Artykuły naukowe
beata webb, alicia vallero Great teaching: models and evaluation beata webb, alicia vallero What makes good teaching? Students’
view of eff ective teaching in language and language teacher education programs at a university (primary research)
katarzyna ożańska-ponikwia Positive psychology in the classroom setting from the point of view of the pre-service teachers
małgorzata zalewska-bujak Obraz szkolnych relacji komunikacyjnych nauczyciela z uczniami
anna gaweł-mirocha
The importance of positive teacher–student relationship in enhancing the social compe- tences of children isolated from their peers barbara somerla
Supporting the process of forming positive relations, communication and dialogue on the basis of the educational package
„kit box of secrets” in preschool education elżbieta wolińska
Non-verbal communication as a tool for disciplining students
andrej rajsky
“The Secret of Youth” against nihilism of the youth according to Umberto Galimberti anita żytowicz
Emotions and language mediations in the micro-accounts of Polish teenage brokers katarzyna borawska-kalbarczyk Wirtualne środowisko kształcenia w procesie wspierania motywacji do uczenia się liliya morska
ESP (English For Specifi c Purposes) – Implications for teaching
radislav millrood
Going positive about inclusive education in Russia: what is in the way?
radmila burkovičová
Current innovations in the Czech pre-school education
Recenzje
zdzisława janiszewska-nieścioruk Recenzja monografi i. Rozumieć chaos. Rzecz o terminach i znaczeniach im nadawanych w pedagogice specjalnej autorstwa Sławomira Olszewskiego i Katarzyny Parys
s. 15
s. 201
nr 2(9)/2017
issn: 2300-6471
Konteksty Pedagogiczne pedagogical contexts)/2017
pedagogical contexts
Konteksty Pedagogiczne
2(9)/2017
Pedagogical Contexts
Konteksty Pedagogiczne
Pedagogical Contexts
2(9)/2017
Irena Adamek, Tomasz Gmerek, Jan Grzesiak, Zdzisława Janiszewska-Nieścioruk, Wojciech Kojs, Wiesława Korzeniowska, Mirosław Kowalski, Ewa Kubiak-Szymborska, Sławomir Przybyliński, Alina Szczurek-Boruta, Urszula Szuścik, Bogusław Śliwerski, Jolanta Zielińska
Giuseppe Annacontini (Włochy), Radmila Burkovičová (Republika Czeska), Doris Cihlars (Niemcy), Piero Crispiani (Włochy), Daniela Dato (Włochy), Jean-Marc Dewaele (Anglia) Alwira Galkiene (Litwa), Irena Masojć (Litwa), Liliya Morska (Ukraina), Natalia Mykytenko (Ukraina), Karel Neubauer (Republika Czeska), Krzysztof Orleański (Norwegia), Miroslav Procházka (Republika Czeska), Miluše Vítečková (Republika Czeska), Shu-Lan Yang (Tajwan)
ZESPÓŁ REDAKCYJNY / EDITORIAL BOARD
Redaktor naczelna / Editor-in-chief: Joanna Skibska (kontakt: jskibska@ath.bielsko.pl) Redaktor językowy / Co-editor (Polish texts): Justyna Wojciechowska (kontakt:
jwojciechowska@ath.bielsko.pl)
Redaktor tekstów anglojęzycznych / Co-editor (English texts): Katarzyna Ożańska-Ponikwia Redaktor statystyczny / Statistical editor: Piotr Ziewiec
Redaktorzy tematyczni / Associate editors: Bożena Grzeszkiewicz, Remigiusz J. Kijak, Ewa Kochanowska, Iwona Malorny, Monika Miczka-Pajestka
CZASOPISMO RECENZOWANE / PEER REVIEWED JOURNAL Lista recenzentów jest drukowana w ostatnim numerze danego roku List of reviewers is printed in the last issue of the journal of the year REDAKTOR NUMERU / VOLUME EDITOR
Katarzyna Ożańska-Ponikwia ISSN: 2300-6471
doi: 10.19265/KP.2017.029
Redakcja tekstów angielskich: Anna Moskała
Redakcja i korekta tekstów polskich: Monika Hryniewicka Skład: LIBRON
Projekt okładki: LIBRON WYDAWCA / PUBLISHER Wydawnictwo LIBRON
Czasopismo indeksowane w bazie Index Copernicus Journal indexed in Index Copernicus Journals Master List
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Publication co-financed by the Faculty of Humanities and Social Studies at the University of Bielsko-Biala ADRES REDAKCJI / ADDRESS OF THE EDITORIAL OFFICE
Katedra Pedagogiki
Akademia Techniczno-Humanistyczna w Bielsku-Białej ul. Willowa 2, 43-309 Bielsko-Biała
tel. 33/827 92 99 e-mail: kp@ath.bielsko.pl
Wydawnictwo LIBRON Filip Lohner
al. Daszyńskiego 21/13, 31-537 Kraków tel. 12/628 05 12
e-mail: office@libron.pl
Spis treści / Table of Contents
Słowo wstępne / 7 Foreword / 11
Artykuły naukowe / Scientific articles
Beata Webb, Alicia Vallero
Great teaching: models and evaluation / Dobre nauczanie: modele i ich ocena / 17 Beata Webb, Alicia Vallero
What makes good teaching? Students’ view of effective teaching in language and language teacher education programs at a university (primary research) / Co sprawia, że dobrze uczymy? Opinie studentów dotyczące roli efektywnego nauczania w kształceniu przyszłych nauczycieli języków obcych (badania wstępne) / 33 Katarzyna Ożańska-Ponikwia
Positive psychology in the classroom setting from the point of view of the pre-service teachers /
Psychologia pozytywna w odniesieniu do klasy szkolnej z punktu widzenia przyszłych nauczycieli / 49
Małgorzata Zalewska-Bujak
Obraz szkolnych relacji komunikacyjnych nauczyciela z uczniami / An overview of communicative teacher–student interactions / 59 Anna Gaweł-Mirocha
The importance of positive teacher–student relationship in enhancing the social competences of children isolated from their peers / Znaczenie pozytywnych relacji nauczyciel–uczeń w podnoszeniu społecznych kompetencji dzieci izolowanych rówieśniczo / 77 Barbara Somerla
Supporting the process of forming positive relations, communication and dialogue on the basis of the educational package „Kit Box of Secrets” in preschool education / Wspieranie procesu kształtowania pozytywnych relacji, komunikacji i dialogu
na podstawie pakietu edukacyjnego „Kuferek Tajemnic” w edukacji przedszkolnej / 87
Komunikacja niewerbalna jako narzędzie dyscyplinujące uczniów / 105 Andrej Rajsky
"The Secret of Youth" against nihilism of the youth according to Umberto Galimberti /
„Tajemnice młodości” Umberto Galimberti wobec nihilizmu młodzieży / 115 Anita Żytowicz
Emotions and language mediations in the micro-accounts of Polish teenage brokers / Emocje i mediacje językowe w wypowiedziach polskich dzieci wielojęzycznych podejmujących się „brokeringu” / 127
Katarzyna Borawska-Kalbarczyk
Wirtualne środowisko kształcenia w procesie wspierania motywacji do uczenia się / Virtual learning environment in the process of enhancing motivation to learn / 153 Liliya Morska
ESP (English For Specific Purposes) – implications for teaching /
ESP (Specjalistyczny Język Angielski) – implikacje dotyczące nauczania / 165 Radislav Millrood
Going positive about inclusive education in Russia: what is in the way? / Pozytywne przyjęcie edukacji inkluzyjnej w Rosji: co stoi na przeszkodzie? / 177 Radmila Burkovičová
Current innovations in the Czech pre-school education / Innowacje w czeskim szkolnictwie przedszkolnym / 193
Recenzje / Reviews
Zdzisława Janiszewska-Nieścioruk
Recenzja monografii. Rozumieć chaos. Rzecz o terminach i znaczeniach im nadawanych w pedagogice specjalnej autorstwa Sławomira Olszewskiego i Katarzyny Parys / 203
Słowo wstępne
Niniejszy tom Kontekstów Pedagogicznych tworzy zbiór artykułów odno
szących się do metod i technik związanych zarówno z „dobrym nauczaniem”, jak i z procesami komunikacji, które mu towarzyszą. Wierzymy bowiem, że skuteczna komunikacja zarówno w klasie szkolnej, jak i poza nią może mieć duży wpływ na proces uczenia się oraz adaptację i poprawne funkcjonowa
nie w środowisku szkolnym, a co za tym idzie, może istotnie wpłynąć na samopoczucie naszych uczniów. Przedstawiając opinie zarówno nauczycieli, jak i uczniów, postaramy się pokazać, że poprzez tworzenie pozytywnego, mo
tywującego i wspierającego środowiska możemy zapewnić idealne warunki rozwoju naszym uczniom.
Tom 9 Kontekstów Pedagogicznych otwiera artykuł zatytułowany Great teaching: models and evaluation, w którym analizowane są obecne modele nauczania pod kątem fundamentalnych pytań dotyczących istoty same
go procesu nauczania oraz jego głównych elementów składowych. Autorki wspomnianego tekstu przedstawią ciekawą analizę pojęcia dobrego nauczania i jego różnych aspektów, w tym również socjokulturowych.
Drugi artykuł, zatytułowany What makes good teaching? Students’ view of effective teaching in language and language teacher education programs at a uni- versity (primary research), nawiązujący bezpośrednio do jednego z modeli opisanych w pierwszej pracy, przedstawia wyniki dotyczących go badań em
pirycznych. Autorki podsumowują, że w opiniach osób kształcących się na uni
wersytetach trzy elementy: pozytywna atmosfera na zajęciach, jakość nauczania, a także wiedza pedagogiczna oraz merytoryczna, były najczęściej wymieniane jako te, które mają bezpośredni wpływ na efektywne nauczanie i na podstawie których został zaproponowany nowy model „dobrego nauczania”.
Następny z artykułów, zatytułowany Positive psychology in the classroom setting from the point of view of the pre-service teachers, skupia się na aspektach związa
nych z psychologią pozytywną i jej odniesieniem do klasy szkolnej. W próbę
badawczą zaangażowano przyszłych nauczycieli, z którymi przeprowadzono wywiady w celu poznania czynników o kluczowym z ich punktu widzenia zna
czeniu podczas nauczania, jak również dla wyłonienia najważniejszych cech, jakie ich zdaniem powinien posiadać dobry nauczyciel języka obcego. Analiza danych jakościowych wykazała, że większość kategorii wymienionych przez badanych była bezpośrednio związana z psychologią pozytywną.
Zupełnie inna perspektywa została przedstawiona w artykule dotyczącym szkolnych relacji komunikacyjnych nauczyciela z uczniami. Autorka zaznacza, że komunikacja pomiędzy nauczycielem a uczniem wymaga uznania równego statusu osób komunikujących się. Natomiast sytuację przedstawioną w ar
tykule charakteryzuje brak dążenia do porozumienia i ustalania znaczeń we współpracy z uczniami oraz ciągłe wcielanie się w rolę osoby nadającej komu
nikat (zwłaszcza w przypadku transmisji wiedzy metodami podającymi) wraz ze stawianiem młodego człowieka w pozycji jego odbiorcy i nieustannego słuchacza, co wydaje się rzutować negatywnie na wzajemną komunikację.
Konsekwentnie celem następnego artykułu, zatytułowanego The importan- ce of positive teacher–student relationship in enhancing the social competences of children isolated from their peers, jest pokazanie, jak ważne są relacje typu nauczyciel–uczeń. Autorka zauważa, że sposób zwracania się do ucznia czy możliwość zachowania przez niego niezależności w procesie nauczania mogą mieć kluczowy wpływ nie tylko na samych uczniów, ale również na atmosferę panującą w klasie szkolnej.
Kolejny artykuł również odnosi się do tworzenia pozytywnych relacji, komunikacji i dialogu. Jego głównym celem jest ukazanie potencjalnych korzyści płynących z używania pakietu edukacyjnego „Kit Box of Secrets”
w procesie nauczania i edukowania dzieci przedszkolnych, ze szczególnym naciskiem na budowanie podstaw komunikacji, dialogu i kształtowania po
zytywnych relacji.
Siódmy artykuł niniejszego tomu, zatytułowany Non-verbal communication as a tool for disciplining students, obejmuje rozważania dotyczące korzystania z komunikacji niewerbalnej w celu utrzymania dyscypliny podczas procesu nauczania. Mądry i doświadczony nauczyciel może bowiem umiejętnie uży
wać gestów, mimiki lub innych metod niewerbalnych, zachowując jednocześ
nie pozytywną i przyjazną atmosferę w klasie.
Jednakże nawiązanie pozytywnych relacji pomiędzy nauczycielem a uczniem nie zawsze jest łatwe. Istnieje wiele kwestii, których nauczyciele, zwłaszcza uczący młodzież, powinni być świadomi. Artykuł zatytułowany “The Secret
Słowo wstępne / 9
of Youth” against nihilism of the youth according to Umberto Galimberti opisuje i analizuje możliwe symptomy nihilizmu wśród młodzieży, a także proponuje pewne rozwiązania związane z podnoszeniem świadomości nauczycieli oraz ich zaangażowaniem i okazywaniem osobistego zainteresowania uczniami.
Znaczenie emocji i ich związek z procesem komunikacyjnym zostały rów
nież poruszone w bardzo interesującej pracy, zatytułowanej Emotions and lan- guage mediations in the micro-accounts of Polish teenage brokers, która bada emocje towarzyszące dwujęzycznym nastolatkom mieszkającym w Anglii i po
dejmującym się trudnego zadania tłumaczenia dla osób trzecich. Jak wynika z przeprowadzonego badania, komunikacja z użyciem wielu języków, która przebiega poza klasą szkolną, jest procesem bardzo wymagającym i emocjo
nalnym, który może być również źródłem dużej satysfakcji.
Motywowanie naszych uczniów do uczenia się jest jednym z głównych celów nauczycieli. Następny artykuł niniejszego tomu dotyczy nauczania, a przede wszystkim wpływu wirtualnego środowiska uczenia się na motywację do nauki.
Autorka sugeruje, że wykorzystanie technologii cyfrowej w edukacji wspomaga proces uczenia się i jest dobrym sposobem na motywowanie do nauki.
Kolejnym artykułem, w którym przedstawiono kilka istotnych sugestii do
tyczących motywacji i efektywnego nauczania, jest ESP (English For Specific Purposes) – implications for teaching. Poświęcony jest głównie poszukiwaniu
najlepszej metody nauczania specjalistycznego języka angielskiego ukraińskich studentów na podstawie analizy raportów dotyczących ich potrzeb i oczekiwań.
Ostatnie dwa bardzo ważne teksty niniejszego tomu koncentrują się na opiniach nauczycieli dotyczących innowacji wprowadzanych w systemie edu
kacji. Pierwszy z nich, zatytułowany Going positive about inclusive education in Russia: What is in the way?, dotyczy ważnego pojęcia edukacji włączającej.
Badania nad postrzeganiem edukacji integracyjnej w Rosji wykazały bowiem, że jej odbiór jest bardzo pozytywny. Jednocześnie niektórzy z nauczycieli nie do końca podzielają to zdanie i potrzebują wzmocnienia kompetencji zawo
dowych oraz zdobycia większej wiedzy, aby skutecznie radzić sobie z zajęciami integracyjnymi.
Artykuł zamykający publikację, zatytułowany Current Innovations in the Czech Pre-School Education, jest poświęcony opiniom nauczycieli dotyczącym innowacji wprowadzonej przez Czechów w kształceniu przedszkolnym, pole
gającej na umieszczaniu dwulatków w przedszkolnych placówkach oświato
wych. Wyniki badania wykazały, że nauczyciele mający bezpośredni kontakt z wychowywaniem dzieci w wieku dwóch lat zdecydowanie opowiadają się za
nieprzyjmowaniem dwulatków do przedszkoli. Zdaniem Autorki odrzucenie lub przyjęcie dwuletniego dziecka do przedszkola zależy od takich czynni
ków indywidualnych, jak: długość praktyki pedagogicznej, preferowany przez nauczyciela skład klasy wiekowej, cechy osobiste nauczyciela oraz warunki w przedszkolach.
Katarzyna Ożańska-Ponikwia
Foreword
The present volume of the Pedagogical Contexts forms a varied collection that is mostly focused on methods and techniques related to good pedagogy and communication. It is believed that successful communication both in
side and outside of the classroom setting can be of great importance and can influence our students’ wellbeing. While focusing on both teachers’ and stu
dents’ perspectives concerning the very topic, the articles of this volume will try to show that by creating positive, motivating and supportive environment we can create perfect conditions for our students to thrive.
We open the volume with a very interesting paper entitled Great teaching:
models and evaluation that aims to review existing models of teaching and relating to the fundamental questions of what is and what constitutes good pedagogy. The Authors analyse the most important aspects of effective teach
ing while taking into consideration different features of good pedagogy as well as its sociocultural aspects.
The second paper of the volume titled What makes good teaching? Students’
view of effective teaching in language and language teacher education programs at a university (primary research) relates directly to the model presented in the first article and empirically tests its validity. The Authors of the article report that three elements of classroom climate, quality of instruction and pedagogical and content knowledge were the most relevant and significant in the university students’ ratings and based on that propose a new model of good pedagogy framework.
The next article titled Positive psychology in the classroom setting from the point of view of the pre-service teachers also focuses on good teaching practices, but this time from a point of view of preservice teachers who were asked to enumerate some key characteristics of a good teacher as well as the most important things that they feel they should focus on while teaching. Even though the informants of the study have not precisely mentioned positive
psychology while being interviewed, all of their answers could be linked to ex
isting models of positive psychology as they tap directly into some categories like empathy, motivation, perseverance, autonomy, intelligences, character strengths or selfefficacy. They also seem to be aware that creation of the posi
tive classroom climate is of crucial importance when it comes to teaching and motivating their students to learn.
Some slightly different perspective was shown in the next article presenting an overview of communicative interactions between a teacher and learners based on interviews with more experienced teachers. The Author notes that teacherstudent communication requires, among others, a recognition of the equal status for subjects communicating, unhindered expression of thoughts, opinions, attitudes and feelings. However, it is often not the case as teachers maintain the unbalanced model of the communication that highlights teach
ers’ higher status in this relation.
Consequently, the purpose of the article titled The importance of positive teacher-student relationship in enhancing the social competences of children iso- lated from their peers was to show the importance of proper teacherstudent relationships. The Author points out that the way the teacher talks to the child and whether they allow the student to be authentic and independent can have a substantial influence on the classroom climate.
The next article also relates to the notion of establishing positive relationship, communication and dialogue. Its main purpose is to show the potential benefits of using an educational package “Kit Box of Secrets” in the process of teaching and educating kindergarten children, with particular emphasis on building the foundations of communication, dialogue and forming positive relations.
The seventh article of the volume titled Non-verbal communication as a tool for disciplining students includes considerations on how to use nonverbal communi
cation in order to maintain discipline during the learning process. Wise and expe
rienced teacher can skillfully use gestures, facial expressions and other nonverbal methods while maintaining positive and nonthreatening classroom atmosphere.
However, establishing this positive teacherstudent rapport might not al
ways be easy as there are many issues that teachers should be aware of, espe
cially while teaching adolescent students. The article entitled The Secret of Youth Against Nihilism of the Youth According to Umberto Galimberti describes and analyses possible symptoms of the nihilism among the youth as well as some possible solutions to overcome it by both raising our awareness of the problem and showing more personal interest in our students.
Foreword / 13
The importance of the emotionality and its relation to the communication process was also addressed in another very interesting article of the volume entitled Emotions and language mediations in the micro-accounts of Polish teen- age brokers that researched which emotions were experienced by bilingual Polish teenagers when undertaking the strenuous task of translating for third parties. Apparently, communication outside of the classroom setting while using different languages is a very emotionally loaded task that can be very demanding but also very rewarding at the same time.
Motivating our students to learn is one of teachers’ major goals. The next paper of the volume relates to teaching while highlighting the value of the virtual learning environment in terms of enhancing motivation for learn
ing. The Author suggests that the use of digital technology in education sup
ports the learning process and is a good way to build positive motivation to learn.
Another article that presented some important implications for successful teaching was titled ESP (English For Specific Purposes) – Implications For Teaching and focused on finding the best method of teaching ESP to the Ukrainian stu
dents based on the analyses of the reports concerning their needs and expectations.
Last but not least, there are two very important articles focusing on the teacher’s perspectives concerning innovations in the educational system.
The first one titled Going positive about inclusive education in Russia: What is in the way? addresses an important notion of the inclusive education. The research into the perception of inclusive education in Russia has shown that there exists a culturally consistent positive view on the idea. At the same time, some teachers still need to strengthen their professional competence and gain more experience in order to successfully deal with the inclusive classes.
The last article of the volume titled Current Innovations in the Czech Pre- School Education focuses on teachers’ perceptions concerning innovations implemented in the Czech preschool education related to placing of two
yearold children in preschool education facilities. The results of the study showed that teachers with direct experiences with educating twoyearold children clearly indicate that twoyearold children should not to be accepted to kindergartens. According to the Author, the rejection or acceptance of a twoyearold child to kindergarten depends on factors like: one’s length of teaching practice, the teacher’s preferred class age composition, teachers’
personal qualities, conditions at their kindergartens.
Katarzyna Ożańska-Ponikwia
Artykuły naukowe
Scientific articles
Beata Webb, Alicia Vallero
bwebb@bond.edu.au
Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia
Great teaching: models and evaluation
1. Great teaching: introduction
While examining the recent findings and concepts addressed in research on good teaching, many topics delineate the wide field of research into this subject matter. Coe et al.’s (2014) paper presents a most comprehensive study of evaluating teaching, frameworks used for its evaluation, best teach
ing practices and the widespread myths about what constitutes good teaching.
Another issue investigated in relation to good teaching has been increased accountability of teachers (Kornell & Hausman, 2016). Many researchers also explore different aspects of best teaching practices (Duke, 2012; Harmer, 2014; Grant et al., 2014). The quality of teaching has been the centre of at
tention of teacher education and much research also investigates the best ways of training teachers (Strong, Gargani & Hacifazlioglu, 2011; Harmer, 2014).
Another matter addressed by professional literature is the development and application of teaching standards (NCTQ Teacher Prep Review Standards and Indicators Traditional Teacher Preparation Program Standards, 2017;
Hamre, Goffin & KraftSayre, 2009).
One of the questions raised by recent research into teaching was a sim
ple query: ‘do teachers make a difference?’. Research on the value of teach
ing, on direct versus indirect instruction and the importance of teachers in the teaching and learning processes demonstrates that, indeed, teachers play a very important role in student learning (Ellis, 1993; Ellis, 2015; Kirsh
chner, Sweller & Clark, 2006; Klionsky, 2005; Mayer, 2004; Vallero, 2014,
Konteksty Pedagogiczne 2(9)/2017, s. 17–31 doi: 10.19265/KP.2017.02917 www.kontekstypedagogiczne.pl
MalczewskaWebb, Vallero, King & Hunter, 2016). Stillings Candal’s (2015) review of teachers’ role in student achievement shows that teachers’ impact on student achievement is stronger than that of any other teaching resource.
In other words, teachers can have a positive impact on student learning even if other resources are not available. Based on research into the importance of teaching, the answer to this seemingly obvious question is that teachers do make a difference, which makes research into the quality of and the elements of good teaching vital.
As research underlines the importance of good pedagogy, several important questions need to be addressed. The first and the most fundamental questions are how to define good pedagogy and what constitutes it. According to Coe et al. (2014), the answers to these seemingly simple questions are not simple at all, nor are they agreed by educators. Coe et al.’s (2014) examination of teaching practices promoted by various professional authors and bodies sug
gests that many educators do not share the same views. Moreover, many share popular beliefs which are erroneously promoted as useful for learners but which, in fact, are not always correct and have little or no supporting research foundation. This may lead to propagating pedagogies and strategies which are no longer considered effective (Coe et al., 2014; Strong et al., 2011; Hamre et al., 2009). Consequently, however, the answer to the question ‘what is good pedagogy?’ is not only complex but it is often controversial.
2. Project methodology: aims and sample selection
At Bond University, teaching is evaluated in a number of ways. The prin
cipal method of evaluating teaching is applying the Teaching Evaluation tool (TEVAL), a procedure which offers students an opportunity to provide feed
back on teaching every time the subject is offered. The data collected from student ratings provides individual feedback to teachers, however, there is no existing framework which would provide information concerning students’
overall perception of what constitutes good pedagogy.
The main aim of the current project is to define a framework of good uni
versity teaching which can be applied in examining data collected from stu
dent ratings of their university programs and their teachers. Two other aims have been formulated to assist in achieving the main aim, second, to examine tools for measuring great teaching and third, to evaluate existing frameworks of great teaching.
Great teaching: models and evaluation / 19
In order to determine the workable framework which includes the most relevant aspects contributing to best teaching, the sample consisting of the following seven recently formulated models defining good teaching were se
lected for analysis:
1. Features of great teachers (Feinberg & Levin in Chubb, 2012).
2. Teaching standards in teacher preparation in the USA website (2017).
3. West meets East: great teachers (Grant et al., 2014).
4. Key considerations in shaping good teaching practice (Flinders Uni
versity website, 2017).
5. Bond University’s Features of Good Educators: Teacher Evaluation, student ratings model (Bond University website, 2017).
6. The dynamic model of educational effectiveness (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2006).
7. Six components of great teaching (Coe et al., 2014).
These frameworks were evaluated from a perspective of their suitability at measuring data collected from student ratings at Bond University.
These models of good pedagogy were compared to define a framework which can work as a tool for evaluating teaching using data from student ratings.
The framework, formulated on the basis of this evaluative procedure,intended, on the one hand, to reflect the most relevant aspects contributing to good teaching as reflected by recent research and, on the other, to measure data collated from student ratings.
3. Definitions and tools for measuring the quality of teaching
This section first examines some definitions of great teaching and then it looks into tools for measuring it. Although definitions of what constitutes good teaching focus on different aspects of it, such as influencing student progress or details of what teachers should aim at, they all demonstrate many similarities. For example, Coe at al. (2014, p. 2) define great teaching as “the teaching which leads to improved student progress” while Chubb (2012) be
lieves that good teaching practice helps every student succeed. The Flinders University description of good teaching practice considers it as “a key influ
ence on student learning – a desired outcome and primary goal of higher edu
cational institutions. Teachers strive to meet the principles of good practice in an effort to provide the best learning experience for their students” (Flinders University, 2017). As demonstrated by the three examples, definitions of great
teaching consistently include references to successful student learning and also underline the important influence of teaching over good learning. Conse
quently, good teaching is intrinsically related to good learning and, therefore, the evaluation of good teaching plays a salient role in ensuring good learning.
Considering the research view, which underlines the importance of teach
ing, the next issue which needs addressing is the examination of tools meas
uring the quality of teaching. Chubb (2012) and Coe et al. (2014) provide an overview of the validity of tools measuring the quality of teaching. They confirm that the process of evaluating teaching is very complex and there is not one specific tool which would guarantee the highest validity of the results.
They, however, classify the existing tools into two categories: those ensuring the moderate validity (which they claim is the highest)and other tools which offer very limited validity of the results. The first category contains the follow
ing three tools: (1) classroom observations by peers, bosses and external evalu
ators, (2) ‘valueadded’ models (assessing gains in student achievement) and (3) student ratings. The cluster of tools which, for various reasons concerning subjectivity, only offer limited validity include (4) boss’s judgment, (5) teach
er selfreports and (6) analysis of teacher portfolios (Chubb, 2012; Coe et al., 2014). Accordingly, students’ ratings are considered to be one of the best ways of evaluating teaching, with moderate (the highest in the context) validity.
Asthe focus of this project is evaluating teaching using student ratings, some of the advantages of using this measuring tool are outlined next. Chubb (2012) and Coe et al. (2014) state that student ratings usually require mini
mal training, they are also costeffective and research provides evidence for their reliability and validity. Many institutions, such as Bond University, have included student ratings of subjects and teachers as a regular measure of teaching evaluation. Also, many students base their observations on evaluat
ing many lessons, which means that the data comes from a wide range of observers and the experience is drawn from many examples of teaching. In particular, student ratings have been recognized as valuable in higher educa
tion and less information or research outcomes are available from other levels of education. These advantages in using student ratings for the evaluation of teaching make them one of the more effective and valuable tools for measur
ing teaching quality (Coe et al., 2014). The next part of the paper compares and evaluates the frameworks employed for measuring teacher quality.
Great teaching: models and evaluation / 21
4. Models of good pedagogy: review of frameworks and their elements
This part examines seven international, recent and current models describ
ing good teaching and its important elements. The models underpin the most important aspects of effective teaching and they take into consideration features of good pedagogy, its sociocultural aspects and features warranting teaching to be considered of high quality. The models under review include a wide range of educational aspects. The first four take into consideration (1) features of great teaching (Feinberg & Levin in Chubb, 2012), (2) teach
ing standards for the USA teacher preparation, (3) cultural aspects of teaching (Grant et al., 2014) and (4) the model of educational effectiveness developed by Creemers and Kyriakides (2006). The next three models proved to be the most relevant to the current project. These include (5) the key consid
erations in shaping good teaching practice defined by Flinders University (2017), (6) Bond University’s definition of features of good educators used for student ratings (2017) and (7) Coe et al.’s (2014) model which consists of six components of great teaching. Next, the seven models of teaching are presented in more detail.
The first model, presented by Feinberg and Levin (Chubb, 2012), outlines six features of great educators. They (Feinberg & Levin in Chubb, 2012) be
lieve that good teachers need to be willing to invest time into teaching which goes beyond the expectations of the traditional school year. Other facets of a good teacher are the ability to engage the help from the families and assist
ing students in believing in themselves by instigating high expectations. The ability to promote student commitment and student engagement were also the attributes of a great teacher. The last feature refers to promoting students’
hard work through effective classroom management (Feinberg & Levin in Chubb, 2012). While the model includes very important features of good teaching, many aspects, such as involvement of families or classroom man
agement, are more suitable for addressing the needs of good teaching in the primary and secondary school systems.
The second model of good teaching describes the teaching standards in teacher preparation for teachers in the United States of America (http://www.
nctq.org/dmsView/NCTQ Standards_and_Indicators__Traditional_Pro
grams). This current set of standards demonstrates a very detailed and com
plex system, including many items on the teaching contents list and many other relevant aspects contributing to good teaching. The content of teaching
covers themes in literacy, numeracy, special education, sciences and social sciences. The standards also consider many other factors contributing to good teaching such as classroom management, instruction, assessment and student data management, equity, special education, results from state tests and the level of expectations determined by the teachers. This model, al
though very useful in evaluating teacher training, is designed for the evalu
ation from a much broader perspective than the one aimed in this project, students’ ratings.
In another very interesting framework, Grant et al. (2014) propose the four elements which can be established differently depending on different cultural educational philosophies, one representing the western and the other representing the eastern educational philosophy. One of the reasons for this choice is the fact that the Australian educational system is richly internation
alised and interculturality is the salient feature of teacher training. Moreover, EastAsian students form a very significant cohort in Australian educational institutions (MalczewskaWebb, 2016; Webb, 2015). This model of good teaching stresses the importance of building positive relationships, of foster
ing teacher responsibility, of engaging in professional development and prac
ticing the continual selfreflection as crucial aspects of great teaching (Grant et al., 2014). The reason for not considering this framework as appropriate for this project, despite its valuable intercultural and educational perspective, is the fact that the model views good teaching from the teacher viewpoint, con
sidering what teachers can or should do in order to be effective. As such, this model is not suitable to analyse the data from the student ratings as students would not always be informed of these teacher practices or philosophies. Con
sequently, it is another example of a very useful teaching framework which, however, does not address the needs of the current project.
Creemers and Kyriakides (2006, in: Coe et al., 2014) outline the fourth interesting framework which underlines the importance of eight domains determining teacher effectiveness. The first one, (1) orientation, addresses issues of setting teaching objectives and the reasons for learning activity. The second one, (2) structuring, refers to the structuring of teaching and lessons.
The remaining elements include (3) the quality of questioning, (4) teach
ing modelling, (5) application, (6) the classroom as a learning environment, (7) management of time and (8) assessment. Creemers and Kyriakides’ model (2006, in: Coe et al., 2014), referred to as the dynamic model of educational effectiveness, provides an excellent comprehensive framework which evaluates
Great teaching: models and evaluation / 23
teaching from many different angles. Some of these elements, such as teaching modelling or quality of questioning, however, cannot be addressed through student ratings and, therefore, this comprehensive model has not been se
lected for the purposes of this project.
The fifth model, selected for its excellent content and its contextual rel
evance, was formulated by an Australian university in Adelaide, Flinders Uni
versity (Flinders University, 2017). It presents seven key considerations in shaping good teaching practice. The first two propose that teachers need to encourage good communication between teachers and learners and among learners. Next, it is suggested that teachers should provide opportunities for active participation and timely and appropriate response and feedback. The model puts emphasis on time spent on task and on motivating learning by communicating expectations. Finally, the framework points to the impor
tance of expecting diverse talents and ways of learning (Flinders University, 2017). The elements of the Flinders framework address many of the contex
tual requirements which apply to the Bond University context. Some aspects of the model have, therefore, been taken into consideration while formulating the model of good teaching in this project.
Next, the sixth model is considered for its immediate relevance to the project as it lists good teacher attributes used in the student ratings of teacher and subject quality at Bond University (Bond University, 2017). The model contains ten detailed features of good teaching which students use for rating a teacher every time they enroll in a subject. The ten points are formulated from the perspective of a student and they represent student view of the edu
cator demonstrating a wide range of attributes. Some of these features refer to the strategic classroom practices such as defining clear expectations, managing time well, providing constructive feedback or being able to clarify or explain difficult concepts. Other features refer to the more subjective student views and they refer to the ability of a teacher to make a subject interesting, to be respectful to the students, to challenge them and show them enthusiasm for the subject. The final feature of good teachers is their effectiveness in teaching a particular subject (Bond University, 2017).
The seventh model of good teaching, developed by Coe and his colleagues (Coe et al., 2014), consists of six elements of good teaching which incorpo
rate many of the detailed features of the previously examined frameworks.
These elements include (1) pedagogical and content knowledge, (2) quality of instruction, (3) classroom climate and (4) management, (5) teacher beliefs
about teaching and (6) professional behaviours in and outside the classroom.
These six aspects of effective teaching offer a uniquely universal framework which can be easily employed in a variety of educational contexts.
Accordingly, Coe et al.’s (2014) effective teaching model offers many features which make it flexible and adaptable to the needs of the current project. First, it has ‘a research advantage’, which refers to the fact that it is based on comprehen
sive research into recent teaching models undertaken by its authors (Coe et al., 2014). Next, the carefully structured elements of teaching offer a universal framework which can be accommodated to a diversity of educational contexts.
Finally, the elements are designed to be broad enough to incorporate many detailed features which were recognized as valuable in the previous models.
To sum up, the fourth section has analysed seven different models of ef
fective teaching representing different teaching approaches and educational contexts. The three last models have been selected as prototypes for develop
ing the model of effective teaching which could be employed to evaluate teaching based on data from university student ratings. The three prototypes include the Bond University (2017) criteria of good teaching, the Flinders University aspects of effective teaching (2017) and Coe et al.’s (2014) model of good pedagogy. The next stage of the project aims to develop a universal framework of effective teaching based on data from university student ratings.
5. The framework of good teaching from a student perspective at an Australian university
This part focuses on developing the framework of good teaching using uni
versity students’ ratings. As previously stated, three models have been selected to form the basis for developing the Bond University teaching framework. Coe et al.’s (2014) model was chosen as it is based on a comprehensive review of recent models and is a result of the comparative research of teaching frame
works. Flinders University (2017) model provides an example and context of an Australian higher education institution. The data from the Bond University Teaching Evaluation (TEVAL) of best educator practices includes the most rel
evant set of criteria as the project aims to develop a framework for evaluation of university teaching at Bond University. First, the three selected prototypes will be collated and the criteria and the elements compared. Next, the section aims to design a framework of effective teaching at a university based on student ratings, which incorporates the three selected prototypical models.
Great teaching: models and evaluation / 25
Table 5.1 below presents the first four elements of Coe’s Framework of good teaching with the incorporation of the Bond University and Flinders University good teaching criteria.
Table 5.1
Coe et al. Flinders University Bond University
1. Pedagogical and content
knowledge 1. Respecting diverse talents and ways
of learning (as in 3) The educator is able to clarify or ex- plain difficult concepts.
2. Quality of instruction
1. Providing opportunities for active participation.
2. Motivating learning by communi- cating expectations.
3. Timely and appropriate response and feedback.
1. The educator challenges me to do my best.
2. The educator provides constructive feedback.
3. The educator provides timely feed- back.
4. Overall this educator is effective in this subject.
3. Classroom climate
1. Encouraging good communication between teachers and learners.
2. Encouraging interaction among learners.
3. Respecting diverse talents and ways of learning (as in 1).
1. The educator defines expectations clearly.
2. The educator treats students in a respectful manner.
3. The educator shows enthusiasm for this subject.
4. Classroom management n/a The educator manages the allotted time effectively.
5.Teacher beliefs about teaching n/a n/a
6. Professional behaviours in and
outside the classroom n/a n/a
Source: own source.
The above table presents the integration of the three models into one, with Coe et al.’s Model (2014) providing the overarching structure. The first ele
ment of the model, (1) pedagogical and content knowledge, refers to the teacher’s knowledge of the subject content and to the knowledge of how stu
dents think about that content. In other words, this element refers to the sub
ject matter expertise and the ability to pass this on to the learners, with the ability to predict, for example, the points of difficulty. The Flinders University framework provides an important example proposing that good teachers need to respect diverse talents and ways of learning, as their diverse educational backgrounds will influence the ways with which they view and learn the sub
ject content. Bond University framework also recognises the importance of
this aspect of good teaching and the students are asked to evaluate teacher’s ability to explain difficult concepts. The first element of Coe et al.’s model (Coe et al., 2014), pedagogical and content knowledge, offers a specific but broad category of effective teaching and has been adopted as the first element of the great teaching from university student perspective framework.
The second element of good teaching, the quality of instruction, refers to pedagogical practices which ensure the high quality of delivering the content.
This element of Coe et al.’s (2014) model includes the practices and proce
dures of assessment, effective questioning, and specific good teaching prac
tices such as reviewing previous learning, providing model responses for stu
dents and other scaffolding practices. Quality of instruction is also significant in the Bond University and Flinders University frameworks, which underline the importance of providing appropriate and timely feedback and communi
cating clear expectations (Bond University website, 2017; Flinders University website, 2017). Flinders University (2017) model also promotes opportuni
ties for active participation and Bond University stresses the overall effective
ness of the educator in a particular subject. This category is also reflected in the Bond University good educator model. Similarly to the first element, Coe et al.’s (2014) second element of effective teaching model, quality of instruction, encompasses the detailed practices suggested by both universities and offers a broader view of this domain of effective teaching. Consequently, quality of instruction is the second category adopted for the framework of the effective teaching from a university student perspective.
The next element in Coe et al.’s (2014) framework which incorporates the aspects of effective teaching proposed by Bond and Flinders Universities frameworks is (3) classroom climate. Coe et al. (2014) include the following aspects of teaching in this category: quality of interactions between teachers and students, teacher expectations which show the teachers continue to de
mand more but also recognise students’ selfworth, attributing student suc
cess to effort and not only ability and putting value to student resilience to failure. The value of good and respectful communication, between teachers and learners and among learners, is also reflected in the Bond and Flinders Universities frameworks. Bond framework additionally refers to the feature of demand by stating the importance of students being challenged and, ad
ditionally, stressing the importance of the educator showing enthusiasm for the subject. Accordingly, classroom climate, the third element of good teach
ing as defined by Coe et al. (2014), covers the aspects of teaching which are
Great teaching: models and evaluation / 27
harder to measure but which are critical in effective teaching. They are ‘the soft aspects of pedagogy’, which provide the affective scaffolding for learners.
The fourth element of Coe et al.’s (2014) framework is classroom manage
ment, which refers to the way a teacher manages the organizational aspects of a lesson or a program. The effective classroom management ensures that teachers are able to organise their work in the way which maximises learning.
The essentials which teachers must be able to manage include the use of lesson and program time, classroom resources, space and the behaviour of learners.
The Bond University criteria also reflect the importance of this aspect of good teaching and students are asked to evaluate the effectiveness of the way the educator uses the allotted time.
The fifth and the sixth elements of Coe et al.’s (2014) framework include teacher beliefs and professional behaviours. The category of teacher beliefs concerns the theoretical rationale for teachers in making decision about what specific strategies to employ in order to achieve their pedagogical aims. It refers to teachers’ belief system about various conceptual theories and models of learning and teaching. While the teacher belief system is the ‘pedagogy within’, the sixth element is what teachers do, or should do, to become good teachers and to maintain their professional standing. The sixth element of professional behaviours in and outside the classroom refers to activities such as teacher participation in professional development and/or successful and supportive communication with others involved in the teaching and learn
ing process, including colleagues and parents. Although both elements form a very important aspect of teachers’ work, they are not reflected in the Bond University or Flinders University frameworks. Perhaps, it is difficult or even impossible for university students to assess teacher belief systems and profes
sional behaviours as they may not have access to information about either of these two elements.
This difficulty in accessing information by students is also reflected in the evaluation of the impact on student outcomes of the six elements of Coe et al.’s (2014) framework. According to Coe et al. (2014), the last two ele
ments of the model, (5) teacher beliefs about teaching and (6) professional behaviours in and outside the classroom are the two elements of the teaching model which have weak impact on student outcomes. While research suggests (Coe et al., 2014) that (3) classroom climate and (4) classroom management have a moderate impact on the student outcomes, (1) pedagogical and con
tent knowledge and (2) the quality of instruction are rated the highest, with
a suggested ‘strong’ effect on learner success. Consequently, while research proposes the importance of the six elements building the model for good teaching suggested by Coe et al. (2014), the importance of these six founda
tions of effective teaching varies.
Having examined seven frameworks of good pedagogy, this paper proposes the selection of Coe et al.’s (2014) model as the most suitable for the purpose of this project. The model, based on comprehensive research, offers a flexible structure which can be employed in evaluating teaching by means of univer
sity student ratings. Additionally, the model offers a comprehensive list of criteria for evaluation, particularly after merging it with the two frameworks from Bond University and Flinders University.
6. Conclusions
To conclude, this paper has examined the definitions of good pedagogy and issues related to its formulation. While the concept seems obvious, phi
losophies of the effective teaching vary and many propose strategies which are either unsupported by research or, furthermore, are recognised by recent research as ineffective. The paper compared six models and the components of good teaching, in attempt to determine the best model to be suitable for evaluating teaching within a university context, which can be informed by student ratings. Coe et al. (2014) model was selected as it addressed these criteria best. The model includes six principal elements of effective teach
ing. These elements comprised pedagogical and content knowledge, qual
ity of instruction, classroom climate, classroom management, teacher beliefs about teaching and professional behaviours in and outside the classroom.
The six components of good teaching are proposed to have different impact on student outcomes, with the pedagogical and content knowledge and the quality of instruction suggested to have the strongest influence on student success. The selection of a workable theoretical framework of good teaching, which can be informed by student ratings, forms an important first step in the project aiming to formulate and test the model through the application of data from student ratings. The next step, which is beyond the scope of this paper, is to test the suitability of the framework in order to determine the most important aspects of good teaching for university students, and design the good pedagogy framework which allows for the evaluating good teaching using university student ratings.
Great teaching: models and evaluation / 29
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Great teaching: models and evaluation
Summary: What constitutes good teaching has been at the focus of theories of pedagogy for thousands of years. However, recent research (Coe, Aloisi, Higgins
& Major, 2014; Kornell & Hausman, 2016; Duke, 2012; Harmer, 2014; Grant, Stronge & Xu, 2014; Strong, Gargani & Hacifazlioglu, 2011; Hamre, Goffin
& KraftSayre, 2009) suggests that this seemingly mature and wellresearched concept needs to be reexamined in view of the burgeoning research in the field.
Coe et al. (2014) propose that recent research into best teaching practices brings up questions about elements of good teaching and ways of measuring it. The issue of evaluating teaching attempts to answer these seemingly obvious ques
tions about what makes good teaching. This paper aims to address some of these
Great teaching: models and evaluation / 31 questions. First, it examines the concepts of good teaching and the aspects which need to be considered in its evaluation. Next, it explores the frameworks deter
mining good teaching which are delineated for different research and/or institu
tional needs. Based on the evaluation of these frameworks, the paper proposes a model for a specific set of needs of evaluating teaching from a student perspec
tive at an Australian university.
Keywords: good teaching model, evaluation, frameworks, best teaching practices
Dobre nauczanie: modele i ich ocena
Streszczenie: To, czym jest dobre nauczanie, leży w centrum zainteresowań pe
dagogiki od tysiącleci. Jednakże ostatnie badania (Coe, Aloisi, Higgins i Major, 2014, Kornell i Hausman, 2016, Duke, 2012, Harmer, 2014, Grant, Stronge i Xu, 2014; Silny, Gargani i Hacifazlioglu, 2011; Hamre, Goffin i Kraft Sayre, 2009) sugerują, że ta pozornie dojrzała i dobrze zbadana dziedzina musi zostać ponownie empirycznie przeanalizowana. Coe i in. (2014) sugerują, że ostatnie badania nad najlepszymi praktykami pedagogicznymi stawiają pytania zarówno o elementy dobrego nauczania, jak i o sposoby jego pomiaru. Przeprowadzona ewaluacja próbuje odpowiedzieć na te pozornie oczywiste pytania o to, co tak naprawdę sprawia, że nauczanie jest dobre. Niniejszy artykuł ma na celu znalezie
nie odpowiedzi na niektóre z tych pytań. Po pierwsze, przedstawiona jest w nim analiza pojęcia dobrego nauczania i jego różnych aspektów, które należy wziąć pod uwagę podczas oceny. Po niej następują wyniki badawczych poszukiwań po
święconych wyznacznikom dobrego nauczania skoncentrowanym wokół różnych badawczych i/lub instytucjonalnych potrzeb, by ostatecznie w oparciu o ocenę ram określających dobre nauczanie zaproponowany został model potrzeb ewalu
acji nauczania z perspektywy australijskiego studenta.
Słowa kluczowe: model dobrego nauczania, ocena, ramy określające dobre na
uczanie, najlepsze praktyki pedagogiczne
Beata Webb, Alicia Vallero
bwebb@bond.edu.au
Bond University, Gold Coast, Australia
What makes good teaching? Students’ view of effective teaching in language and language teacher education programs
at a university (primary research)
1. Introduction
How do we define ‘good pedagogy’? Recent research (Hattie, 2008;
2012; Coe, Aloisi, Higgins & Major, 2014; Vallero, 2014; Webb & Val
lero, 2017; Kornell & Hausman, 2016; Duke, 2012; Harmer, 2014; Grant, 2014; Strong, Gargani & Hacifazlioglu, 2011; Hamre, Goffin & Kraft
Sayre, 2009; Stillings Candal, 2015; MalczewskaWebb, Vallero, King
& Hunter, 2016) suggests that, while the question itself is neither original nor new, the answer to it, however, is both dynamic and complex. This paper forms part of a project examining great teaching, its recent research
based models and their elements (Webb & Vallero, 2017). The project aims to define a workable model of good pedagogy for the purpose of evaluation of university teaching based on student ratings. First, the paper reviews definitions of effective teaching and ways of measuring it. Next, the meth
odology of the project, its aims, sample and research methods are addressed.
Then, the model of good pedagogy selected for its suitability for evaluation by university student ratings is introduced (Webb & Vallero, 2017). The next part of the study examines data from student evaluation of university subjects to determine the elements of good pedagogy most relevant to the learners in that particular educational context. Finally, the paper proposes
Konteksty Pedagogiczne 2(9)/2017, s. 33–48 doi: 10.19265/KP.2017.02933 www.kontekstypedagogiczne.pl
a new model for the purpose of evaluation of good university teaching based on student ratings.
2. Great teaching: definitions, its elements and how to measure it
This section examines some recent definitions of good teaching and tools for its measurement. Three recent definitions have been reviewed to deter
mine the overarching focus of great teaching. According to Coe et al. (2014), the most important element of effective pedagogy is that it leads to improved student progress. Chubb’s (2012) definition points to a very similar aspect of good teaching, referring to it as the practice which helps every student succeed. Similarly, Flinders University website’s description of good teach
ing (Good Teaching Practice, 2017) defines it as a result of teachers’ strive to provide the best learning experience for their learners. All of the above state
ments of good teaching share the principle that good teaching is about good learning. Each of these recent definitions of good pedagogy stresses the fact that what makes pedagogy ‘good’ is the positive effect on learning, on student outcomes and the ultimate student success.
As evaluating teaching is a very complex and difficult task, the best way to evaluate it is through a wide range of methods. These methods vary in their validity (Chubb, 2012; Coe et al., 2014). The methods considered as having moderate (the highest rating) validity in evaluating teaching include (1) classroom observations by peers, bosses and external evaluators, (2) ‘value
added’ models (assessing gains in student achievement) and (3) student rat
ings. These rate higher than the methods considered to have limited validity such as (4) boss’s judgment, (5) teacher selfreports and (6) analysis of teacher portfolios. Accordingly, student ratings are considered to be one of the most effective, moderately valid methods in evaluating teaching, with a stronger validity in university settings.
Coe et al. (2014) present several arguments supporting student ratings as a valid source of data for evaluating good pedagogy. First, this method requires minimal training and is costeffective, valid and reliable. Second, it involves a wide range of participants who draw their observations from the experience of many lessons. Additionally, the validity of student ratings in
creases in a university context, where the evaluators are adults with prior rich educational experience.
