkrayina,Kyyiv2008,p.103[Ната́ляМикола́ївнаЯковенко,Українськашляхтаз кінцяXIVдосерединиXVIIстоліття.ВолиньіЦентральнаУкраїна,Київ2008].
5More
aboutthisroleoftitles,sealsandcoatsofarmsinthemedievalpolandandLithua-
niacanbereadfrom:Zenonpiech,IkonografiapieczęciPiastów,Kraków1993;idem,Monety,pieczęcie,herb y;AleksanderŚwieżawski,Tytulaturaruskaksiążątmazowieckich,Warszawa1994;januszGrabowski, TytulaturamazowieckairuskanadokumentachkrólewskichPiastówiJagiellonów(XIV–XVIw.),
[in:]Polskakancelariakrólewska.Międzywładząaspołeczeństwem,
vol.3,ed.Waldemarchorążyczewski,WojciechKrawczuk,Warszawa2008,pp.9–33.
6In
alotofworksLithuanianDukes’documentsandsealscanbefound,inparticularly:ArkhivYugo- ZapadnoyRossii,ch.1–8,t.1,Kiyev1859–1911[АрхивЮго-ЗападнойРоссии, ч.1–8,т.1,Киев1859–
1911];CodexepistolarisVitoldimagniducisLithuaniae1376–
1430,ed.Antoniprochaska(Monumentamediiaeviihistorica.Resgestaspoloniaeillustrantia,vol.6), Kraków 1882;ArchiwumXX. Sanguszków Lubartowiczów w Sławucie, vol. 1–7, ed.Zygmunt
blestochoosethemostinterestingexamplesoftitles,sealsandcoatsofarms
fortheanalysisoftheirmainfunctions,symbolicmeaningandpropagandacontent.
Secondly,thesubjectofourinterestwillbethetitles,sealsandcoatsofarmswhichbelongedtoprin ces(notgrandprinces)comingfromGrandDukesGe-
diminas(d.1341)andAlgirdas(d.1377).Sinceitwasagroupofprinceswho hadacommonancestorandwererelatedtoeachother,thesymbolsusedby themshouldhavebeencompatibleandplayedasimilarrole.consequently,
thefindingsfromtheanalysisofchosenobjectscanbeextendedtothewidergroup.Moreover,the descendants of Gediminas (the Gediminids) wereof particularmeaninginthemedievalLithuania,astheybelongedtotherulingdynasty and later they could pride themselves on dynastic origins. Through- outtheperiodtheyplayedanimportantpoliticalrole,whichisthebestseen
inthe14thcentury,whenmanyGediminidsDukesruledintheirownduch- ies.7Thepossessorsoftheseduchiescreatedthestrictpowerelite,supported
Lithuanianmonarchsandsignedthemostimportantinternationaltreaties.8Inthefirsthalfofthe15thcenturyt heirimportancedecreased,sincetheylost
theirduchiesandinfacttheybecameLithuanianlandowners.Inturn,theykeptmanyprivil eges and acquired a special social status, called“statusduca-lis,”joining the
separate and exclusive ducal
stratum“ordoducum”(“народъкняжатский”).9Despitethiskindof“declassing”,10the
yremainedverysig-
nificant.TheducalhouseswhichcamefromGediminasandAlgirdas(suchas theOlelkowicz-Słucki,Sanguszkowiczorczartoryskifamilies)createdanelite
LubaRadzimiński, Bronisław Gorczak, Sławuta–Lwów 1887–1910;Aktaunii Polskiz Litwą1385–1791, ed. Stanisław Kutrzeba, Władysław Semkowicz, Kraków 1932; M.
Gumowski,
op.cit.;józefpuzyna,NiektórepieczęcielitewskiezXVIiXVIIwieku,MiesięcznikHeraldyczny,vol.12:1933, pp.55–58,73–
77;О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.Theworksarebasisofthispaper,butmanyanalysedobjectswasfoundinarchives andhasnotbeenpublishedyet.
7The
duchieswereakindoffiefs:theyremainedpartsoftheLithuanianstateandthegranddukewastheirsupremeso vereign:hecouldtakeawayaduchyfromanydukeinanytimeandgiveittosomeoneelseorevenabolishit.Howeve r,manyLithuaniandukestreatedduchiesastheirownheritage.Morecanbereadin:Henrykłowmiański ,Uwagiwsprawiepodłoża społecznego i gospodarczegouniijagiellońskiej, [in:]KsięgapamiątkowakuuczczeniuczterechsetnejrocznicywydaniaIStatutuLitewskiego,ed.StefanEhren kreutz,Wilno1935,
p. 226; L. Korczak, op.cit., pp. 53–57.
8j. Wolff, op.cit., p. XX; L. Korczak, op.cit., pp. 62–74.
9More
aboutformingoftheLithuanianducalstratumin15thcentury
incanbelearntfrom:WitoldKamieniecki,Społeczeń stwolitewskiewXVwieku,Warszawa1947,pp.50‒51;jerzySu-
chocki,PoczątkinarodupolitycznegowWielkimKsięstwieLitewskimpóźnegośredniowiecza,Zapiski Historyczne,vol.48:1983,pp.36‒42;L.Korczak,op.cit.,pp.57–61.
10j.
Suchocki,op.cit.,p.50definedinsuchawaythesocialchangesofLithuaniandukes’statusin14thand 15
thcentury.
calledthe“seniorprinces”(“kniażatahołownyie”).11Theymaintainedvastand compact landed
estates, which provided them military and economic
poweruntiltheveryUnionofLublin,12andtheyhadagreatimpactonpublicand sociallife,especiallylocally,butalsointheGrandDuchyofLithuania.
Titles
Theanalysisofthesymbolsshouldstartfromatitle.Adesignation:prince/dukewasthemo stobvioussignoftheducaldignityandthustheauthority
andprestigelinkedtoit.Fromtheverybeginningtheducaldignitywasof
particularmeaninginLithuania,sincethesupremerulerofthestatewasalsocalledthe“duke,”onlydisti nguishedfromtheothersbyanepithet“grand”(inLatin“magnusdux,”inRuthenian“вел икийкнязь”).13Thetitleofthegrand
dukewasdemonstratedindocuments(mainlyinanintroductorypartcalled“intitulatio”),sealsandinscr iption,whereittookafullshapebeingcomposedof3threeparts:“nomen”(anameofaruler),“f ormuladevotionis”(“ByThe
GraceofGod”)and“titulum”(thiscanbedefinedastheessentialtitle).14Forexample,inadocume ntfrom1385GrandDukejagiełłocalledhimself:“Nos
11In
suchawaytheSanguszkowiczandczartoryskiprincesweredefinedbyroyalcom- missionersin1545–
RewizyazamkówziemiwołyńskiejwpołowieXVIwieku,ed.Aleksanderjabłonowski(Źródładziejowe,vol.6),Warsz awa1877,p.20.AccordingtoN.М.Yakovenko,op.cit.,pp.102–
108,theterm“seniorprinces”wasusedtodistinguishthemostpowerfuland
richestducalfamiliesagainsttherestofLithuaniaprincesandlords.Tothiselitetheprinces comingbothfromtheGediminidsdynasty(theczartoryski,Sanguszkowicz,Olekowicz,Ko- recki)andfromlocalmonarchs(Ostrogski,Zasławski,Holszański,Zbaraski,Wiśniowiecki, czetwertyński)wereincluded(apositionoftheczetwertyńskifamilyshouldbereconsidered,
sinceaccordingtotheroyalcommissionersfrom1545theywerenotthe“seniorprinces,”butthe“districtprinces,”“po wetniki”).
12Krzysztof
pietkiewicz,WielkieKsięstwoLitewskiepodrządamiAleksandraJagielloń- czyka,poznań1995,pp.102–108.Remarkably,theseestateshadaspeciallawstatus,theywere
subordinatedonlytothegranddukes,andtheirpossessorscouldstillfeellikerealrulersof theirdomains.Howlargesuch“duchies”couldbeitcanbeimaginedonthebasisofthedata
concerningtheestatesoftheSanguszkowiczdukes.In1530sthefamilypossessedestatesonvolhyniawhichconsisted of3000“dymy”(“houses”)andoccupiedthespaceof166,5km2(it
wasmorethanhalfofthewholeWłodzimierz district)–onthebasisof:PolskaXVIwiekupodwzględemgeograficzno-
statystycznym,vol.8:Ziemieruskie:WołyńiPodole,ed.Aleksander jabłonowski,Warszawa1889,pp.113–
114.Wealthyestates allowed dukes to have private
troops.Forexample,DukeMichałGlińskipresentedhimselfin1506witharetinueofuntil 700horsemen–N.М.Yakovenko,op.cit.,p.107.Suchlargetroops,however,wererecruitedonly occasionally: ordinary Lithuaniandukes’detachment consisted of 100–200 soldiers (both horsemen andinfantry).
13Except for King Mindaugas but his reign in the mid of 13thcentury was only ephem- eral.
14The parts of ducal titles were indicated by: A. Świeżawski,Tytulatura ruska, pp. 7–8.
jagalo,virtuteDeiduxmagnusLitwanorum,Russiaequedominusetheresnaturalis”.1
5
SincetheLithuanianrulerwas“only”agrandduke,thetitleofLithuaniandukes(“du x”or“князь”)acquiredspecialauthorityandconfidence.However,theparallelsbetweentheducaltitl eandthegrandducalonedidnotceaseatit.Thisisthebestshownontheexampleofthetitleofthemostfam ousLithua-nianprincesofthattime,Dukevytautas(circa1348–
1430).Histitlecanbefoundinadocumentfrom1387,whenhewastherulerofGrodnoandBrest.Inthis documentwritteninLatinhecalledhimself:“NosAlexanderaliasWi- toldus,DeiGracia,duxbrestensisetharadiensisetc.”16Aswecansee,hisducaltitlewascom posedinsuchawayasthegrandducalone.Itsfirstpartwas“nomen”(“Alexanderalias Witoldus”),thesecondparta“formuladevotionis”(“DeiGracia”),and the last part a“titulum”(“duxbrestensisetharadiensis”).Regardingthemanifestationofpowerandimpo rtance,thetwolastpartshadaparticularmeaning.Firstly,a“formuladevotionis”:itwasusedbysov- ereignrulersasasignthattheirauthoritycomesdirectlyfromGod.Thus,theformulasignifiedthatvytauta shadintheirduchiesthesamepowerasotherssovereignrulersinEurope,althoughhewasboundtoobeythegra nddukeofLithuaniaashisoverlord.Inconnectionwith“formuladevotionis,”thelastparto fvytautas’title,theessentialtitle:“duxbrestensisetharadiensis,”servedtospecifythescope ofhisducalpower.SincevytautaswasarulerofBrestand Grodno, his power extended to the area of those two provinces.
TheducaltitlesconsistingofthethreepartswereusedbyallGediminids
whoreceivedtheirownduchiestorule.Itiseasytofindotherexamplesof suchtitlesfromtheendofthe14thcenturyandthebeginningofthenextcen-
tury.Forexample,DukeMichałjawnutowicz(d.1399)inhisdocumentwrit-
teninLatinfrom1386calledhimself:“MichaeldeigraciaduxZaslauiensis”,17justasDukeŠvitrigaila(cir ca1373–1452)inhisdocumentfrom1424,thistime written in Ruthenian language: “Мы
Швитрикгайло инако
Болеславъзбожьеймилостикнязьчерниговский”.18Itisnecessarytopointoutthatin above- quoteddocumentsbothvytautasandŠvitrigailausedtwonames:the
firstofpaganorigin(vytautas,Švitrigaila),andthesecond–christian(Alex- ander,Bolesław).ItseemsthatthehabitofusingtwonamesbytheLithuanian
dukes,whichcanbeobservedinmanyotherexamples,alsoservedtodem- onstratetheirimportance.Theusageofthepagannamecouldexpressanat- tachmenttotheLithuanianoriginandtradition,whichwasimportantforthe
15Akta unii Polski z Litwą, No. 1, pp. 1–2.
16Codex epistolaris Vitoldi, No. XXXv, p. 132.
17Ibid., No. XXIv, pp. 8–9.
18Archiwum
książątLubartowiczówSanguszkówwSławucie(furthercit.ArchiwumSan-guszków),vol.1–
7,Lwów1887–1910,here:vol.1,No.XXIX,p.28.
localsubjects,whilethechristiannamecouldcreateanimageofamodernEuropean ruler, which was significant in internationalpolitics.19
The titles, which the Lithuanian dukes used, were a strict exemplificationoftheirpowerwhichhadapoliticalandterritorialdimension.Theywerenot
onlyasignofbeingaruler,butalsoofagreatpoliticalroleintheGrandDuchy
ofLithuania.Inthe14thcenturythemanagementofthisextensivestatewas basedonprovincesruledbythedukes.Thosewhohadtheirownprovinces
createdthestrictpowereliteofthestate.Itseemsthattheterm“senioresducesLithuanie”whichwasusedatthe timecanbereferredtotheseprinces.20
Accordingly,itcannotbeacoincidencethatovertimesomeLithuaniandukesstarted toimitatethegrandducaltitleinamuchmoreevidentway.Theyextendedtheessentialpartoftheirduc altitleandbeforethetitlecreatedfromtheirownduchiestheyintroducedaveryexpressive,nationwidetitle:“
dukeofLithuania”.ItcanbealreadyobservedinadocumentsofDukeSkirgaila(circa1354–
1394)from1387:“SkirgalodeigraciaduxLitwanieetdominustrocen- sisacpolocensis”21(il.1).Thistitlewasdistinguishedbyaspecialsimilaritytothetitleofthegrandduke(“g randduxLitwanie”).Remarkably,itemergedinthetime,whenGrandDukejagiełłobecamethekin gofpoland(1386)andwasobligedtoleaveLithuania.Moreover,itwasusedbythemostpowerf ulandambitiousdukesofthetime,notonlybySkirgaila,butalsobyvytautas22or Kaributas Dmitry (circa 1355–1404).23By introducing such atitle,theseprincesshowednotonlythattheirimportanceextendedtothewholecoun-try,but also they voiced their far-reaching political desires, which couldeven
19This
subjectrequiresanalysisofanumberofdocumentswhichisbeyondthescopeofthispaper.
20Such
atermemergedinthedocumentofKęstutisfrom1358:“ceterorumqueseniorum
ducumeciamLythwanie”–KodeksdyplomatycznyKsięstwaMazowieckiego,ed.janLubomir- ski,Warszawa1863,No.80,p.73.Itisverydifficulttodeterminewhichparticularprinceswere
definedinthisway:j.Suchocki,op.cit.,pp.36‒42attemptedtodoit,butfailed.Morecanbe
readinL.Korczak,op.cit.,p.59.However,itisundoubtedlythatthemostpowerfulgroupofLithuaniandukesinthe 14thcentury
musthaveencompasspossessorsofparticularduchies.
21Archiwum
GłówneAktDawnychwWarszawie[centralArchivesofHistoricalRecordsinWars aw]
(furthercit.AGAD),Zbiórdokumentówpergaminowych[theparchmentcollection],No.4439,thedocume ntwaspublishedin:CodexepistolarisVitoldi,No.XXXIII,pp.11–12.
22In
adocumentfrom1392vytautascalledhimself:“WitowdusdeigratiaduxLithuanie,
dominustrocensisluczensisetc.”–BibliotekaKsiążątczartoryskichwKrakowie[Theprinces czartoryskiLibraryinKraków]
(further:Bczart.),Zbiórdokumentówpergaminowych[the
parchmentcollection],No.223,howeveritseemsthatthetitle„dukeoftheLithuania”couldbehaveusedbyhimsinc etheendofthe1380s–seeadocumentfrom1388:CodexepistolarisVitoldi,No.XLII,p.15.
23In
adocumentfrom1386KaributasDmitrycalledhimself:“NosDemetriusaliasKo- ributhduxLitwanie,dominusetheresdeNouogrodek”–AGAD,Zbiórdokumentówpergami-
nowych,No.4435,thedocumentwaspublishedin:CodexepistolarisVitoldi,No.XXIX,p.10,aswellasin:Akt auniiPolskizLitwą,No.16,pp.12–13.
extendtothegrandducalthrone.Notably,DukeSkirgailawasaregentofthe GrandDuchyofLithuaniain1386–1392,whilevytautasfinallybecamethe
granddukein1395(confirmedin1401).Thetitle“dukeofLithuania”shouldberecognizedasa veryexpressivesymbolwhichshowedgreatauthorityand
importance,aswellexpressedclearlyfar-reachingpoliticalpretensions.
Atthebeginningofthe15thcenturymostoftheGediminidsduchieswere
abolishedbythegranddukes,whoaimedtoconsolidateandcentralisethe state.Asaresult,manydukeslosttheirpoliticalpowerandbecameLithua-
nianlandowners.Thequestionmustbeconsidered:howdiditaffecttheir titles?
Thistime,thetitleofDukeSanguszko(d.1454/1463),thesonofFiodor Olgierdowicz,shouldbechosentoanalyse.Inadocumentfrom1433histitle
canbefound.Itisthefollowing:“NosduxSanguschco”(il.2).24comparing
thistitlewiththeonesdiscussedbefore,itiseasytoseethatDukeSanguszkodidnotusethe“formuladevot ionis”andthe“titulum,”whichwerethesignofpoliticalsubjectivity.Moreover,hisducaltitleislo catedinotherplace,before
theduke’sname.Itcomesasnosurprise.DukeSanguszkoincontrasttohis
fatherFiodorOlgierdowicz,whoruledintheRathnoDuchy,didnothavehisownpro vinceanymore.ItisworthcitingheretheducaltitleofFiodorto show differences between
titles: “Fedorius dei gratia duxrathnensis”.25The
differencesmeantthatSanguszkobecameaLithuanianlandownerandhisau- thoritylostanypoliticaldimension.Althoughhewasstilladuke,itwasonly
becausehewasbornasthesonofanotherdukeandthereforehehaddynastic
origins.Thisshiftoftheducaltitlefromthepart“titulum”beforetheduke’snameshouldbere cognizedasaresultofthe“declassing.”Itwasasymbolof
anewsocialpositionoftheLithuaniandukes.Inthissituation,theusageofsomeaningfultitle“dukeofLithu ania”wascompletelyoutofthequestion.
Despitethelossofpoliticalsubjectivity,theGediminidremainedveryim- portantdukeswhoenjoyedremarkablesocialprestige.Theycreatedasepa- rateandexclusiveducalstratum,uppermostintheLithuaniansociety,andnooneelsecouldentert hisstratum.26ThisisthebestseenontheexampleofthepowerfulRadziwiłłfamily,whichreceivedaducaltit lefromGermanrul-ersinthefirsthalfofthe16thcentury.27Despitebeingraisedtotherank,they
24Bczart., Zbiór dokumentów pergaminowych, No. 389. Document was also published in:
Archiwum Sanguszków, vol. 1, No. XXXIII, p. 32.
25The
titlecanbefoundintwodocumentsofvytautusfrom1387and1394–Codexepis-
tolarisVitoldi,No.XXXv,p.13andNo.cv,p.35,aswellasin:AktauniiPolskizLitwą,No.35,p.32.
26In
theLithuanianstatethedukeshadahonoraryprecedenceoverclerksuntilthebegin-ningofthe16thcentury – j.Wolff,op.cit.,p.XX.
27At
firsttheducaltitlewasgiventoMikołajMikołajowiczRadziwiłłandhisoffspringfromthelineofGoniądzandMed elein1518.Aftertheyexpired,theducaltitlehadtobegivenagain
totheotherfamilyrepresentatives.Ithappenedin1547,whenMikołaj“theBlack”Radziwiłł
stillremainedLithuanianlords(“panowie”),notdukes.Itcanbeobserved
inadocumentofkingSigismundAugustusfrom1558,whereMikołaj“theBlack”Radzi wiłł was called: “пан МиколайРадивил”.28Accordingly,the RadziwiłłscouldnotusetheducaltitleinsuchawayastheGiedymin’de-
scendants,i.e.beforeaname,butafterit,justasthearistocracyofWesternEurope.Ina documentfrom1555thementionedMikołajRadziwiłłcalled
himself:“МыМиколайРадивилънаОлыцеиНесвизжукняжа”29(il.3).
ThecaseoftheRadziwiłłfamilyindicatesthatintheGrandDuchyofLithuaniaonlydukes havingdynasticoriginswereviewedas“realdukes.”Thisobservationshouldbecombinedwiththe factthattheducaldignitywas
treatedasstronglylinkedwithappropriatebirth,asaneffectofDivineac- tion.30Therefore,theducaltitlebeforeanamemustbeconsideredtobeas asymbolofthe“onlytrue”ducaldignity.Itmeansthatthetitlewasoneofthe Lithuaniandukes’privileges,expressingtheirhighsocialpositionandpres- tige,whichtheystillhadin16thcentury.
Forsomeprinces,however,evensuchanexclusivetitlewasnotsatisfac-
torysymboloftheirpowerandimportance.Beingstrictlyconnectedwitha proper lineage, the title acquired special prestige but simultaneously lostitsmeaningasanindicatorofpoliticalinfluencesandwealth:itcouldhavebeen
usedbyallLithuanianprincesofdynasticorigin,eventhosewhointhefirst halfofthe16thcenturygotimpoverishedandlostanysignificance.31Itwas whysomeofthemostpowerfulandrichestdukescomingfromtheGedimi- nidsdynastytriedtodistinguishtheirtitlefromothersprincesandtookthe libertyofrestoringthe“formuladevotionis”:“DeiGratia.”Inanabbreviated
form:“DG”thisverymeaningfulsymbolcanbefoundinthesealinscrip- tionsofOlelkowicz-Słuckiprincesfromthe1550s–1570s.32Forexample,the inscriptionfromthesealofprinceAlexanderwasthefollowing:“ALEXAN-
DERD(ei)G(ratia)DUXSLUcENSIS.”Thistimetheformulacouldnothave
andhisbrothersfromthelinesofBirżeandDubinki,andNieświeżandOłyka,wereraisedtotheducalrank.Morecanbere adin:SławomirGórzyński,RodzinaRadziwiłłówiichtytuły,Miscellane Historica-Archivistica, vol. 7:
1997,pp.20–21; Marceli Antoniewicz,Protoplaściksiążąt Radziwiłłów. Dziejemitui meandry historiografii,Warszawa2011,pp.21–26,63–66.
28Archiwum Sanguszków, vol. 7, nr XLv, p. 41.
29Bczart., Zbiór dokumentów pergaminowych, No. 898.
30More
aboutthesocialnotionofducalauthorityintheGrandDuchyofLithuaniacanbe learnt from:
N.M.Yakovenko,op.cit.,p.80.
31At
thetimemanyLithuanianprincesgotimpoverishedbutthephenomenonslightly touchedthefamilieswhooriginatedfromtheGediminidsdynasty:asitwassaid,mostofthem
belongedtotheeliteof“seniorprinces”uptotheUnionofLublin.
32It
isaboutthesealsofprincesjerzy(died1586),Aleksander(died1591)andjanSzymon(1593)–
theywerepublishedin:j.puzyna,op.cit.,No.1,8–9,pp.56–57;О.А.Odnorozhen-ko,op.cit.,No.483–492,pp.139–140.
beenasymboloftheindependentpoliticalauthority,sincetheprinceswereveryrichandpriv ilegedbutonlyLithuanianlandowners.Therefore,itshouldberecognizedtobeanexpressivesy mbolshowingaparticularpositionand
splendouroftheOlelkowiczfamilywhichbeingcloselyrelatedtothegrand
dukesofthejagielloniandynastywasmoremightyandabundantthanmostducal Houses inLithuania.
Seals
Anotherbasicsymbolofducalpowerandimportancewasaseal.Itcould
transmitinformationinafewways,byatext(legend),ashape,asizeorawaxcolour.However,themostsign ificantwasanimageadorningthecentralpart
oftheseal.33Itwasduetothefactthatthesealimagewasagraphicrepresen-
tationofitsowner,depictinghisportraitorhissymbolandexpressingthe mostimportantmessageforhim.Achoiceofthesealimagewasalwayswell
considered,thereforeitsanalysisenablestogatheralotofinformationaboutanowner,unavailableanywhe reelse.
IntheanalysisoftheducaltitlethecaseswerefoundwhentheLithuanian
princesaimedtoimitatethegrandducaltitleinordertoshowtheirgreatim- portanceandfar- reachingambitions(itismainlyaboutthetitle:“thedukeofLithuania”).Itisobviousthatalsointhecaseo fsealstheimagesusedbythe
granddukeswereacrucialpointofreferencefordukes.Inthesecondhalfof the14thcentury,GrandDukesAlgirdasandhissonjagiełłousedtheeques- trianseals.34Thiskindofsealdepictedportraitsofitsownerasaridingknight
inanarmourandwithaweapon,readytofight.
WhatcanbeseenontheLithuaniandukes’seals?Asealofprincevy-
tautasshouldbetakenasanexampleagain.Itcomesfromthebeginningofthe1380s,when vytautaswastherulerofTrakai.35Thesealisround,itsdi-
ameteris45millimeters.Thesealshowsaknightonhorseback,ridingtothe
left(theheraldicleft),theknighthasanarmourandapointedhelmetandinhisrightha ndheholdsasword,raisedforablow.Inthesealrimthere
33More methodological considerations about historical value of seals can be found in:
Z. piech,Ikonografia pieczęci Piastów, pp. 7–15.
34The
sealsofthesegranddukeswerepublishedby:M.Gumowski,op.cit.,passim;
E. Rimša,Heraldika, passim; О.А. Odnorozhenko, op.cit., passim.
35The
sealwaspublishedinmanyworks,forexample:Franciszekpiekosiński,Pieczęciepolskiewiekówśredni ch,vol.1:DobaPiastowska,Kraków1899,No.571,pp.282–283;M.Gu-mowski,op.cit.,pp.717–
718,figureNo.vI,41;W.Semkowicz,op.cit.,p.75;E.Rimša,Heral-
dika,p.58,figurep.110;О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.672,p.175,figurep.310;amould- ingofthesealcanbefoundin:theDepartmentforSciencesAuxiliarytoHistoryofthejagiel- lonianUniversityinKraków,No.212.
isaLatininscriptioninmajusculegothicletters:“SIGILUMWITAWT(is)DvcISTRAcKE N(sis)(et)c”36(il.4).
Theconsiderablesizeandvisibleminutenessleavenodoubtthattheseal
showsaportraitoftheduke.vytautasdecidedtopresenthimselfasaknight ready to fight theenemy.This way of autopresentation was very popular amongmedievalrulers.37Itwasduetothesymbolswhichwereintheeques-
trianimage.Theknightonhorseback,inarmour,chargingandattackingan invisibleenemywasasymbolofanidealmonarch,whocandefendhissub- jectseffectively.Inturn,theexpressivenessandintensityoftheimageshows combatreadinessandhighfightingabilityoftheruler.Thesewereonesofthe
mostdesirablequalitiesofagoodsovereignintheMiddleAges.38Itiswhy monarchsofthetimepreferredtoexhibitthemselvesaswarriorsonhorse-
back,readytoreachforaweapon.Asitwasmentioned,thiskindofsealwasalsousedbythegranddu kesofLithuania,whovaluedtheirequestrianimagesomuchthatinitiallytheyseemedtoreserv ethiskindofsealonlyforthem-selves.39
Thereforevytautas’sealfromtheearly1380swasaveryexpressiveway
tomanifesthispowerandimportance,aswellaspoliticalambitions.Firstly,itwastodepictvytau tasasanidealruler,successfuldefenderofhisduchyandsubjects.Thesealinformedthathewa stheleaderofpeopleofhisduchy,andthelegendspecifiedthatitwasabouttheDuchyofTrakai.B utthemost importantwasthefactthatvytautasappliedthesameiconographictypeas theoneusedbythegranddukesrulingatthetime.Inthelightofhistorical
evidenceheappearstobethefirstLithuaniandukewhodidit.Itmadethe propagandacontentofvytautas’sealmuchmoreexpressive.Thesealclearly suggestedthatheheldaspecialrank,higherthanatypicaldukeandalmost equalwiththepositionofveryLithuanianmonarchs.Therefore,thesealwas
notonlytorepresentvytautasasanidealruleroftheDuchyofTrakai,butas
adukewhowasabletorulethewholeGrandDuchyofLithuania.Inthiswayvytautasmanifestedhisambitio ntobecamethegrandduke.
vytautas’sealmusthavelostquicklyitsspecialmeaning,asalreadyinthe 1380sotherGediminidsDukesbegantouseequestrianseals.Theknightwith
asword(oraspear)canbeobservedonthesealsofjagiełło’sbrothers:Skir-
36The legend content was read by: M. Gumowski, op.cit., p. 718.
37For
example,theequestriansealsweretheseconddominatingkindofimageonpiastdukes’sealsoftheM iddleAges–Z.piech,IkonografiapieczęciPiastów,pp.38–40.
38More about symbolic meaning of the equestrian image can be learnt from: ibid., p. 41 ff.
39The
grandducalsealsaretheonlyknownequestriansealsintheGrandDuchyofLithua- niauntil1380s;theabove- mentionedvytautas’sealisthefirstequestriansealbelongingtoanyLithuanianduke.
gaila(d.1394),Kaributas(d.1404)andLengvenis(d.1431).40Interestingly,allthese dukes started to use
the equestrian image
almostsimultaneously,whichindicatedthattheGrandDukeofLithuaniajagiełłow astheonewhichal- lowedthemtodoit.perhaps,hegavesuchapermissionpreciselytoweaken thepropagandacontentofvytautas’seal.41Anyway,itshouldbeemphasizedthat the equestrian
seals disseminated among Lithuanian dukesatsame
timewhentheyintroducedthetitle“duxofLithuania.”Thisindicatesthattheseal couldhavebeenasmeaningfulasthatexpressivetitle(atleastinitiallysince
thetitle„duxofLithuania”shortlyvanishedwhiletheequestriansealwas usedbymanydukesupto1440s).
However,notallGediminidsDukeshadtheequestrianseal.Amongotherkindsofse alsusedbyLithuanianprincesthepedestriansealshouldbedis-
cussedfirstly.ThissealtypewasusedmainlybyDukesKęstutis(d.1382)and
hissonvytautas(before1380s).42Thepedestriansealdepictedthedukeas afootwarrior,standingfrontwards,inarmourandwithweapons.Thisseal alsoservedtocreateanidealimageoftheduke,expressinghishighdignity andgreatsignificance.43IntimewhenthegranddukesofLithuaniawerethe onlyoneswhousedequestrianseals,thepedestriansealsofKęstutisandvy- tautasmusthaveexpressedtheirsecond(oratleastveryhigh)positioninthe state.However,thiskindofsealseemstobevaluedmuchlessthantheeques-
trianone.ItcannotbeacoincidencethatthepedestrianimageoccursontheLithuaniandukes’s eals sorarely.
TheanothertypeofLithuanianducalsealswasasealwithageometricsign.Suchobje ctshademergeduntilthe1420–
1430s,whenmoreandmoreoftheGediminids,theyoungergenerationsofthedynasty,weredeprive doftheirduchies,losingsomepoliticalimportance.TheywerenotassignificantasthesonsorgrandsonsofG ediminas,thereforemanyofthemcouldnotuseequestriansealsorcoatofarms“pogoń”(morec anbefoundbelow).conse- quently,theywereforcedtochoosenewimagesfortheirseals,whichwouldbetheirpersonalsymbolsa ndwouldrepresenttheirsocialpositionasprivi-leged landowners. Most of these princes started to usesimplifiedgeometricalsigns,acombinationofstraightlines,circlesandsemicircles.Theexa mples
40See
theequestriansealsoftheseprincespublishedin:M.Gumowski,op.cit.,pp.703–
704,706,713,figureNo.v,35,vI,39;О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.503,507,p.143–144, figure p. 289.
41It was hypothesised by W. Semkowicz, op.cit., p. 75.
42See
thepedestriansealsofKęstutisandvytautaspublishedin:M.Gumowski,op.cit.,pp.702–
703,717,figureNo.Iv,29–30,vI,40;О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.667–671,pp.173–
175,figurep.310.
43It
iswhythiskindofimagewasthemostpopularonthepiastdukes’sealintheMiddle
Ages.Moreaboutthepedestriansealcanbelearntfrom:Z.piech,IkonografiapieczęciPiastów,pp.38–43ff.
canbeobservedonaseriesofducalsealsbelongingtothedukesoriginat- ingfromGrandDukeAlgirdas,suchasIwanAndrzejewicz(d.about1437),Fiodor
Korybutowicz (d. 1440/1447), Aleksander-Olelko
Włodzimierzowicz(d.1454),IwanWłodzimierzowicz(d.1452)andAndrzejWłodzimierzowicz (d.1457)(il.5)44.Significantly,thegeometricalsignsusedbytheseprinces wereverysimilartotheoneswhichwereverypopularamongpolishand Lithuaniannobility.Moreover,thesepersonalsignswereoftendepictedon heraldicshields,justastypicalnoblecoatsofarms.consequently,mostGedi-
minids’sealsfromthe15thcenturyseemtoindicatethatthesedukescouldac- cepttheirnewsocialstatusandresignedfromthemanifestationofhighducal
dignityandauthoritythroughthesealimages.Ontheotherhand,itshouldbeemphasizedthatth egranddukesofLithuaniaalsousedgeometricalsigns:Władysławjagiełłointroduced adouble(orpatriarchal)cross,namedlater“podwójnyKrzyż,”whilevytautus(beingthe grandduke)initiatedthesignof
threecolumns,later“Kolumny”.45Thepopularityofgeometricalsignsseemedtobearesul tofatendencydominatingintheheraldryofLithuanianelitesof
thattime,andtheducalsealsdepictingthemcouldalsodemonstrateauthor-
ityandimportance(themorethattheducaltitlewasstillhighlightedinthelegends of thoseseals).
Notwithstanding,therewereLithuaniandukes,whodesiredtoexpress
theirpoliticalambitionsinmuchmoreevidentway.Theydidnotacceptthe“declassing”andsti llwantedtobeperceivedasimportantandinfluentialfig-
ures,rulingtheirownprovince.Thesedukesusedveryinterestingseals,which aimedtocreateowners’propagandaimages.
AgoodexampleofsuchimagescanbefoundonthesealsofDukeSan-
guszko(il.6)andhissonsAlexander(d.1491)andMichał(d.1511).46TheSanguszko’sseal has survived to the present times on the document from1433.47Itisroundandis30millimetersindiameter.Asthesealisinabad
44Their
ducalsealswithgeometricsignscanbefoundin:M.Gumowski,op.cit.,pp.691,697,695,699,figureNo.I,2 –4,II,11,IX,65,67;Dokumentystronypolsko-litewskiej,pp.75–78;
О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.452–456,510–511,pp.132–
133,145,figurepp.281,289.AlotofotherexamplesofsuchsealsbelongingtootherLithuaniandukes(nontheGediminid) canbefoundin:О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,passim.
45These
signscanbefoundontheirequestriansignsassymbolssetonshieldsofhorse-
men:UZUp.Thenamesofthesigns,“podwójnyKrzyż”and“Kolumny,”wereintroducedinlatercenturies.
46j. Wolff, op.cit., pp. 423–424, 448.
47Bczart.,
Zbiórdokumentówpergaminowych,No.389.Thesealwaspublishedin:Fran-
ciszekpiekosiński,Heraldykapolska,Kraków1899,p.418;M.Gumowski,op.cit.,p.28,figureNo.vIII,50;О.А.Odno rozhenko,op.cit.,No.281,p.105,figurep.256(however,thefigureis veryinaccurate).
p.262.
condition,itishardtoidentifywhatexactlyitdepicts.48Therecanbeseenonly
awarriorinadynamicfightingpose,whodefeatsawildanimal.49However,aniconographiccontextforthisi magecanbefound,andtheseareRuthenian
iconsfromthelateMiddleAges.50comparingtheSanguszko’ssealwiththe iconsdepictingholywarriors,similaritiestoSaintMichaeltheArchangelare
themostvisible.51ThisobservationcanbeconfirmedbythefactthatDukeSanguszkoand hissonsworshippedthissaint.52ThesealsofSanguszko’ssons,
DukesAlexanderandMichał,depictaverysimilarscene,thereforetheymustalsocontain animageofSaintMichael.53Alltheseobjectsshouldbeconsid-
eredtobethehagiographicseals,whichshowtheholypatronoftheirown-ers.
Thisraisesthequestion:inwhatwaycouldthehagiographicsealmanifestducalpower andimportance?
Firstofall,theverychoiceofSaintMichaeltheArchangelasaholypatronwasaneffectivewaytoexpressa uthority.Thissaint
wasverypopularamongEuropeanrulersintheMiddleAges,especiallyintheEasternchristianit y,wherearchangelMichaelwasoneofthemostimportantsaints. Saint Michael was a patron of constantinoplecity,Byzantineemperors
48The
seallegendisunreadable,onlyafewinitialletters,writtenintheGothicminuscule, canberead:“s…
czang.”Itcanonlybepresumedthatthisisaninitialfragmentofaninscrip-tion: “s(igillum) [du]c(is)zang[uschconis].”
49This
iswhythereisnoconsensusbetweenresearchersastotheimage.Someofthemthinkthatthiswa rriorwasSaintGeorge–
e.g.F.piekosiński,Heraldykapolska,p.418,theothersthatSaintMichaeltheArchangel–
M.Gumowski,op.cit.,p.28;О.А.Odnorozhenko, op.cit.,p.105.
50See:
janinaKłosińska,Ikony.MuzeumNarodowewKrakowie.Katalogizbiorów,vol.1,Kraków1973,pp.15 2–162,209–211.Theiconspublishedintheworkcomefromthe15thand
16thcentury.
51The
iconsenabletoseethatthewarriorfromthesealhaswingsandaspear,hisop- ponentisadragon.Itindicatesthatthesealdepictsaholywarriordefeatingadragon;hecan
beidentifiedasSaintMichaeltheArchangel.Moreabouttheidentificationofthescenecanbereadin:jakub Rogulski,PechatkiknyazyaSanґushkaіyogosinіvOleksandrataMikhaylazXVst.Sprobaіnterpretatsії,pratsіT sentrupam’yatkoznavstva,vip.30:2016,pp.223–240[ja-
kubRogulski,ПечаткикнязяСанґушкаійогосинівОлександратаМихайлазXVст.Спробаін терпретації,ПраціЦентрупам’яткознавства,вип.30:2016,pp.223–240].
52It
issupportedbythefactthatSanguszko’sposterityhadahereditaryrightofpatron- ageofthemonasteryofSaintMichaelinWłodzimierzWołyński–
itcanbelearntfromthedocumentfrom1502:ArchiwumSanguszków,vol.1,p.148.Moreover,inthefirstgenera tions ofthefamilythenameMichałoccurredveryoften:untilthefirsthalfof16thcentury
itcanbe observedinacaseofsevendukes.
53The
sealofDukeAleksanderSanguszkowiczisknownfromadescriptionofBronisław
Gorczakin:ArchiwumSanguszków,vol.3,p.14.ThesealofDukeMichałSanguszkovichhas survivedonthedocumentof1487andcanbefoundin:AGAD,Zbiórdokumentówpergami- nowych,No.7480:thesealwasalsopublishedin:О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,p.102,figure
andantheimperialarmy.54InRutheniatheworshipofthearchangelplayed asimilarrole:hewasapatronofanumberofmonasteriesandchurches,and hisimagebecameeventheemblemofthewholeKievDuchy.55Thegreatde- votionforthesaint,whodefeatedSatanhimself,wastosecurevictoryand
safetyforarulerandhispeople.Itwasaneffectivewayofcreatinganidealmonarch’simage in the Ruthenianmentality.
However,meaningoftheveryiconographictypemustalsobetakenintoaccount. Apart from the above-mentioned seals, only onemorehagiographicofaLithuaniandukesealisknown;itbelongedtoDukeAleksanderKoriato- wicz(d.about1382)anditpresentedSaintGeorge.56Inturn,holyimageswereverypopularon
metalseals(bulls)ofRutheniandukesfromthe11th–13thcen- tury,whoruledRuthenianduchiesbeforetheconquestofthegranddukesofLithuania.Thesesealsprese ntedaseriesofholyfigures,amongwhomwar- riors,suchasTeodorTyron,George,DemetriusofThessalonikiandMichaelwerethemostfreque nt.57Moreover,someofRuthenianbullsfromthattimedepictsaintsinasimilarsceneoffightastheonefrom thesealsofSanguszkoandhissons.58Inthenextcenturiestheimagesofsaintsbecamemorerar
e,howevertheystillremainedanimportantroleinpropagandaofpoweronRu- theniaterritory.ThebestevidenceofitisthesealofGrandDukeofMoscowIvanIIIfromtheendofthe1 5thcentury,whichpresentedSaintGeorge59(latertheimagebecametheemblemoftheRussianEmpire).Alloft hismeansthatDukeSanguszkoandhissonsusedtheiconographictypewhichwasassoci- atedwithoutstandingRuthenianmonarchs.Theseprinceshadtheirestatesinvolhynia,oneofthefo rmerRuthenianduchies,thereforethepropagandamessageoftheirhagiographicsealsmusthavebeen understoodverywell.ItshouldbeaddedthatprinceSanguszkolosthisduchyofRatnow1430san dforoveradecadestruggledtorestoreit;heevendaredtoinvadethelandsof
54More
abouttheworshipofSaintMichaelcanbereadin:“MichałArchanioł,”in:Encyklo- pediakatolicka,vol.12,Lublin2008,pp.806–807.
55Stefan
KrzysztofKuczyński,Polskieherbyziemskie.Geneza,treści,funkcje,Warszawa1993,pp.96–97,100.
56This
sealwaspublishedin:M.Gumowski,op.cit.,p.689,figureNo.vIII,52;О.А.Odnorozhenko ,op.cit.,p.87,figurep.242.Thesealseemstomanifestpowerandimportance
ofDukeAleksanderinasimilarwayasthesealsofSanguszkoandhissons.
57A
lotofthesebullswaspublishedby:valentinLavrent’yevichYanin,AktovyyepechatiDrevneyRusiX –XVvv.,t.1–2,Moskva1970,passim[ВалентинЛаврентьевичЯнин,Акто-выепечатиДревнейРусиX–
XVвв.,т.1–2,Москва1970,passim].
58In
particular,itconcernssealsofdukesofNowogródfromthe13thcentury,
YaroslavII andAlexanderNevsky,whichpresentedsaintTeodorTyronfightingadragon;thesealswere publishedby:v.L.Yanin,op.cit.,т.2,No.368–378,pp.156–158.
59The
sealwaspublishedby:NadezhdaAleksandrovnaSoboleva,Russkiyepechati,Mos- kva1991,No.38,pp.157–
158[НадеждаАлександровнаСоболева,Русскиепечати,Москва1991,No.38,pp.157–158].
p.44.
thepolishKingdom.60FromthispointofviewhissealwitharchangelMichael
canberecognizedtobeaverycleardemonstrationofhispoliticalfar-reach-ing aims.61
In16thcenturythechoiceofsealimagelostitsimportance,sinceallLithuaniandu
kesintroducedsignetsdepictingtheircoatsofarms.Sincethattimemeaningandcontentsofducalsealsdepe ndedcloselyonemblemswhichadornedthem.Nevertheless,someofprinceswerestillabletomakethiskin dofsealveryexpressivesymboloftheirpowerandimportance.AsealofprinceAleksander czartoryskifrom1560sshouldbetakenasthebestexample.The
sealisround,had29millimetersindiameter(muchbiggerthanatypicalsig-
net)anddepictedprince’scoatofarms“pogoń.”Whatisthemoststriking,
itisevidentlymodelledontheLithuanianminorsealofKingSigismundIIAugustus(il.
7).62On both seals additional emblem“podwójnyKrzyż” can be found,theheraldicshieldsappearastherenaissancecartouches,theimagesof
knightsandridinghorsesareveryrefined,thelegendsareplacedinthesinglerims.Thesimila rityissogreat,thatonecaneasilyconfusedthesealofthedukewiththeoneofthegrandduke.Byimitat ingoneofthesymbolsofthe
grandducalpower,Aleksanderczartoryskiexpresseddistinctlythathewas theprincewhowascloselyrelatedtotheLithuanianrulerandduetothisfact hewasveryimportantfigureinthecountry.
In Grand Duchy of Lithuania seals could express significance of their ownersalsobyacolourofwax,inwhichasealmatrixwasimpressed.63Since
theredwaxwasthemostprestigiousandonlygranddukescoulduseit,64Lithuanian princes pressed their seal in green wax, sometimes in black.How-
60In 1430–1432 Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund Kęstutaitis took away Ratno and othercitiesfromSanguszkoandgavethemtopolishKing.Sanguszkodidnotacceptthisdeci-
sionandtriedtoreclaimthelostcities.In1440/1441heinvadedpolishlandsandseizedRatno, butonlytemporarily.Becauseofthisdeedhewasdeclaredtobeatraitor.MoreaboutSangusz-
ko’sactivitycanbelearntfrom:OskarHalecki,OstatnielataŚwidrygiełłyisprawawołyńskazaKazimierza Jagiellończyka, Kraków 1915,pp.28–33.
61More
aboutthepropagandamessageofthesealscanbereadin:j.Rogulski,PechatkiknyazyaSanґushka[j.Rogu lski,ПечаткикнязяСанґушка],pp.232–237.
62The
sealcanbefoundinadocumentfrom1560–ArchiwumpaństwowewKrakowie
[TheNationalArchiveinKraków](furthercit.ApinKraków),OddziałnaWawelu[theWawelDepartment], Archiwum Sanguszków [the Sanguszko princes Archive], teka [folder]IX/129,
p.672Thepropagandacontentofsealwasanalyzedextensivelyin:jakubRogulski,Mani- festacjadynastycznegopochodzenianapieczęciachksiążątCzartoryskichzdrugiejpołowyXVIwieku,Rocznikpolskieg oTowarzystwaHeraldycznegonowejserii,vol.12:2013,pp.211–
222.63To
theendofthe15thcentury
sealswereimpresseddirectlyinwaxandprotectedbyset- tinginawaxbowl.Inthenextcenturyanothermethodofimpressingsealsbecamewidespread:sealswereimpressedina pieceofpapersetonawaxunderlay.
64Edmundas Rimša,Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystes miestų antspaudai, vilnius 1999,
ever,thegranddukescouldrewardsomeprincesbyallowingthemtousered wax.Forexample,in1522princeKonstantyOstrogskireceivedsuchareward fromSigismundItheOld.Remarkably,theKingexplainedthathediditfor thegreatmilitarydeeds.65Inthe1550s–1560sotherLithuaniaprincesstarted
touseredwax,suchasjerzyOlelkowicz-Słucki,RomanSanguszkowiczandAleksander
czartoryski. They were the Gediminids descendants and playedanimportantroleasassociatesofkingSigismundAugust.66Redwaxoftheir
seals’impressionsshouldbeconsideredtobeanimportantsymbolofsignifi- canceandmeritsoftheLithuaniandukes.
coats of Arms
coatsofarmsarecommonlyknowntohaveplayedaspecialroleinthe manifestationofauthorityandsplendourintheMiddleAgesandlater.They expressedallbasicinformationaboutthesocialposition,nobleorigin,power
andsignificancewhichenabletoidentifywhowastheirowners.Theywere
notonlysymbolsoftheirusersbutalsofunctionedastheirpersonifications,andeventheycouldevenr eplaceportraitimages.67Notsurprisingly,emblems
werepresentedinmanyplaces,especiallyonseals,butalsotheyadornedban- ners,portraits,epitaphs,weapons,vessels,decorationsandalotofotherarte- factsofthenobleculture.
The Lithuanian ducal heraldry began in 1380s when Grand DukeWładysław jagiełło placed the image of the riding knight from his sealon
thearmorialshield.68Inthiswayhecreatedthecoatofarmswhichlaterwasnamed“pogoń”(gules ,aknightargent,bearingaswordandashield).69ForthefirsttimeitcanbeseenonWładysławjagiełło’s majesticsealfrom1387,where
65Archiwum Sanguszków, vol. 3, No. 241, p. 235.
66For
thefirsttimeprinceRomanSanguszkowiczusedredwaxonadocumentfrom1561,whileprinceAleksanderczartor yskididin1564–
bothdocumentscanbefoundin:ApinKraków,ArchiwumSanguszków,tekaIX/20,p.108;tekaIX/129,p.672.
67See
considerationofHansBelting,TheCoatofArmsandthePortrait,
[in:]idem,AnAnthropologyofImages:Picture,Medium,Body,princeton2014,pp.62–84.
68More
abouttheoriginof“pogoń”canbelearntfrom:Z.piech,Monety,pieczęcieiherby,pp.227–229.
69The
name“pogonia”wasadoptednosoonerthanatthebeginningof16thcentury.
The
oldestrecordscomefrom1530s:theseareachronicleofMarcinBielski,Kronikawszystkiegoświata[...],Krakó w1551anddocumentsofprinceRomanSanguszkowiczfrom1558and1564
–
ArchiwumSanguszków,vol.6,No.134,p.234;vol.7,No.44,p.40.Earlier,theemblemwasdetermineddescriptively, forexampleinadocumentofWładysławofvarnafrom1442(seebelow);intheannalsofjanDługosz,Annal esseucronicaeinclitiRegniPoloniae,lib.10–
11,varsaviae1997,p.89;orinachroniclecalledKhronikaByhovtsa(ХроникаБыховца)fromthe beginningofthe16thcentury
–
Polnoyesobraniyerusskikhletopisey,t.32,Moskva1975[Полноесобраниерусскихлетописей,т.32,Москва1975].In itiallythename“pogonia”wasinuse,“pogoń”emerged muchlater.
itclearlyfunctionsasthegrandduke’semblem.70Sincethattimethecoatofarmswasusedbyall rulersofLithuania,mainlyfromthejagiellonian,butalso
fromKęstutaitisdynasty.Moreover,someofthemadorned“pogoń”withtheirownper sonal(ordynastic)emblem:asitwasmentioned,thejagielloniansintroduced“podwój nyKrzyż” on theknight’sshield, while the Kęstutaitis so didwith“Kolumny.”Theymade“pogoń”morepersonalized,creatinga“grandducal”vari antofit.71Atthesametime,thecoatofarmsstartedtobeusedin
thethirdfunction:itbecameaterritorialsignofthevilniusLand,andovertime other Lithuanianprovinces.72
Atthispointthedukes’equestriansealsshouldberecalled.Sincetheend ofthe14thcenturythesesealsstartedtochangesignificantly.Firstly,theseal sizedecreasedtoabout30millimetres,andconsequentlytheimagelostdis-
tinctfeaturesofaportraitandbecameveryschematic.ItcanbeobservedonthesealsofDukesRom anFiodorowicz(d.1431)andSigismundKęstutaitis(asaduke,d.1440).73Moreover,thereappeared suchequestriansealsonwhich
theknightwaspresentedonaheraldicshield.ThesebelongedtoDukesAlx- sandervygantas(d.1392),Švitrigaila(asaduke,d.1452),AleksanderIwano- wiczNos(d.about1435)74(il.8).Theimagesfromthesesealscanhardlybe regardedasaportraitoftheirowners;theyseemtobetheirheraldicemblems.
Althoughtheycouldbeslightlydifferenttoeachotherintermsofaknight’smovementdirection,ah orsemotionorakindofweaponintheknight’shand,
undoubtedlyallofthempresentedthesameemblemwhichwasstillintheformingstage.It meansthatthesealsofsomeLithuaniandukesfromtheendofthe14thandbeginningofthe15thcentu
riesdepictedthecoatofarms“pogoń.”
Therefore“pogoń”wasnotonlytheemblemoftheLithuanianruler,state
orprovinces.ItwasalsoadoptedbysomeLithuaniandukes.Remarkably,“pogoń”
usedbythedukes,incontrasttotheoneofthegranddukes,never hadanyadditionalsignontheknight’sshield;itenablestodeterminethisvar-
70The
analysisofthesealiconographycanbefoundin:S.K.Kuczyński,Polskieherbyziemskie,pp.25–
26;Z.piech,Monety,pieczęcieiherby,pp.44–49.
71Thephenomenonwaswidelydiscussed by: Z. piech,Monety,pieczęcieiherby,p.231 ff.
72As
acapitallandoftheGrandDuchyofLithuania,thisprovincewasstrictlyrelatedto grandducalpower,sothecoatofarmsofthegranddukewasadoptedasasignofthatland
– S.K.Kuczyński,Polskieherbyziemskie,p.38;later,“pogoń”becameacoatofarmsofsuchlands:vilnius,Trakai ,vitebsk,podlasie,Brest,Mstsislaw,Minskandpolotsk.coatsofarmsof
thelandsweredifferenttooneanotherincoloursintinctures–ibid.,pp.99–100.
73The
dukes’sealswerepublishedby:M.Gumowski,op.cit.,pp.710,724,figureNo.vIII, 53,57;О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.476,p.138,figurep.284(thefigureisinaccurate).
74The
dukes’sealswerepublishedby:M.Gumowski,op.cit.,pp.690–
691,figureNo.vIII,54;О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.470,480,602,pp.161,138,figurepp.284,302.
iantasthe“ducal”one.75Thewide-spreadingoftheemblemwaspossible,be-
causethegrand(orsupreme)dukesofLithuania,beingdisposersof“pogoń,”couldall owotherprincestouseit.Forexample,in1442threeczartoryskiprinces,Michał,IwanandAleksand erreceivedsuchapermissionfromKingWładysławofvarna.76ThedocumentexplainedthattheK ingallowedthemtousetheemblemonlyforlife.Accordingly,itwasonlythepersonal,notfamily,e mblemoftheLithuaniandukes,andtheiroffspringcouldnotuseitwithout
anotherapproval.Itisclear,however,thatsucharoyalprivilegewastodis- tinguishandrewardthoseprinces,whodeservedforit.Theabove-
mentionedprincesowedtheirpermissiontoprinceMichałczartoryski,whoin1440wenttoH ungary,wherehewonthegreatfavourofKingWładysławIII.77In
thattime,“pogoń”notonlybroughtagreathonourandprestigefortheGe-
diminidsDukes,butalsoexpressedtheirhighpositionandremarkablesig-nificance.
Inthesecondhalfofthe15thandatthebeginningofthenextcentury“pogoń”ceasedtobet heemblemoftheLithuaniandukes;thereisnoknown
ducalsealfromthattimewhichwouldpresentthisemblem.78Itshouldbeexplainedb ythefactthatinthecourseofthe15thcenturythepositionandroleoftheLithuaniandukeswereweakenin gmoreandmore.Especially,it
concernedtheGediminidsDukeswhoceasedtobeperceivedasrepresenta- tivesoftherulingdynasty.FromthereignofcasimirIv(1440–1492)thejag-
ielloniansweretheonlyoneswhoweretreatedasthedynastymembersintheGrandDuch yofLithuania(aswellastheKingdomofpoland).consequently,alltheirremainingducalrelativescouldbe perceivedasprinceswhohadonlyadynasticorigin.Interestingly,atthesametimethejag ielloniansstartedto
use“pogoń”astheirfamilyemblem.Itmeantthatthecoatofarmscouldbe alsousedbyalldynastymembers,notonlytheoneswhoweregrandorsu-
premedukesoftheLithuania.79Itseemstoexplain,whytheLithuaniandukescouldnotalso use“pogoń”anymore:itbecamethesymbolreservedonlyfor
75However,
itshouldberememberedthatthegranddukescouldalsousetheversionwith-out additionalsigns.
76The
documentcanbefoundinBczart.astheDepositNo.1.Thedocumentwascitedin manychroniclesandarmorials,forexamplein:Bartoszpaprocki,Herbyrycerstwapolskiego, Kraków1858,pp.828–829.
77O. Halecki, op.cit., pp. 69–70.
78On
thebasisofthesealspublishedby:M.Gumowski,op.cit.,passim;О.А.Odnoro-
zhenko,op.cit.,passim.Thelatter,Rus’kіkorolіvs’kі,No.438,figurep.279,publishedaseal whichprinceSemenAleksandrowiczczartoryskiwastousein1493anditpresentedthecoat
ofarms“pogoń”.Itmustbearesultofamistake,sincethedocumentwherethesealwastobe
– AGAD,Zbiórdokumentówpergaminowych,No.6732,doesnotcontainanysealinfact(onlyatraceofthese alcanbeseen).
79Z. piech,Monety, pieczęcie i herby, p. 237.
thejagielloniandynasty.Itcannotbeacoincidencethatsincethe1440sthe
Lithuaniansealsofthegranddukesfromthejagielloniansdepicted“pogoń”withoutanyadditio
nal emblem,“podwójnyKrzyż” or“Kolumny”.80This
coatofarmswasusedonlybythedynasty,andtherewasnoneedtodistinguishit fromtheotherusers.
Notuntilthe1530s–1540s“pogoń”hadbecometheemblemofLithuanian princesagain.Atthattimethecoatofarmsemergedonthesealsofsuchducal housesastheSanguszkowicz(il.9),czartoryskiandOlelkowicz-
Słucki.81Itshouldberecognizedtobeunusualcasethatsomeducalnoblefamiliestook the liberty of using an emblem which hitherto had been reserved onlyforadynasty.Thequestioniswhatreasonsmadeitpossible.Firstly,thebeginningofthe16
thcenturywasthetimewhenthecoatofarms“OrzełBiały”(morecan
bereadfurther)becamethemostimportantsignofKingSigismundItheOld
andthewholejagielloniandynasty.Significantly,inthe1520stheKingtookthelibertyofmaking“
OrzełBiały”muchmorepersonalizedbyaddingaletter“S”(theroyalmonogram)totheeagle.82Thesa mecanbelaterobservedinthe
caseofhissonSigismundIIAugustus.83Moreover,“Orzeł”becametheele- mentwhichwasaddedtotheheraldryofpeopleennobledornaturalizedby
thejagielloniankings.Itindicatesthatthefunctionof“pogoń”asthesymbolofthejagielloniandyn astygotweakened.
Simultaneously,“pogoń”startedtobeusedbyjan“zKsiążątLitewskich”(“oftheLit huanianDukes”)(d.1538),anillegitimatesonofSigismundIthe
80It
isaboutLithuaniansealsofthefollowinggranddukes:casimirIv,AlexanderIandSigismundIth eOld–Z.piech,Monety,pieczęcieiherby,pp.232–233.
81The
oldestknownsealsdepicting“pogoń”astheducalfamilies’emblemarethefollow- ing:intheHouseofSanguszko:thesealsofWasylMichałowicz(1533),FiodorAndrzejewicz (1536)andAndrzejMichałowicz(1542)–theobjectscanbefoundin:ApinKraków,Archi- wumSanguszków,tekaIII/16,p.61;tekaIv/42,p.133;AGAD,Zbiórdokumentówpergami-
nowych,No.4800,aswellasinthecatalogueof:О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.263,284, 286,pp.102,105–
106,figurepp.254,257;intheHouseofczartoryski:thesealsofIwanFio-dorowicz (1547) and Aleksander
Fiodorowicz (1551) – Ap
inKraków,ArchiwumSanguszków,tekavI/51,p.1;tekavI/43,p.1;О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.246,439,pp.99,1 30,figurepp.252,279;intheHouseofOlelkowicz-Słucki:thesealsofjurijuriewiczandAleksanderju-
riewicz(thebeginningof1550s)–
AGAD,Zbiórdokumentówpergaminowych,No.7737;О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.482,484,p.139,figurep.2 85;aswellasin:j.puzyna,op.cit.,
p.57.InotherLithuanianfamilieswhichoriginatedfromGediminas,“pogoń”emergedlater,aftertheUnionofLublin –seethesealsoftheKoreckiandprońskiprincespublishedin:О.А. Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,pp.103–104,177–
179.Moreaboutthe16th-centuryarmorialsealsof
theSanguszkowiczprincescanbereadin:jakubRogulski,PieczęcieherboweksiążątSangusz- kówodXVIdoXVIIIwieku,[in:]Dawnepieczęcie.Typologia–metodybadań–
interpretacje,ed.Zenonpiech,Warszawa2015,pp.435–476.
82Z. piech,Monety, pieczęcie i herby, p. 219 ff.
83Ibid., p. 223 ff.
Old.84AlthoughtheKingmanagedtolegitimateandennoblejan,andthen appointthebishopofvilnius,hedidnotbecomeafull-fledgedrepresenta- tiveofthedynasty.Itmeantthathewasnotabletoinheritthethroneanduse
theroyalemblem“OrzełBiały.”Instead,janwasgrantedthetitle“zKsiążątLitewskich”an dtherighttotheusageoftheducalsign“pogoń.”consequent-
ly,hissealfrom1534depictstheemblemadornedwithinsigniaofepiscopal dignity(themitreandthecrosier)
(il.10).85Inthisway,thisemblemstartedtobeperceivednotonlyasthecoatofarmsusedonlyb ythejagielloniandynasty,butalsoasawidersignoftheorigin“oftheLithuanianDukes”,86onw hichwidergroupofLithuanianfamiliescouldprideitself.
Inthelightoftheabove,itseemstobeexplained,whytheHousesofSan-
guszkowicz,czartoryskiandOlelkowicz-Słuckibegantostampwith“pogoń”in1530s–
1540s.Inthattime,thejagielloniansclearlypreferredotheremblem
asthemaindynastysymbol,andonthesecondhand,thecaseofjan“zKsiążątLitewskich”suggestedthat otherGiedyminowicz’descendantscouldalsouse“pogoń.”Remarkably,somelaterevid enceshowsthattheabove-mentioned
familiesdeterminedtheirdynasticoriginsjustasBishopjan,i.e.“fromthe LithuanianDukes”.87Itwasduetothefactthatthefamiliesrememberedvery wellthattheirprogenitorhadbeenGrandDukeAlgirdasandtheywerevery closelyrelatedtothejagiellonians.88Thisknowledgemusthavebeenamain
84ZygmuntWdowiszewski,Genealogia Jagiellonów,Warszawa1968,p.134;
AleksanderŚwieżawski,JanzKsiążątLitewskich,[in:]Polskisłownikbiograficzny,vol.10,Wrocław1962–
1964,pp.439–441.
85The
sealcanbefoundinadocumentofBishopjanfrom1534–Bczart.,Zbiórdoku-mentów pergaminowych,No.811.
86As
Zenonpiechnoticed:“PogońbecameadesignationoftheLithuanianorigin”–idem, Monety, pieczęcie i herby, pp. 239–239.
87The
epitaphofprinceRomanSanguszkowicz(d.1571)proclaimedthattheprinceorigi- nated“exprincipibusLithuanie”–
theepitaphcontentwasquotedby:SzymonStarowolski,MonumentaSarmatarumbeataeaeternitatiadscriptorum,Krakó w1655,p.787.
88The
above-discusseddocumentofWładysławofvarnafrom1442wasaproofofthe closekinshipbetweentheczartoryskiprincesandthejagielloniandynasty;inthedocument
KingWładysławcalledtheczartoryskiprinces“ourillustriousbrothers”(“fratresnostriillus-
tres”)and“ourrelatives”(“consaguinei”).Fromthisreason,thedocumentwasstoredcarefully
byanotherfamilygenerationsaspreciousevidenceofthejagiellonianrelationship.Duringthesejmof1569p rinceAleksanderczartoryskishowedthedocumenttoSigismundIIAugustus
inordertomakehimandtheassemblyknowtheclosekinshipbetweenhisfamilyandthedynasty.The King confirmed the document and announced that prince Alexander belonged to
“theroyalkinofLithuaniandukes”(“królewskinaródksiążątlitewskich”)–DnevnikLyublinsko- goseyma1569goda.SoyedineniyeVelikogoknyazhestvaLitovskogosKorolevstvomPol’ski,red.Mikhail
OsipovichKoyalovich,Sankt-peterburg 1869,p.386 [Дневник Люблинского сейма1569года.СоединениеВеликогокняжестваЛитовскогосКоролевствомПольским,ред.Михаи лОсиповичКоялович,Санкт-Петербург1869,p.386].Theking’sdeclarationcan
bereferredtoallLithuanianducalfamiliesoriginatedfromGrandDukeAlgirdas.Themore
reasonforwhichtheycoulddecidetotaketheexampleofBishopjan.Re-markably,they adopted“pogoń”not as a personal emblem of individual princes,butasasignofwholecommunities.Henceforth,allgenerationsofthe
Sanguszkowicz, czartoryski and Olelkowicz-Słucki princes used seals de- picting“pogoń.”Interestingly,themembersofthefamiliescalledthemselves
“brothersbythecoatofarms”orspokeabout“samenessofthecoatofarms”.89Itshowsthattheytrea tedthemselvesasaspecialcommunitywhichoriginated
fromcommondynasticprogenitorandwasayoungerbranchofthejagiellon- iandynasty.“pogoń”was the symbol creating thiscommunity.
Theproliferationof“pogoń,”whichstartedtofunctionasatypicalno- bleemblem,generatedchangesintheLithuaniansealsofthegranddukesof
Lithuania:fromthereignofZygmuntIIAugusttheadditionalsignof“pod- wójnyKrzyż”returnedontheknight’sshield.90Itsuggeststhatthejagiello- niansfelttobeforcedtodistinguishtheir“pogoń”fromtheoneusedbyprinc-
es.Inturn,sealsandotherobjectsindicatethat“pogoń”whichwasadoptedbyBishopjanand Lithuanianfamiliesdidnotcontainanyadditionalsignontheknight’sshield. The iconography
analysis proves that the emblem
of“pogoń”consistedofonlytwoobjects:ahorsemenandarightarmraisedwithasword;however,some princes,suchasjurijuriewiczOlelkowicz-Słucki(d.1579)or Aleksander Fiodorowicz czartoryski (d.
1571)(see before),
used“pogoń”withthethirdobject,i.e.thejagiellonian“podwójnyKrzyż”.91Inanyev ent, thereisnodoubtthatthecoatofarmswhichwasadoptedbytheLithuanian ducalfamilieswasthesameastheoneusedbythegranddukesandtheGrand
DuchyofLithuania.Thebestevidenceisthetinctureswhichcanbedeter- minedonthebasisofarollofarmscalledHerbarzArsenalski(thebeginning
thattheepitaphofDymitrSanguszkowicz(d.1555)showsthatthisfamilyalsoremembered verywellwhowasitsprogenitorandthatitwascloselyrelatedtothejagiellonians.Theepi-
taphproclaimedthatprinceDymitrcamefromthe“magnificentfamilyofOlgierd”(“exmag- nificaOlgierdorumfamilia”)–
areproductioncanbefoundin:ZygmuntLubaRadzimiński,MonografiaXX.Sanguszków,vol.2,part1,Lwów1 911,p.122.
89Such
wordscanbefoundintestamentsofthefollowingprinces:AleksanderFiodorowiczczartoryskifrom 1569–thedocumentwaspublishedin:ArkhivYugo-ZapadnoyRossii,ch.7,
t.1,pp.17–20[АрхивЮго-ЗападнойРоссии,ч.7,т.1,pp.17–20];LewAleksandrowiczSan- guszkowiczfrom1571andRomanFiodorowiczSanguszkovichfrom1571–bothdocument werepublishedin:ArchiwumSanguszków,vol.7,No.303,309,pp.383–387,396–400.
90Z. piech,Monety, pieczęcie i herby, p. 235.
91It
isaboutthesealsofjurijuriewiczOlelkowicz(1558)andAleksanderFiodorowiczczartorys ki(1560)–
bothsealswerepublishedby:О.А.Odnorozhenko,op.cit.,No.440,482,p.130,139,fig.p.280,295.Thesecases shouldbeconsideredtobeincidental,however
itgoeswithoutsayingthat“pogoń”with“podwójnyKrzyż”servedtostrengthenthepropa- gandacontentofthecoatofarms.FromthispointofviewthesealofAlexanderFyodorovich
czartoryskiwasanalysedextensivelyin:j.Rogulski,Manifestacjadynastycznegopochodzenia,pp.211–222.
