Pedagogika Rodziny

Family Pedagogy

Pedagogika Rodziny

Kwartalnik 6(4)/2016 ISSN 2082-8411

Sekretarz redakcji:

dr Mariola Świderska Rada programowa:

prof. dr hab. Jaroslav Balvin (Czechy) prof. zw. dr hab. Józefa Brągiel

prof. dr hab. Henryk Cudak (przewodniczący) prof. dr hab. Sławomir Cudak

prof. dr hab. Rick Eigenbrood (USA) prof. zw. dr hab. Arthur Ellis (USA) prof. zw. dr hab. Reinhard Golz (Niemcy) prof.dr hab. Ing. Emilia Janigova (Słowacja) prof. zw. dr hab. Anna Kwak

prof. dr hab. Roman Patora prof. zw. dr hab. Tadeusz Pilch

prof. zw. dr hab. Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki prof. zw. dr hab. Łukasz Sułkowski

dr Mariola Świderska (sekretarz)

prof. zw. dr hab. Andrzej Michał de Tchorzewski prof. zw. dr hab. Mikołaj Winiarski

prof. dr hab. Anna Żilova Redaktor naukowy numeru:

prof. dr hab. Henryk Cudak

Redakcja „Pedagogiki Rodziny. Family Pedagogy”:

Społeczna Akademia Nauk ul. Sienkiewicza 9, 90–113 Łódź 42 664 66 21, e-mail: mariouka@wp.pl

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Wersja elektroniczna jest wersją pierwotną.

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z wytycznymi Ministerstwa Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego.

ROZPRAWY NAUKOWE

Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki

The Family of Nowadays as the Real Pedagogy of Everyday Life... 7 Henryk Cudak

Crisis Situations of Contemporary Polish Families... 17 Grzegorz Ignatowski

The Issue of Prostitution and the Family... 25 Sławomir Cudak

Selected Characteristics of a Modern Married and Family Life Model... 35 Martyna Majewska, Karina Banasik

Alcoholism in the Family as the Beginning of the ACoA Syndrome... 45 Monika Bobulska

Social and Educational Aspects of Free Time in Relation

to the Loneliness of Children... 57 Mariola Świderska, Katarzyna Zygmunt

Son-Rise Method in Support of Development and Functioning

of a Child with Autism... 69 Agata Woźniak-Krakowian, Beata Pawlica

Working with Parents of a Different Parental Philosophy... 79 Zofia Frączek

Family Upbringing in the Light of the Notion of the ‛Post-modern’

Upbringing... 91

for Children and Adolescents in the Ignacy Jan Paderewski 1 and 2

Degree State Music School in Piotrków Trybunalski... 101

KOMUNIKATY Z BADAŃ Dorota Ruszkiewicz

Conscious Single Motherhood in Life Plans of Women... 121 Arkadiusz Marzec

Role of Grandparents in the Process of Care and

Education of Young Eenerations... 141 Marta Magda, Monika Tylka, Paweł Konieczny

Selected Environmental and Educational Conditionings of Young People’s Attitudes Towards the Disabled. Sumary of Research Findings... 157 Bibiána Barabasová , Nikola Benecová

Hodnoty rodiny z pohľadu vysoko Š kolskej mládeže... 173 Justyna Siemionow

A Model of Cooperation with Parents of Socially

Maladjusted Boys – Practical Solutions Derived from the Example of one Institution... 187 Marcin Radziwołek

Family and Prevention of Risk Behaviours... 197 Anna Sołtys, Adam K. Gogacz

Towards Inclusive Education in the Perspectives of

Teachers Opinions and Needs... 207 Anna Winiarczyk, Jerzy Szczerbiak

Social Position of Children from Temporarily Incomplete Families Due to

Migration of Parents in the Peer Group... 225

Andrzej Radziewicz-Winnicki

University of Social Sciences

The Family of Nowadays as the Real Pedagogy of Everyday Life

Abstract: The article`s title refers to the next formulation of open questions concerning the cultural and social transformations, the evolution of forms and behaviors emerging in the contemporary family. Many of the issues, just signaled in the text, are associated with the fact that we are now dealing with social science representatives texts reflecting the interest in pedagogy / sociology of everyday life [comp. Drozdowski, 2010, pp 3-4].

Following posited assumptions allows not only to better capture, but also understand the specifics of everyday life institutionally transforming, making changes in the family image. What becomes the aim of this study is a selective analysis of only two elements that determine the shape of contemporary social structures, namely: the disappearance of traditional authority – the influence of parents on children, and the weakening of family ties in the post-industrial society.

Key words: family, parents’ authority, pedagogy and sociology of family, social change, pedagogy of everyday life

The family as a social group can be identified as socially recognized team of people connected by marriage, kinship or adoption, who generally have a common place of residence (habitat) and interact interchangeably in accordance with social roles which they realise [Tyszka 1974, p. 19; Szlendak 2000, p. 313]. One can also mention some presently existing alternative models of defined human existence within various structures. I mean the contemporary family, the description of which I will also present in terms of the crisis, disintegration, and most often weakening of family

* arwinnicki@gmail.com

ties, though, according to many researchers, such a pessimistic approach is not fully entitled [Szendlak 2000, p. 317].

Proceeding social change makes it difficult to predict and forecast the behavior modification and forms of contemporary family in the near and distant future.

Difficulties also emerge in accurate predicting not too distant future, in terms of processes of social reproduction, even if only on the basis of an obvious correlation between the number of births and the aging of the society [Śledzianowski 1997, pp. 61–70]. In the light of the known theories in the social science, there can be no doubt as to the fact that the shape and nature of global (macrostructural) systems has a major and decisive impact on the image of the contemporary family and functions – often changing and modified – which are performed in these systems by small social groups. In contrast, the divergence of theoretical stances reveal themselves clearly then, when we ask about reverse dependency, ie. about whether, and to what extent, in what circumstances small social structures (casus: family) are subject to such autonomisation, which allows them to interact secondarily, and create the development of macroprocesses and macrostructures [Adamski 1981, p. 121]. Research issues of representatives of individual disciplines therefore also changes. Questions indicated above are of concern for advocates of contemporary classical sociology and pedagogy of family. They usually perceive the family microgroup in its functional aspect (family function), in the integrated operation regulated by certain axiomatic system in force in given social structure. They are interested in the relationship between social micro- and macrostructure. What becomes an important field of sociological analyses is research penetration aimed at describing and understanding the mutual interaction, dynamic relationships and circumstances between family microstructure, mesostructure, macrostructure and global society. Their mutual coupling and dynamic connections are determined by external systems, ie. their structural nature. In this grid of connections there are also processes of socialization and education. In turn, the analysis of the effects of education in the family, rules and techniques of teaching and education, pedagogical culture, self-creation of a parent is no longer the domain of family pedagogy [Tyszka 1998, pp. 10–13]. Representatives of the family pedagogy, slowly institutionalising itself, put the main emphasis on the presence of many symptoms of crises situations, including instability of family relationships.

They base their interest on increasing tensions and intrafamily conflicts. They

establish diagnoses boiling down to the conclusion that the intensive course of

the social change surrounding us (prompting, among others, the phenomenon

of social deprivation, homelessness, unemployment, increase in the number

of divorces, weakening the influence of parents on attitudes and education of

children) enhances the necessity of preparing an accurate diagnosis, as well as

taking protective and assuring actions in relation to contemporary family, not only in the material sphere, but also psychological and pedagogical [Cudak 2003 et all].

In family everyday life, among those influences, an important role is undoubtedly played by institutions (especially the institution of the state) which declare, or are guided in their choices and actions by adopted social etiquette. Sometimes they also justify the results of their actions with it. Those exercising leadership, party leaders proclaim that these actions are taken in accordance with the spirit of some particular ethics, or guided by the principles of social ethics. Hence, it is worth to try the deliberation of ethnic concepts constantly subject to evolution, dominating in social life in the context of family functioning, the more that we are dealing with some explicit interpretive exaggerations related to political opportunism, or so- called postmodern poetics negating the existence of systems of ethics [Bauman 1994, p. 41].

Particularly noteworthy is Jerzy Nikitorowicz statement: “Recognising the family as the first and most bearing field of life activity of an individual, I notice a significant association between family cultural activity and the development of the human person; its participation in the generational transmission and acquisition of cultural experience by it. The family as the natural educational and cultural environment, the environment cultivating and revitalising family, familial and regional traditions, creating the first cultural community, supporting and shaping the core cultural values, rooting and tieforming, and at the same time opening up to other cultures, makes the first and most bearing field of life activity of man, the relationship between the cultural activity of the family and their development; participation in the generational transmission and acquisition of cultural experience [...] several variables dependence scheme appears to ascribe substantial importance to tieforming, interaction and development approach.

Participation, involvement, and as a result the acquisition of cultural competence, and exercising otherness, interaction, collaboration and acquisition of intercultural competence is considered to be essential. One can speak about the crisis of the family as a traditional, formal institution, but not about the crisis of the family as an open community, which, in different countries and in Poland, is currently taking, many alternative solutions, abandoning the traditional one-sided cultural transmission” [Nikitorowicz 2004, pp. 117–118].

One of the most characteristic observable features of the contemporary

family is the weakening (disappearance) of traditional family ties. The social

bond is generally the totality of relations, relationships and dependencies binding

an individual with the group, collectivity, centers of internal control or another

individual. It is based first and foremost on the very consciousness of belonging

to a given group, a community of values, norms and interests, submission of

one’s own interests to group interests, identification of actions and beliefs with the actions and beliefs of the group, what is the result of sharing of basic group conformities [Olechnicki, Załęcki 1997, p. 224]. “Current structure and the nature of contacts / exposure between members of the family community today has changed [...] they no longer work in a common workshop, or work on commonly- owned land. They spend most of the time away from home, and have to adapt the rhythm of family life to, very flexible in the era of modern working, time of their partners, operating hours of schools, opening of supermarkets in the suburbs, the operation of dozens of other institutions around which the life of atomized family revolves. Members of families functioning in today’s world may come from different countries, cultures and minority groups [...] Everything within its framework is negotiated: the scope of personal freedom, the schedule of the day, the division of work and power between the sexes, and the identity of family members. The nuclear family has moved away from the patriarchal model of power, and is based on partnership (mutual friendship, respect and co-decision making by all its members, including children). Such a family is a partnership family, also called democratic and egalitarian” [Szendlak 2000, pp. 316–317].

Despite authoritative, and at the same time encyclopaedic view on the weakening of family ties, and the contemporary model of family in Poland, according to Adam Roter, social, political and economic transformation has the outright impact. Systemic changes after 1989 cause crisis situations in many families, leading to internal conflicts, tensions and instability.

Deteriorating standard of material living, unemployment of one or both parents observed in many modern families, may be on the one hand a factor that unites the family community, it can integrate it, and even mobilise joint efforts to provide children with the necessary economic conditions, care, satisfaction of material and mental needs. On the other hand the difficult conditions of material existence cause particular functioning of the family, and the atmosphere in it increases the risk of educational failure, loss of physical and mental health, and certainly constitutes a faint restitution of traditional family ties [Roter 2005, pp.

10–15].

New conditions, particularly economic, mechanisms of the free market, cause

difficulties in many families, loss of distance in the face of what is happening

around them, emotions, and even conflicts mount. Internal family conflicts

resulting from the depreciation of the values, of life at the border, or below the

social, material poverty level, contribute to the destruction of the interior, well-

functioning systems of the family community, and even rebellion against the

family reality.

Despite the fact that in our country traditional marriage and family occupy a very high place in the hierarchy of declared values, they are socially recognized and accepted, however, in recent years „downward marriages trend” (the number of marriages has been steadily decreasing per 1,000 people) can be observed.

Significant weakening of the so-called inclination to marriage can be explained by, among others, increasingly difficult conditions of life start of young couples, mainly the lack of their own homes, or difficulties in obtaining it, the possibility of permanent employment [Roter 1997, pp. 107–108].

Another element is the disappearance of authority, including the authority of parents, and thus a certain instability, or destabilization of traditional (albeit diversified) family community of values. The authority is a kind of power (as well as certain prestige), whose orders (suggestions) ruled (subordinates) surrender, but not under compulsion, but because of the belief that it is in different ways sanctioned and legitimized, which gives it a special kind of legitimacy. It is also a person, idea or institution endowed with universal approval, that enjoys widespread respect. The authority is also the defining feature of general recognition and universal respect [comp. Olechnicki, Załęcki 1997, p. 25]. The external situation previously discussed, determines the chaos in many areas of values professed so far, or patterns of conduct adopted, or contributes to a serious crisis of the traditional authorities which play an important role in socialisation and education processes. Consequently, in the words of Zygmunt Bauman:

“We have lost the ability to translate individual problems into the language of common, collective concerns and actions. The crisis of authorities is only a symptom – the name of the ailment that is there is the crisis of human relationships and human solidarity” [Bauman 2000, p. 5].

The crisis indicated above also applies to disturbances and tensions in communication in the marriage, which take place on three levels (spheres):

emotional, intellectual, and the sphere of so-called activities [Ryś 1996].

Communication in the emotional sphere originates from empathy, or the ability to empathize with the partner’s feelings. Fondness and sensitivity at the same time provide spouses and children, and in the case of an extended family, other family members, with a sense of security, support and acceptance. Intellectual sphere is associated with the tendency to exchange mutual evaluations, observations, or experiences by the members of the family group. It helps to solve many problems, the views and preferences of family members. Communication in the sphere of activities includes joint efforts, similar aspirations or expectations, fulfilment of set tasks and daily responsibilities. Cooperation in a diverse relationship of at least two persons is an indispensable element stimulating group integration and cohesion.

However, there are extensive grounds – also as a result of external circumstances –

of emergence of numerous tensions, misunderstandings, animosities or conflicts [Rostowski 1987, cites: Przybył 1997, p. 92]. Tensions and conflicts occur against the background of confusion about marital roles, of roles of the other family members, of lack of familiarity with partner’s expectations. An important cause of degradation in the family are so-called conflicting expectations, rooted in different (often separate) systems of represented cultural standards or individual experiences, and the lack of readiness to develop common approaches as to the roles played in the family [Przybył 1997, pp. 92–93; comp. Cudak 2011, pp. 33–42].

Unfortunately, few empirical explorations pertain to the authority of parents

in close correlation with the specificity and stability of the periodic occurrence of

family community of values. This is a very important issue for researchers recruited

both from sociology and pedagogy, as the family upbringing constellation can be

understood as a system of relations of authority – the influence between parents

and children – on a certain system of ideas, beliefs, and attitudes of both parents

and fosterlings. It is a commonly accepted view, that if parents enjoy authority

among their own children, then socio-educational measures taken by them will

prove to be – with high probability – effective. Family constellation of patterns,

norms and values, based on the authority of parents and operative, so active

role of the child, can promote the formation of a specific family community of

values, or give it an even greater cohesion [Wejland 1970, pp. 117–118]. Thus,

we touch the heart of the matter, which is the role of the family in the process

of exemplification (reproduction), or modification of the needs of aspirations

of orienting values systems. Aspirations to get an education, occupation, level

and structure of consumption, lifestyle, or the character of taking specific roles,

or socio-professional positions by the new generations is directly related to the

nature of the family constellation of education, and the existing community of

values which is found by the child, but they also form under the influence of

other local social circles and institutions (Lewowicki). Of course the authority

of the parents does not imply exclusivity on the overall impact of education and

socialization. Even if the parents of a visible and specific authority will not be the

only primary group shaping a child’s view of the world, and the existence of an

individual in the surrounding reality, still, the family plays an all-important role in

this regard. Family community of values, which consolidates the family at every

stage of its historical and civilizational patterning, is a dynamic and relatively stable

system. It is also an open system, because the group members can take their views,

beliefs and attitudes from the outside world of values. The authority of parents

and their educational influence is connected with the possibility of ‛opening’ the

family community to external influences, or to ‛closing’ and ‛protecting’ against

them. One can, however, Andrzej Wejland says, assume hypothetically, that the

degree of cohesiveness of family community values depends on how strong is the family educational constellation [Wejland 1970, p. 120]. Regardless of the ongoing changes in the contemporary family, and often appearing term ‛crisis’, there is a broad approval of family values. It results, according to Barbara Szacka, from at least two reasons. The first of these is the significant influence of the Catholic Church, and the second, patterns typical for preindustrial families, involving the ruralisation of Polish cities [Szacka 2003, p. 308].

In the bosom of the family, there is a convenient opportunity – among others, thanks to the authority of parents – of intentional shaping expectations and levels of aspiration of an individual, that are conducive to the formation of specific motivation, leading to behaviors (conformist or non-conformist in their nature) perceived in different categories. Of course, the above mentioned elements have general and often conventional character. It is known, for example, that not for all people particular motifs have the same meaning, because not everyone has equally developed needs, expectations and aspirations. Therefore, satisfaction and identification can be treated in studies on the one hand as an overall reaction of an individual to its general situation, on the other hand – as an indicator of attitudes towards given object, and activities associated with this fact, being a manifested reaction.

Each individual can thus, to a varying degree, identify themselves with particular elements, resulting from the situation of their existence in given family environment, which is specifically mentioned by a number of authors [see:

Radziewicz-Winnicki 2008, pp. 480–481].

An excellent example is a little-known study on the authority, as well as the increase of the feeling of a kind of communion between the father and son, taking the form of the pupil and master, and which is the reversal of traditional roles in the handling and use of the computer. The personal computer is usually seen as a functional tool helping at work, and a determinant of social differentiation.

Its purchase for the family use can reveal conflicts existing in it, affecting the reconstruction of roles performed by various family members, and directly – on the formation of individual identity. With the relationship father – son, usually after an initial period of tensions and conflicts, what makes itself evident in their relations with each other, is an additional stimulation to support intergenerational family ties. This is confirmed by studies carried out in 1992 in France in the area of Grenoble [Roux, Wróblewska-Pawlak 1999, pp. 66–82].

The above-mentioned issues concern problems fundamental for family

socio-educational practice, and will become an impulse for further exploration

and research solutions in the sphere of relations between the contemporary

family and global society. May they contribute to the description of existence of

Polish families of the present decade of our century. It should be noted that the signaled issues are now becoming a subject of particular interest in neighboring countries, for example in the Czech Republic, Slovakia which are in the process of transformation. As in Poland, we noticed very similar trends of the ongoing transformations.

For obvious reasons, there has been a lot of space constantly devoted to the family. Any family relationship system is probably the oldest, and at the same time the basic social structure. Family can be defined as a system of culturally specific patterns of behavior (as well as norms and roles), fulfilling the functions of maintenance of given structure in real and ideal terms, and indirectly, the general structure of society by providing institutionalized ways of regulating sexual activity and procreation, as well as methods (the mode) of introduction of new members into the surrounding social structures, instiling habits in them, behaviors necessary for them to become members of given society during the ongoing intense social change in our everyday life.

I think that this, submitted to the reader, brief description / record of changes can be considered to be a relational, dynamic and important, taking into account the changes occurring in the contemporary family exemplifying (copying, reproducing) the trend of analyses, so-called situated cognition.

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Henryk Cudak

University of Social Sciences

Crisis Situations of Contemporary Polish Families

Abstract: A modern family is going through various crises. The reasons for these negative situations are rooted in both the macro-social structures and social, emotional and axiological relations within the family. Crisis situations in the family are not favourable for its activities. They interfere with the educational, socialization and care processes. Crisis situations in a family are usually caused by the instability of marriage (divorce), incompleteness of a family, weakening of emotional ties between its members, loneliness of children in the family, unemployment of one or both parents and growing conflicts between parents and also between parents and children.

Key words: family, macro-social changes, loneliness, divorce, emotional ties, conflicts, labour migration, atomization

For centuries a Polish family constituted a kind of enclave which gave its members a safe haven. It was apparent in the time of the partitions when the invaders, despite attempts, failed to break into the Polish home. A similar situation existed in the days of the German occupation. In that time – difficult for our homeland – a family managed to maintain Polish traditions, family rituals, human values and the native language.

In the post-war period, the model of a Polish family was changed by the

deliberate state policy, migration of population, urbanization and new lifestyle

including family life as well as extensive social benefits and welfare. Women took

up jobs, children attended nurseries, kindergartens and schools. School canteens provided lunches for children and adults (including parents dining in cafeterias at work). These circumstances brought up changes in the structure of a typical Polish family. The family functions underwent changes. Interpersonal relations between its members also has changed. Despite all these transformations, a Polish family survived in its unaltered form as a natural nurturing environment.

For decades of the past socio-political system a family in our country served its most important role – it was the only entity that provided its members with a safe haven. Only within the family Poles could express loudly their views and thoughts. A family was indispensable as a social environment so that a man could be freed from external stresses and burden of real social and political life.

What is the social, emotional and structural situation of contemporary Polish families?

Circumstances in the period of post-modernity, especially social, political and economic transformations, resulted in a time of an unusual test, a difficult time of a breakthrough and even in a crisis for a Polish family.

On the basis of conducted surveys and studies, a thesis can be formulated that a family is a value in itself for the Polish society. This is evidenced by studies (conducted by Anna Kwak) among students both from a high school and university [2005].

It is also confirmed by a detailed research conducted in 1999 by Poznan Centre headed by Zbigniew Tyszka [2000]. It shows that Polish women consider families to be the highest value. It is therefore believed, based on the research, that marriage and family are still widely accepted in Poland. In spite of this acceptance, however, there are signs of a crisis in a family. Chaos can be observed in the educational impact of presenting patterns of a family life. Habits typical of a bygone era inherited from the real socialism are still functioning in our modern families.

Elements of behaviour patterns, social norms and recognized ethical values taken from Western European countries clashing with native Polish traditions, rituals and customs cause crises – often unfavourable for contemporary Polish families.

The fact that a contemporary family accepts and recognizes the so-called

allocentric values is a disturbing axiological phenomenon. Love, security,

happiness, material goods and high social position are dominant in the hierarchy

of such systems of values. Timeless social values such as helping another human

being, truth, justice, goodness, beauty, etc. gain the smallest recognition among

parents. Children of contemporary families take values from their parents. By

their behaviours they show a tendency to copy the same patterns of actions, adopt a similar system of values which they have acquired from their families.

However, it should be expressed that the values preferred and accepted by a family in everyday interactions have a direct or indirect impact on the processes of socialization, educational and welfare of children and youth. Furthermore, the atmosphere of family life, which accompanies the adopted and implemented values, is an important element in the intergenerational transmission of axiological life of a today family.

There is an apparent trend of a partnership model of family life, preferred in the past socio-political system. Women’s professional work forces a division of responsibilities at home, but disrupts the emotional sphere of interpersonal relations in the family and proper child care too. Helplessness in solving their own life and financial problems can be observed in many Polish families. Overprotection of the state in the bygone era shaped the attitude of expectation for help and benefits from the state.

A serious threat to a family nowadays is the low level of pedagogical culture of parents who do not have enough proper knowledge and pedagogical skills and are not able to solve educational problems of everyday life. They do not realize the need to meet the psychological needs of the family and the proper implementation of the parental functions in relation to their own children. So far, none of the educational institutions have performed tasks in the field of developing pedagogical culture of young people as future parents. Young parents often function in an intuitive manner with a high degree of unawareness in parenting impact. They have no knowledge about children development and rearing, they do not know the purpose of care and education or optimizing methods of upbringing and family life either. Hence, the low pedagogical culture of parents causes educational and socialization errors as well as excess of conflicts in the family environment [Cudak H., Cudak S. 2011].

A disturbing symptom of the family crisis is its impermanence. According to the statistical data from 2011 and studies by M. Herbert [2005] more than every fifth marriage has fallen apart in the recent years. Most couples break up during the first seven years of marriage and family. There are many conflicts in the period preceding the breakdown of the family leading to much stronger crises.

Today, a divorce is one of the biggest threats to a modern family. It has a generally negative impact on emotional and social lives of divorcing parents, and especially on children functioning in divorcing families.

Escalating marital conflicts, aggression and violence of one parent in the

home environment are usually the grounds for a divorce. This causes a family

dysfunction, marriage breakdown, nervous tension, stress and conflicts.

The phenomenon of instability of a family is a part of a crisis situation of every community. In the recent decades the process of divorce of parents has intensified. It applies to both rich and poor spouses. People who get divorced are with different levels of education, social and professional position in the local environment. These people come from different cultural and living backgrounds and are of different religions or are also non-believers.

The consequences of a divorce are detrimental not only for the family and personal development of children, but also for the social functioning of parents in the adult population.

The consequence of an increasing divorce rate is functioning of single-parent families. Their number is gradually increasing. Generally, single-parent families fulfil their functions worse. They do not provide children with appropriate economic conditions and often make educational mistakes, which are manifested in overprotection and negligence of children. Such families do not provide their offspring a sense of security and proper socialization which prepares the young generation for life in modern society. Okoń [2007] rightly argues that an incomplete family “without a father or a mother is where many educational problems often arise primarily associated with reduced child care because exercised by one person only, as well as the lack of a normal educational atmosphere, in which proper arrangement of relations between a father and a mother becomes the first role model for children”. Incompleteness of a family structure is a crisis situation that often causes dysfunction of education, care, socialization and interferes with the proper system of emotional ties in the community.

Incompleteness of a family can also occur as a result of the death of one spouse, separation of parents, single parenthood by choice, as well as labour migration of a father or a mother. In the last two decades, more and more parents (fathers or mothers), because of a lack of gainful work at the place of residence, have left their families and gone abroad to take up profitable employment and improve the economic conditions of other family members. Labour migration causes temporary incompleteness of a family and reduction in participation of one of the parents as a result of their permanent or temporary absence in upbringing, care and education of children. All parental functions in a migration family are taken over by the mother or father remaining at home.

More and more frequent picture of the social reality is so-called reconstructed

families, that is, resulting from re-marriages. In post-divorced marriages there

are difficulties and problems, which first marriages do not know. Alimony, a lack

of acceptance of the stepfather or stepmother by children, conflicts with the

spouse’s family, impossibility of getting married in church are factors that cause

misunderstanding, unpleasant experiences and often lead to another breakup of the family.

In most Polish families living conditions are getting worse because of unemployment and real wages. Hence, there is a growing tension between family members where a husband blames a wife for poor money management, and a wife blames her husband for poor planning in keeping the family at an appropriate economic level. Negative tension in the family, as it is stated by Raczkowska [1998], includes negative connotations in its meaning. These are often the crisis situations that interfere with the educational, care, axiological and socialization system in a family environment. In many cases, they destroy the friendly and warm atmosphere of home, resulting in traumatic situations where there are unnecessary tensions, stress, insecurity, unrest between spouses as well as parents and children.

Sources and causes of conflicts in a family home may stem from the conditions both outside the family (economic, social, political, cultural) and inside it (character traits of parents, parental attitudes, economic, education, axiological difficulties).

Conflicts in a home environment are an important factor affecting the shape of relations and social and emotional interactions between family members. Crisis situations in modern families in the form of domestic conflicts impede the proper functioning of marriage and family because they pose a lot of risks, mental strain and stress, limit dialogue and weaken or even eliminate the emotional bonds between family members.

In a modern family one of many crises is increasing elimination of emotional bonds between parents and children. Leon Dyczewski [1994] determines the familial bond as the result of internal and external forces existing in a family group and affecting its members. These forces arise from marriage, from consciousness of genetic relationships, emotional experiences, relationships of dependence, coexistence, attitudes towards social, cultural and economic conditions, in which a family lives, as well as of legal, religious and moral factors.

There is a constant exchange of experiences, interactions, opinions and views between family members which can enhance and strengthen emotional relationships in a home environment or weaken them.

Research [2007] indicates that in the recent years weakness, imbalance, and even disorder of emotional ties occurred in more and more present-day families.

Within the family there is the depletion of dialogue between parents as well as parents and children. More and more often the dialogue in the family is being replaced by mass-media (TV and Internet). Atomisation of life of family members is apparent. Each family member has his own problems, interests and even life.

The phenomenon of family atomisation causes a negative state of loneliness of

both parents and especially children in a family environment. The problem of loneliness of children and adolescents is growing increasingly. The research by Gawęcka [2005] shows that in the first years of the twenty-first century 22% of all young people at the age of puberty could admit to experience the feeling of loneliness. Children and adolescents with a sense of loneliness in the family have lower self-esteem, no security, weakened emotional ties, impaired love for parents, constant stress and lack of motivation to education.

There are also situations where a sudden economic or career advancement of one of the parents leads to conflicts and even to the marriage breakup. Modern families do not know how to ‛make their way’ in the new economic conditions and free market.

The crisis situation of our country, unemployment, which affected both older generation and the young one, means that young families could hardly achieve self-reliance. Many 30-year-old spouses and even older ones do not have the financial income that would guarantee independent existence. They live together with their parents or are dependent on them. Child care gets extended. Quite often parents – retirees – materially support their adult children. The lack of their own dwellings, difficult financial situation, dependence on parents are common causes of conflicts in young families – resulting in crisis situations at home.

The new socio-political and economic situation and time of freedom do not serve to create a proper family atmosphere, triggering emotional life and consolidation of a family. A family no longer serves as a place for safe recovery.

The large number of political opinions in the country is reflected in the family systems and relations. Party affiliation or even support and fondness for the various political parties cause unfavourable situations for a family.

It is therefore considered that the modern reality is not conducive to a family. It has no clearly specified positive role model to follow. It continues the model of the former political system or takes over the oblivious patterns and values of Western Europe countries. Crisis situations are due to divorce, atomisation of family members, weakening of parental authority, difficult financial situation, conflicts within the family, alcoholism, elimination or deterioration of emotional bonds within the family environment, drug addiction and various cases of misfortune.

A worrying phenomenon is the growing number of single-parent families and

children out of wedlock. Despite the financial support (family 500+) for families

with two or more children, there is no real pro-family system in Poland.

Bibliography

Cudak H. & Cudak S. (2011), Vademecum wiedz y o rodzinie, Kielce.

Dyczewski L. (1994), Rodzina, społeczeństwo, państwo, Lublin.

Gawęcka M. (2005), Osamotnienie dzieci we własnej rodzinie, Toruń.

Herbert M. (2005), Rozwód w rodzinie, Gdańsk.

Kawula S., Brągiel J. & Janke,A.W. (2007), Pedagogika rodziny, Toruń.

Kwak A. (2005), Rodzina w dobie przemian. Małżeństwo i Kohabitacja, Warszawa.

Raczkowska J. (1988), Na tropach rodzicielskich niepowodzeń, Warszawa.

Statistical Yearbook of the Central Statistical Office (2011), Warszawa.

Tyszka Z. (1992), Badania nad rodziną a praktyka społeczna, Poznań.

Tyszka Z. (2000), Stan rodziny współczesnej a wewnątrzrodzinna socjalizacja dzieci, Annals of

Pedagogies.

Grzegorz Ignatowski

University of Social Sciences

The Issue of Prostitution and the Family

Abstract: History shows that prostitution is a phenomenon which has accompanied the history of mankind for centuries. It was present in antiquity, the Middle Ages and in modern times. It was never possible to eliminate it from everyday life.

Strong links of prostitution with the crime make the actions of state institutions limited. It also seems that prostitution and its disastrous effects were not presented in education in a determined way. Without a doubt, prostitution has destructive influence on our social and professional life. Given a certain helplessness of legislators and state structures, a responsible and strong family that will be able to effectively counteract this phenomenon should be built.

Key words: prostitution, family, low

The issue of prostitution is usually considered in the context of other social aberrations. Sometimes called deviations, anomalies or simply pathologies they represent the subject of interest for sociologists, psychologists, management specialists. Let us add here also ethicists, educators and lawyers. It is not indifferent to scientific research that the issue of pathologies is dealt with by politicians and journalists. Sometimes this is a serious obstacle to inquisitive research and in-depth conclusions. Let us note that the “Le Figaro” in the online version used the term ‘pathology’ 2,274 times, “The Washington Post” – 1,627, and the daily ‘Polska’ as many as 32,700 times (results come as of April 29, 2016.). It is important that in the French newspaper the concept of ‘pathology’ appears with issues related to medicine, in case of American paper – with medicine and social life while in the Polish medium problems of everyday life dominate. So what

* gignatowski@spoleczna.pl

is pathology? Our dictionaries and encyclopaedias refer the reader to medicine.

Specifically, our concept of interest means a disease, state of deviation from norm in living organisms. The concept does not refer only to people but also to animals. Deviations are recognized also from a social perspective. They are then understood as “behaviour of individuals or groups of people against the cultural and social norms recognized by a community” [Markowski, Pawelec 2001, p. 570].

The above quoted authors note that the risk of pathologies is high in families of alcoholics. Besides, they indicate alcoholism and drug addiction, and even the lack of recognition of such values as the common good, lack of respect for human labour and intentional destruction of its results as examples of social deviation. In this work we are going to deal with prostitution. It has not always been considered a social pathology. The reason for this approach is explained in the first part of the article, which concentrates on the causes of prostitution. In the second chapter we present the issue of prostitution from the perspective of the family. Optimal conditions in the family help prevent the spread of prostitution and sensitize the sinister phenomenon.

The concept of prostitution and its sources

From an ethical point of view, prostitution can be seen in the context of such phenomena such as euthanasia or suicide. Proponents of this approach believe that ethical evaluation of prostitution is dependent on the solution of the fundamental question: do we have the right to decide and dispose of our own body. Prostitution is practicing sexual relations in return for financial benefits. By this not only the acquisition of money and material goods is meant, but also the desire to make customers addicted to one’s services. The situation is therefore not so simple. In case of prostitution of children and adults, it is not easy to talk about the scale of income and free choices. Let us add that the given definition ignores the issue of prostitution among women and men. In this discussion we would like to treat it in the same categories. We understand that prostitution among women is mentioned in the literature much more often than prostitution among men.

It is not easy to assess prostitution from the perspective of ethics. The major

drawback is the fact that it is known in all cultures and traditions. For example

Gilgamesh, created in the second millennium BC, speaks about the harlot

Shamhat. What are then the causes and circumstances in its favour? Mariusz

Zbigniew Jędrzejko [2015, pp. 73–74] indicates a lack of agreement on the

elimination of prostitution and pornography from everyday life. He writes that

sexuality that gets out of control has become an attractive commodity used in

advertising and marketing. Jędrzejko [2015, p. 76] rightly points out that the naked

body accompanies “not only fashion shows, but also car advertisements, coffee and toilet water commercials”. Sexuality, which has found its permanent place in advertising, entered high and junior high schools. Naturally, we can list still many more phenomena which lead to a social consent for prostitution. For example, voting for miss kindergarten or miss primary class are a wonder.

The above examples by Jędrzejko do not explain the origin of the phenomenon itself. It is broadly and deeply discussed by Joanna Sztobryn-Giercuszkiewicz [2004, pp. 33–89; see also: Prostytucja, etiologia, regulacje prawne]. Let us concentrate on the most important ones. The author writes that in the nineteenth century there appeared biological mainstream which emphasized the influence of the “heredity and innate tendency for a person undertaking a decision about prostitution activity”. It was the result of fascination in positivism and evolutionism. Critics of the concept of biological origin of prostitution pointed out that the inherited biological characteristics can explain only a small percentage of origin of prostitutes. Of course, such an approach to our phenomenon does not allow to word any ethical evaluation. We have no moral right to judge a person and their conduct when they are enslaved. In this particular situation, enslaved by biological factors.

More convincing was the theory saying that prostitution is the result of social and economic conditions [Sztobryn-Giercuszkiewicz 2004, pp. 38–47].

Specifically, the fact that people chose prostitution was decided by bad living conditions and economic exploitation. Such views have prevailed in the seventies of the last century. Arguers this theory remarked that it does not correspond to the empirical data. Prostitutes come from different backgrounds and social classes.

Namely, they come from the working class as well as agricultural and intellectual environments. Modern scholars studying prostitution prefer then to talk about

“the subjective perception of scarcity” rather than poverty and lack of income- earning opportunities. One should therefore not talk about bad living conditions but about the lack of a satisfying job. We cannot talk about the pressure, but it has to be emphasized that the issue concerns the choice. Prostitution would therefore be rooted in the desire to quickly achieve a high material level. It cannot be denied, however, that many people choosing prostitution come from poor backgrounds.

Lack of education leads to the situation where they have limited opportunities of getting a satisfying profession.

Theories that seek sources of prostitution in cultural and environmental

conditions explain the phenomenon otherwise. Its supporters argue that

prostitution is at the source of strict, patriarchal order of life in a monogamous

marriage. At the same time, satisfaction of the sexual needs of man goes far

beyond the monogamous marriage. Paweł Czarnecki [2008, p. 145] writes that

“although patriarchal society condemns prostitution, it does not condemned using such services”. He believes that the existence of prostitution is a kind of safety valve, which serves to maintain the permanence of marriage. We also encounter in the literature a softened form of the presented theory. Namely, where there are strict dictates of monogamy, there is an increase of prostitution. And where these rules are loosened, prostitutions decreases. In other words, prostitution would be a phenomenon that protects monogamous marriage by giving a man an opportunity to satisfy his sexual needs [Sztobryn-Giercuszkiewicz 2004, pp. 49–50]. But can we talk about pathology in this context. Prostitution would be a guarantee providing the stability of marriage. Another theory, which refers to cultural factors says that prostitution exists where a woman is discriminated against. Her degradation to the role of the subject makes her be treated as an object and not as a full sex partner.

Due to the subject of our interest we should pay attention to theories that see the fundamental reason of prostitution in deviant families. Studies show that many prostitutes come from homes where they did not have the possibility of normal development. Is there a need to point to the weaknesses of this theory.

Yet not all prostitutes come from dysfunctional families. It cannot be denied, however, that the condition of the family, conflicts occurring in the family lead to a certain extent to the growth of prostitution. In addition, individuals who have a low level of education, whose intellectual development is delayed are more likely to prostitution. I am not sure that prostitutes come from ‛good families’

[Kalisz 2013, p. 1]. Naturally, there are cases like this. Overall, they come from dysfunctional families.

Joanna Sztobryn-Giercuszkiewicz, quoted before, draws attention to psychological conditions that have an impact on the level of prostitution. Its condition is dependent on to what extent pathological relationships prevail in families, whether relations between spouses and between parents and children are shaken. Those who practice prostitution usually come from families in which there have been frequent conflicts, where emotional ties were lacking. One should not forget leaving children unattended. Two extreme parenting styles also have negative impact. Namely, laxity in education on the one hand, and on the other hand, coldness and rigor of education. Added to this are factors such as crime, alcoholism, sexual deviations, and of course, the prostitution itself [Sztobryn- Giercuszkiewicz 2004, p. 88].

In conclusion, let us point out that all causes of prostitution (perhaps

except biological) can be justified. This can be proved by the fact, mentioned

at the beginning, that prostitution has always existed and there was never firm

and strong stigmatization of this phenomenon. While prostituting persons were always humiliated and degraded. Perhaps in this way it was attempted to highlight the poor condition of a man who could not satisfactorily control their sex drives.

For this reason prostitution has a negative impact on the lives of whole societies, in the second part of this work we will concentrate on the ways of overcoming it.

Towards overcoming prostitution

Prostitution has always existed. Do we then have the tools and the strength to fight against it. This suggestion is strengthened by the argument that it is legalized in a growing number of countries. Let us give Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Turkey and Greece as examples. Prostitutes pay taxes and undergo systematic medical examinations. And where it is illegal, profits derived from fornication go to people connected with the criminal world. Polish Penal Code does not impose sanctions on prostitution. It focuses on people who make others practice prostitution or facilitate it. Human trafficking for prostitution is penalized.

Article 197 § 1 of the Penal Code says that “who by violence, illegal threat or deceit subjects another person to sexual intercourse shall be punished by imprisonment from 2 to 12 years”. The Article 204 § 1 includes a statement that the one “who, for financial profit, induces another person to practice prostitution or facilitates it, shall be punished by imprisonment from 3 months to 5 years”. We omit at this point prostitution by children.

Please note that the above suggestion would be correct, but for a few important facts. First, in many countries we observe a tendency to toughen the law. In countries such as Sweden and Norway people who use the services of prostitutes, that is their clients, are punished. France also thinks of a similar legislation.

Namely, at the beginning of April 2016 the National Assembly received a project that has been worked on for two years. Both the police and the legal environment are sceptical about it. Police officers point to the court trial difficulties. Lawyers point to the difficulty in proving financial transactions made after the sexual act [Prostitution: la pénalisation des clients va-t-elle être coûteuse et inutile?]. Of course, we are interested in the end of the debate in the French National Assembly. At this point, we emphasize the tendency to strengthen the laws against prostitution.

The second reason, which requires us to consider the opposition to prostitution, are the effects of its practicing. Paweł Czarnecki, quoted before [2008, p. 147]

points out that prostitution causes many negative effects. These include “human

trafficking, violence against women”. There are indisputable relationships between

prostitution and organized crime. Another negative effect is the objectification of

the person providing prostitution. Treating people as objects leads to aggression

not only against prostitutes. It causes the client to become aggressive and distrustful of their family. The argument that people who use the services of prostitutes unload their negative emotions and eliminate tension is totally unconvincing.

Several years ago Urszula Świętochowska [1998, pp. 106–107] indicated that the factors that lead to prostitution are the wrong structure of the family, alcoholism in families of prostitutes, poor educational climate in the family homes, low level of education of prostitutes, the variability of educational environments, low education of parents, poverty, and early started sex life. We agree with the above observations. The fact that among all causes, the most space is occupied by poor condition of the family and the situation prevailing in it is worth highlighting.

We also know that the family is the most important environment in which the characters, attitudes and values are shaped. It is about a family that fills most of its functions, and not about dysfunctional families. The latter are a hotbed of pathologies, including prostitution. Among the main features that the family should meet the following functions need to be mentioned: procreation, educational and socializing, caring, emotional and sexual, economic, statification (defining the social status of its members), integration and control, and recreation and a social functions [Szlendak 2000, pp. 314–315; Adamski 2002, pp. 36–43].

All these functions are equally important and none of them can dominate over another. However, one should emphasize the importance of the educational and socialization roles. In a special way they are practiced in the family, because among its members special emotional ties prevail. In addition, a child in the first period of life is totally dependent on caregivers. It fully relies on their judgments and opinions. Later the situation changes. The family and its values will remain however forever the environment to which we will refer in specific choices.

Underlining the role of parents in education does not finish our discussion.

We pay attention to proper parenting styles. Rudolf Schaffer [2006, p. 245] points out that there exists authoritarian style characterized by the use of force by parents and a firm attitude towards the child. Parents do not ask what a child is thinking, rarely praise them and show joy in front of them. They are extremely demanding and require complete obedience. They make children act positively, appeal to fear. It is a style that is based on power. Decisions are imposed by force, punishment outweighs the rewards. In contrast, permissive style is different.

Parents are emotionally oriented, they do not want to bear the responsibility for

the education of children and control them to a limited degree. They do not

have high expectations, positively respond to all requests of children and ignore

educational principles. Besides, their enforcement is inconsistent. Decisions are

made after a prior conversation with children. This style is also referred to as

liberal. Imposing moral principles starts too late. The process of socialization of the child is also delayed. Schaffer also speaks of rejecting and neglecting style.

Parents do not show any feelings to their children and do not require anything from them. They are not interested in their behaviour and education. In other words, they do not fulfil their parental responsibilities.

We are most interested in a style that balances the first two. Schaffer calls it ‛authoritative’. Parents are able to combine duties with warmth and positive emotions. The requirements are not considered by children as harsh, they approach them with respect. Parents still retain control of the child, with respect, however, to children’s desires. To achieve their objective they can refer to their indisputable authority, as well as to logical justifications expressed in a way appropriate to the age of the child.

Since the attitudes, which in later years will determine the choices by adolescent teens and grown-up children, are shaped during childhood, it is worth noting that individual families themselves should develop their own parenting style. It must be based on elements represented by the authoritative style. There is no doubt that parents in their actions and statements must be consistent. Ewa Repelewicz [2004, p. 149] notes that the lack of consistency creates uncertainty and variability of moods. Inconsistent parents will decide about treatment under the pressure of current events, e.g. learning difficulties, the intervention of outsiders.

Perhaps the best answer how to fight prostitution is an indication of the complexity of the whole phenomenon. Stanislaw Kozak [2014, pp. 31–32], similarly to Jędrzejko mentioned at the beginning, writes about prostitution in a wider context, which is sexoholism. He points out that it is one of the hardest deviations in the world. In addition to prostitution he mentions also anonymous sex, incest, cybersex, porn-holism, exhibitionism. All kinds of sexoholism are facilitated by modern technologies. Because they are becoming more widespread, one should apply the holistic apprehension of our phenomenon and consider it in the context of other contemporary pathologies.

Summary

In our work we are emphasizing the role of the family in the face of pathologies.

There is no denying that most of the prostitutes are people hurt most often in

childhood. The law fights with prostitution. We find that it does not keep pace

with the developed criminal network supporting prostitution. World religions are

against prostitution. The problem, however, is that in the confrontation with the

criminal world they are almost defenceless. We cannot ignore the fact that religions

give way to secularized world. What remains, therefore, is to support the family

in order to fulfil their functions and implement their own parenting style. Family members will not forget then about the need to ensure education to their children.

Deficiencies in this matter are in favour of prostitution. We will add that a good economy is also our ally. It reduces the level of poverty and unemployment.

We listed cultural conditions as a reason for the existence of prostitution. The fact is that prostitution is a result of the poor condition of a man who has always had difficulty with controlling their sexuality. We can realize ourselves in this area fully in the family. This is perhaps the most important reason to support the family and take care of its development.

At the end let us name the next areas for deeper reflection. Małgorzata Izabela Słomczyńska includes poverty, lack of sexual satisfaction among spouses, death or illness to the factors that negatively influence the family. Słomczyńska [2014, p.

71] writes that death or prolonged illness can cause shock among family members, threaten its security and stability. Thus, such traumatic events not mean that some people will choose the path of depravity and humiliation.

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