Legal consequences of emancipation by marriage

Ewa Bieniek

Legal consequences of emancipation

by marriage

Studia Prawnoustrojowe nr 16, 17-31

2012

Ew a Bieniek

K ated ra P raw a Cywilnego

Wydział P raw a i A dm inistracji UWM

Legal consequences of emancipation

by marriage

S u b ject sco p e

Age is m easurable and associates n a tu ra l tran sform atio ns occurring in a h u m an being (nam ely: biological, intellectual, em otional as well as moral). The legislator reg ulates age lim its which dem arcate th e rig h t of individual subjects and respectively cause application of disp arate rules. There do exist individual inconsistencies in the process of growing up which resu lt from influences of genetic, social, economic and civilization factors effecting an individual1. Age lim its supported by th e legislator stem from a deluge of sociological research and historical experiences w hich despite th e ir m uch “artificial” n a tu re aim to provide law and order.

Age lim it is enacted in Polish Civil Code by th e legislator, (Law dated 23r d April 1964, J o u rn a l of Law 1964, no. 16, item 93 including following am endm ents, to be h e re in after referred to as PCC), establishin g th a t m ajori­ ty shall be a ttrib u ta b le to one upon reaching eighteen y ears of age (as stip u lated in Article 10 of th e aforem entioned PCC). A m ajor is a full-legal age a d u lt2, therefore assum ed to be in dependent and freely capable to decide for oneself a nd as such fully and completely liable for civil-law consequences of one’s own conduct and acting.

In compliance w ith the regulation defined in Polish Fam ily and G uar­ dianship Code Article 10 § 1 (Law dated 25t h F eb ru ary 1964 - Fam ily and G uard ianship Code, J o u rn a l of Law 1964, no. 9, item 59 including following am endm ents, to be h e re in after referred to as Fam ily and G uardianship Code) m atrim ony m ay be concluded by an individual upon reaching 18 years of age, hence becoming a major. U nder ex trao rd in ary circum stances, age

1 G. R d zan ek -P iw o w a r, N ie le tn o ść i j e j g ra n ice, W a rsz a w a 1993, pp. 115-136.

2 R u lin g d a te d 3.12.1993 b y S u p rem e A d m in istrativ e C o u rt in th e city of P o z n a ń R uling R eg istry no. SA/Po 1931/Pa (en acted u n til 31.12.2003) Q uote: T erm “a d u lt” w ith in th e m ea n in g of A rticle 43 of th e F am ily a n d G u a rd ian sh ip Code b e a rs th e sam e m ea n in g a s th e te rm “m ajo r” w ith in th e m ean in g A rticle 10 § 1 of th e Civil Code. Suprem e A dm inidtrative C ourt R uling 1995/2/53.

18 E w a B ie n iek

capacity to conclude an act of m atrim ony needs not be unanim ous in m ajori­ ty3. However, PCC regulations prem ise a likelihood of m atrim ony conclusion

by a m inor due to crucial causes and upon being g ran te d court consent to do so only. In o ther E a ste r and C en tral Europe countries th e age of m ajority is also eighteen (only in A lbania th e legal age of m ajority is foureen y ears4) w ith some exceptions w hen em ancipation tak es place. G enerally th e m a rria ­ geable age is also 18, b u t u n d e r special circum stances some countries provi­ de a possibility to contract a m arriage by m inors.

The debate concerning th e issue of a tta in in g m ajority in an ex trao rd in a­ ry course of events is p rim arily focused on th e complexity involved in an individual’s civil-law liability range, causes and circum stances of g ranting court’s consent to conclude m atrim ony, loss and m aintenance of m ajority in case of m atrim ony an nulatio ns (nevertheless, th e L egislator clearly sta te d in Article 10 § 2 of the aforem entioned PCC w h at follows: “an individual shall not be denied m ajority on th e grounds of m atrim ony an n u la tio n s” and th e re ­ fore shall face full civil-law liability resu ltin g from conclusion of m atrim ony as it h ad been stip u lated in Article 10 § 2 of the aforem entioned PCC (w hereby a m inor irrespective of one’s age has concluded a law fully binding act of m atrim ony). All of th e above issues h a d alread y been adequately addressed in subject-relevant literatu re.

On th e grounds of th e effective regulations in force, it m ay seem to be plausible to perform extensive deliberations on functionality and application of th e term s such as m ajority and a tta in in g 18 y ears of age. The stud y has been m ainly presented according to Polish regulations.

A tta in in g m a jo rity u n d e r e x tr a o r d in a r y c o u r se o f e v e n ts

In Articles 10-15 of th e Fam ily and G uardiansh ip Code, th e Legislator am ong b a rriers constraining conclusion of m atrim ony act such as m en tal disease, bigam y and/or consanguinity, also indicates lack of m ajority as its negative evidence. R atio legis of establish ing an age lim it e n titlin g to conclu­ de m atrim ony arises m ost of all due to p a rticu la r necessity of th e betro thed spouses to a tta in biological, physical and psychological, and m oreover social m a tu rity (the form er form ing a p a rticu la r capacity to e n te r into m atrim ony). In oth er words, such m a tu rity m eans an aw areness of th e consequences arising from e n terin g into a form al an d lastin g wedlock w ith an o th er indivi­ dual as well as a capacity to m ake conscious an d reasonable decisions reg a r­

3 T. S m y czy ń sk i (ed.), S y s te m p r a w a p ryw a tn eg o . P ra w o ro d z in n e i opieku ń cze, W arszaw a 2 009, p. 148.

4 N a tio n a l L aw s, L eg isla tio n o f In ter p o l m em b er s ta te s on sexu a l offences a g a in s t children,

A lb a n ia - A lb a n ie - A lb a n ia (T irana), a v a ila b le a t <h ttp ://w w w .in te rp o l.in t/P u b lic/C h ild re n /S e -

ding one’s own v ital affairs5. Sim ultaneously, the legislator failed to indicate

top lim it age of the b etro thed spouses, hence allowing for full freedom in the aforem entioned m a tte r for th e p a rties involved6. This p a rticu la r stipulation

allows to draw th e following conclusion i.e. in th e cases of incapacity by th e elderly to perform conjugal obligations, th e above b ears no influence upon th e ir m atrim onial efficacy7.

An obligation to specify requ ired m inim um age for m atrim ony conclu­ sion is im posed onto Polish L egislator in New York Convention on C onsent to M arriage Article 2, M inim um Age for M arriage an d R egistration of M a rria ­ ges from 1962 (Jo u rn al of Law 1965, no. 9, item 53).

A m endm ent m ade to Polish Fam ily Law in 19988, reduced m ale s ta tu to ­ ry m atrim ony age from 21 to 18 and therefore m ade it equal w ith female s ta tu to ry m atrim ony age of 18, hence allowing both genders to e n te r into m atrim ony upon a tta in in g th e sam e age. Sim ultaneously, m ales were depri­ ved of th e possibility to seek court’s consent to e n te r into m atrim ony before a tta in in g sta tu to ry m ajority age of 189. Such resolution is proved inter alia by th e fact th a t it is a fem ale who a tta in s m ental m a tu rity to perform conjugal duties e a rlie r w hilst only a m atu re m ale m ay provide for th e fami- ly10. The above rem ains in conform ity w ith constitutional principle of equ ali­

ty as well as w ith E uropean legislative fram ew ork11.

A ttainin g th e capacity to conclude m atrim ony or in oth er words a tta ­ ining sta tu to ry age of th e b etroth ed spouses is subjected to variable estab li­ sh m ent a t different levels in p a rtic u la r legal system s. S ta tu to ry provisions are form ed on th e grounds of research and hypothesis and m ost of all they are founded upon a given com m unity trad ition. N evertheless, in m ost E u ro ­ p ean countries, individuals who have a tta in e d 18 years of age, have a t the sam e tim e also acquired a capacity to conclude m atrim ony. U sually it is also plausible to e n te r into m atrim ony in th e course of extrao rd in ary events (ie upon being g ran te d sufficient court or p a re n ta l consent to do so, which shall be subjected to precise description on th e case of Poland)12. W ithout

5 E. D rozd, U zy ska n ie p e łn o le tn o ści p r z e z za w a rcie m a łże ń stw a , „Nowe P ra w o ” 1969, no. 7 -8 , p. 1111.

6 M. L ec h -C h ełm iń sk a, W. P rz y b y ła, K o d eks ro d z in n y i o p iek u ń czy - p r a k ty c z n y k o m e n ­

ta rz z orzeczn ictw em , W a rsz a w a 2006, p. 33.

7 J . S trzeb iń czy k , P ra w o ro d zin n e , W arsz a w a 2003, p. 100.

8 F a m ily a n d G u a rd ia n s h ip Code a m e n d e d b y A rticle 1 p o in t 11 of th e A ct d a te d 24.07.1998 on a m e n d m e n t o f A ct of th e F a m ily a n d G u a rd ia n s h ip Code, Civil P ro ceed in g Code, L aw on m a rita l s ta tu s files, A ct o n S ta te re la tio n w ith C ath o lic C h u rc h in R epublic of P o la n d a n d o th er A cts (J o u rn a l of L aw 1998, no. 117, ite m 757), a m e n d m e n ts w e re im p le m e n ted on 15.11.1998.

9 J . S trzeb iń cz y k , op. cit., pp. 1 0 0 -1 0 1 . 10 T. S m yczyński, op. cit., p. 148.

11 J . Ig n ato w icz, M. N a za r, P ra w o ro d zin n e , W a rsz a w a 2010, p. 104.

12 S y n th e s is R ep o rt, F in a l R e p o rt for th e E u ro p e a n C o m m issio n , D G J L S - D ire c to rate - G e n e ra l for J u s tic e , F re e d o m a n d S e c u rity on th e p ro ject No JL S /2 0 0 6 /C 4 /0 0 4 , 2008, F a c ilita ­

tin g L ife E ve n ts , P a r t II, a v a ila b le a t <h ttp ://e c .e u ro p a .e u /c iv ilju s tic e /p u b lic a tio n s /d o c s /s tu -

20 E w a B ie n iek

some exceptions, in m ost C entral and E a ste r Europe countries, th e “special” m arriageab le age is equal for both sexes and it is sixteen, b u t th e req u ire­ m ents for e n terin g into such m atrim ony vary betw een countries. The d a ta h as been presented in table 1.

T a b le 1 M a r r ia g e a b le a g e C o u n try A ge for m a r r ia g e A ge r e q u ir e for m a trim o n y in th e co u rse o f e x tra o rd in a ry e v e n ts

O th e r re q u ire m e n ts for m a trim o n y in th e co u rse o f e x tr a o r d in a r y e v e n ts P o la n d 18 16 (only

fem ales)

for im p o r ta n t re aso n s , a fa m ily c o u rt m a y allow a w om an w ho h a s a tta in e d 16 y e a rs o f ag e to m a rry C zech

R ep u b lic 18 16

in acc o rd an c e w ith th e social p u rp o se o f m a rria g e , for im p o rta n t reasons, th e co u rt m ay p erm it to m arry S lo v ak ia 18 16

a m in o r w ho w a n ts to e n te r in to m a r r ia g e is e n title d to lodge a m o tio n w ith a c o u rt t h a t s h a ll decide; th e c o u rt s h a ll h e a r th e p e rso n t h a t w a n ts to e n te r in to m a r r ia g e a n d h e a r th e p e rso n th e m a rria g e sh a ll b e e n te r e d in to w ith

H u n g a ry 18 16 th e p re lim in a ry a p p ro v a l o f th e g u a rd ia n s h ip a u th o r itie s (a n d o n ly in w ell-fo u n d ed cases)

L ith u a n ia 18 15 o r less on re q u e s t o f a p erso n , th e c o u rt p e rm issio n ; I n case o f p re g n an c y th e m a rria g e ag e could b e below 15 y e ars L a tv ia 18 16

th e c o n s e n t o f th e p a r e n ts a n d a u th o r itie s p ro v id ed t h a t th e m a r r ia g e is c o n tra c te d w ith a p e rso n w ho h a s a tta in e d m a jo rity E s to n ia 18 15 w r itte n c o n s e n t o f p a r e n ts o r a g u a rd ia n . I f th e r e is no c o n se n t, a c o u rt m a y g r a n t th e r ig h t to m a r r y i f th e m a r r ia g e is in th e in te r e s ts o f th e m in o r B e la ru s 18 no d a ta no d a ta U k ra in e 18 (m ales)

17 (fem ales) 14 c o u rt p e rm issio n

S lo v en ia 18 no d a ta good gro u n d s a n d decision of th e C en tre for Social W ork C ro a tia 18 16

a c o u rt licence. w ith th e a d d itio n a l re q u ire m e n ts according to m in o r (m en tally a n d phy sically m atu re); th e p a r e n ts social w elfare service op in io n is h e a r d B o sn ia a n d H e rz e g o v in a 18 16 im p o r ta n t re a s o n s a n d a c o u rt p e rm issio n S e rb ia 18 16 im p o r ta n t re a s o n s a n d a c o u rt p e rm issio n M o n te n eg ro n o d a ta no d a ta no d a ta M aced o n ia n o d a ta no d a ta no d a ta A lb a n ia 18 (m ale) 16 (fem ale) no d a ta no d a ta B u lg a ria 18 16 im p o r ta n t re a s o n s a n d a c o u rt p e rm issio n R o m a n ia 18 (m ales) 16 (fem ales) 15 (only fem ales) on ly solid re a so n s ; th e a p p ro v a l c a n b e g iv e n by th e L ocal C o u n c il/th e council o f th e B u c h a r e s t m u n ic ip a lity , d e p e n d in g on th e p lace w h e re th e w o m a n re sid e s a n d o n ly b a s e d o n a n e n d o rs e m e n t g a v e b y th e official d octor

The m a rita l s ta tu s of population in EU h as been p resented by E uropean Union Commission Report. As a general tren d very few people betw een 15-19 get m a rrie d 13. It is w orth to wonder why in th is docum ent (and m any other statistics studies) the population has been joined in groups 15-19, 20-24, and 25-29 (w hen m arriageable age is u su ally 18). As it is shown in table 1, in alm ost every C entral and E a ste rn E uropean countries it is possible to e n te r into m atrim ony in th e course of ex trao rd in ary events before 18. The s ta ti­ stics studies showing how often such m arrieges are concluded could be very interesting . It will rela te th e necessity to regulate this m a tte r and induce th e legislator to consider if it is a dead le tte r or not. U nfortun ately it is not a subject to com pare th e conditions to e n te r into m atrim ony in the course of ex traordinary events before 18.

The Polish Fam ily an d G uard ian sh ip Code does provide for ex trao rd in a­ ry circum stances w hereby an individual, having not a tta in e d 18 years of age yet, m ay be conditionally consented to e n te r into m atrim ony. In compliance to Article 10 of th e Fam ily and G u ardiansh ip Code, the Dom estic Affairs Tribunal due to ex trao rd in ary course of events, m ay consent to conclude an act of m atrim ony by a fem ale who has a tta in e d 16 y ears of age w hilst the concurring circum stances clearly indicate th a t th e aforem entioned shall se­ rve the best in te re st of th e newly estab lished family. The consequence of en terin g into m atrim ony un d er ex trao rd in ary course of events is equivalent to m ajority a tta in m e n t by th e fem ale (Article 10 § 2 of th e PCC) w hich shall in tu rn also resu lt in acquiring complete civil-law liability for one’s actions and deeds. A sim ilar resolution, w hen m arriage shall resu lt in em ancipation so in acquiring complete civil-law liability for one’s actions and deeds, has been adopted by th e Legislators in Czech and Slovak Republic14, and H u n g a­ ry 15 alike. In te restin g exam ple is U kraine, w here th e m erriageable age for women is 17 years and for m en - 18 years, while th e age lim it to conclude m atrim ony upon court consent h as been established a t 14 years of age (a court m ay g ra n t him or h e r th e rig h t to m arry if it is found th a n such

13 C o m m issio n o f th e E u ro p e a n C o n trie s, E U Y ou th R eport, a v a ila b le a t <h ttp ://e c .e u ro - p a .e u /y o u th /n ew s/d o c/n ew _ strate g y /y o u th _ re p o rt_ fin al.p d f> ( la s t v is ite d 1.02.2011).

14 C ivil C ode o f C zech a n d Slovak R ep u b lic 40/1964 Zb. § 8 (1) A full c a p a c ity of a n in d iv id u a l to a cq u ire r ig h ts a n d a s s u m e d u tie s on th e b a s is of th e ow n leg al a c ts (c a p a city to leg al acts) sh a ll a ris e a t th e m o m e n t of h is or h e r m ajority. (2) T h e m a jo rity sh a ll b e ac q u ired b y a c h iev in g th e age o f e ig h te e n y e a rs . B efore a c h ie v in g th is age, th e m a jo rity c a n be acq u ired only b y e n te r in g in to a m a rria g e . T h e m a jo rity a c q u ire d in th is w a y c a n n o t be lo st e v en if th e m a rria g e becom es e x tin c t or if i t is d e cla re d in v a lid b y a court.

15 A ct IV o f 1959 O n th e C ivil C ode o f th e R ep u b lic o f H u n g a ry , P a r t tw o, Sectio n 12: P e rs o n s w ho h a v e n o t y e t re a c h e d th e age o f e ig h te e n y e a rs sh a ll b e d eem ed m in o rs , u n le s s th e y a re m a rrie d . M a rria g e sh a ll n o t c o n s titu te a d u lth o o d if th e m a rria g e h a s b e e n a n n u lle d by a co u rt ow ing to th e a b se n c e o f th e g u a r d ia n ’s p e rm iss io n , w h ic h is n e c e s s a ry b e c a u se o f th e lac k o f c o m p eten cy o r m inority, [online] <h ttp ://w w w .lex ad in .n l/w lg /leg is/n o fr/le g is.h tm >, la s t v is ite d 20.05.2010.

22 E w a B ie n iek

a m arriag e satisfies his or h e r in te re s ts 16) b u t th e consequences to be born by such an act are alike. W hat is peculiar and ought to be em phasized is the fact th a t th e U k ra in ia n Civil Code sta te s th a t any individual who has a child (regardless of age an d gender) shall be eligible to conclude m atrim ony (th e­ refore holds a capacity to e n te r into m atrim ony) an d as a re su lt one shall be assum ed to have a tta in e d m ajo rity 17.

Considering th e im pact of m atrim ony conclusion on legal circum stances of th e minor, th e legislators in different countries provide for variable conse- quences18. In B elarus legislatu re stip u lates th a t conclusion of m atrim ony by th e m inor shall not resu lt in a tta in in g m ajority, yet shall only lead to a tta in ­ m en t of complete civil-law liability for one’s deeds and actions19. A nother sta n d on th is issue is for exam ple p resen ted by F rench or Belgium leg islatu ­ re, w hereby conclusion of m atrim ony q u a ra n tin e s em ancipation (disam bigu­ ation), however the m inor still a tta in s quasi “re stra in e d ” liability20.

Significant reasons indicated by ju d icatu re, form ing circum stances in w hich a m inor fem ale in Poland, in compliance w ith Article 10 of the Fam ily an d G uardian sh ip Code, m ay conclude an unalluable act of m atrim ony inclu­ de th e following: giving b irth to a child of b etrothed spouses, pregnancy, long-lasting factual relationship (which shall arise m uch controversy)21. It is therefore plausible to advance a thesis, th a t in m ost cases such a m atrim ony is concluded u n d e r “d u ress” or in o th er term s un d er an obligation caused for exam ple by pregnancy22. Such a m atrim ony is hence an ostensible solution only due to the fact th a t in m any instances spouses are not able to function solely by them selves, p articu larly for financial and/or organizational reasons (i.e. lack of work, own accom modation ect.), therefore th ey continue to re m a ­ in d ependant upon th e ir parents.

Among the m otives causing a m inor to conclude m atrim ony th ere is no m ention of snobbism w hich does occur in reality (i.e. e n terin g into m atrim o ­ ny w ith individuals of fam ous and recognizable nam es), w illingness to b e tte r

16 A rt. 23 o f F a m ily C ode o f U k ra in e , A s a m e n d e d b y th e L aw # 407-IV (407-15) of 26.12.2002, VVR, 2003, # 7, p. 70.

17 A rt. 23 § 4 p o in t 1 a n d 2 of U k r a in ia n C ivil Code from 16.01.2003 w ith s u b s e q u e n t a m e n d m e n ts .

18 E. D rozd, op. cit., p. 1110.

19 A rticle 20 C ivil C ode of th e R ep u b lic o f B e la ru s , 7 Dec. 1998, no. 218-Z (A m ended a s od 28.12.2009).

20 C ivil Code, o rd o n n a n ce no. 2004-164, 20.02.2004; a r t. 476, 481, 488 a v a ila b le a t <h ttp :// w w w .le g ifra n c e .g o u v . f r /h tm l/c o d e s _ tr a d u its /c o d e _ c iv il_ te x tA .h tm # C H A P T E R % 2 0 I % 2 0 -% - 2 0 G E N E > (la s t v is ite d 30.04.2010).

21 K. P ia se c k i e t al., K o d eks r o d z in n y i o piekuńczy, K o m e n ta rz, W a rsz a w a 2009, p. 83-84. 22 D. K ow alczyk, W ybrane a sp e k ty fu n k c jo n o w a n ia m a łże ń stw z a w a r ty c h z a zg o d ą są d u ,

C zy p o trze b n a j e s t w Polsce z m ia n a p r a w a ro d zin n eg o i opiekuńczego, [in:] B. C zech (ed.), M a ter ia ls fr o m a ll-P o lish S c ie n tific C onference o rg a n ized in 21 a n d 2 2 o f S ep t. 1995, K atow ice

oneself (i.e. in order to be g ran te d a p referen tial credit rating) and/or w ith a view of acquiring n a tu ra liz atio n (as m ay be th e case for foreign citizens). Even if th e aforem entioned circum stances form th e reason for th e w illin­ gness to conclude act of m atrim ony in th e case of the m inors, th e Domestic Affairs T ribunal shall not consent to such conclusions.

The court’s consent shall not be g ran ted upon th e existence of ex traordi­ n a ry circum stances only. The Dom estic Affairs T ribunal assesses sep arately each case on the basis as to w h eth er or not th e circum stances of m atrim ony conclusion rem ain in th e b est in te re st of th e newly established family.

The legislator fails to define in th e Fam ily and G u ardianship Code the concept of “fam ily”, yet every tim e a n invariably different m eaning gets applied depending upon w h at the resu lts are to be a tta in e d2 3. In colloquial

term s, a “fam ily” refers to a com m unity com prising of individuals who are bounded togeth er by th e ties of consanguinity, adoption, affinity and/or ma- trim ony2 4. This term is applicable to th e individuals belonging to a p a rtic u ­

la r household, i.e. m arried spouses25 since m atrim ony conclusion and/or spo­

uses rising children. The doctrine fails to rem ain in conform ity w ith the qualification of individuals rem ain in g in factual relationships. W ithin the m eaning of th e Fam ily and G uard ian sh ip Code, a common-law m arriage fails to con stitute a fam ily2 6, w hereas it is evident from th e analysis of the E uropean Court of H u m an Rights rulings th a t a “fam ily live” category m ay also refer to th e individuals who do rem ain in factual relation ship toge- th e r2 7.

Fam ily forms a basic social u nit, a n a tu ra l and irreplaceable h u m an environm ent which b ears an enorm ous influence onto its existence an d deve­ lopm ent, hence n e ith e r its various surrogate forms shall fully satisfy indivi­ dual needs nor com pensate its lack entirely. In consequence, an objective scope of m any sciences such as sociology, psychology, pedagogy, theology as well as law is p rim a rily concerned w ith th e in stitu tio n of fam ily and a m agnitude and deluge of its aspects.

Fam ily foundation is form ed by th e act of m atrim ony concluded in the form defined in th e Law nam ely (Article 1 of th e Fam ily and G uardianship Code). In compliance to th e Article 18 of The C onstitution of The Republic of Poland dated 2n d April 1997 (Jo urn al of Law 1997, no. 78, item 483 including

fu rth e r am endm ents), it is sta te d th a t m atrim ony forms a form al relatio n ­ ship betw een a m ale and a female. The consequences of m atrim ony conclu­ sion include both rig h ts an d obligations for each of th e p a rties involved th erein , hence it m ay be claimed, refrain ing from detailed exam ination of

23 T. S m y czy ń sk i, P ra w o ro d z in n e i o p ieku ń cze, W a rsz a w a 2005, p. 148. 24 M. A n d rzejew sk i, P ra w o ro d z in n e i opiekuńcze, W arsz a w a 2010, p. 18. 25 J . Ig n ato w icz, M. N a z a r, op. cit., p. 23.

24 E w a B ie n ie k

th e contents, th a t conclusion of m atrim ony ought to be a re su lt of a th o u g h t­ ful and conscious decision m ade by each of th e p a rtie s28. Dom estic Affairs T ribunal assessm ent w eath er or not conclusion of m atrim ony by th e m inor fem ale rem ains in th e best in te re st of th e newly established fam ily ought to be considered on th e grounds of individual reasons concerning biological, psychological as well as social m aturity, featu res of one’s personality req u ­ ired in m arriage and even educational background and/or vocational tra in in g which in effect m ay b are significant influence on possessing indispensable resources to m a in ta in oneself and one’s fam ily alike29. Moreover, Domestic Affairs Tribunal while filing an assessm ent on proper functioning of the fu tu re fam ily also ought to m ake sufficient considerations for th e following aspects: personal and cognitive details about the b etro thed fem ale, a ttitu d e of th e b etro thed spouses tow ards each other, a ttitu d e of th e p a re n ts of th e b etro th ed spouses tow ards fu ture family, expected m ate ria l and housing conditions following m atrim ony conclusion30.

In practice courts rarely refuse to consent to early m atrim ony conclu- sions31. According to th e inform ation gained from The M arriage Registry Office in th e city of Olsztyn, m inor fem ales very often concluded m atrim ony upon receiving court’s consent in th e 1990’s. The M inistry of Ju stice s ta ti­ stics, p resen ted in D. Kowalczyk paper, also indicate such sim ilarities32. C urrently, such an occurrence is a ra re “phenom enon” (in The M arriage R egistry Office in th e city of Olsztyn, th ere were only 2 such m arriages recorded in y ear 2009 alone). It m ay be a subject of m uch debate as to w h eth er or not conducted research by P. Szukalski on ad u lterin e child b irth in Poland is an affirm ation of th e inform ation p resented above. The au th o r sta te s th a t betw een 1985 an d 2005 th ere was an increasing tre n d in a d u lte ­ rin e child b irth noted am ongst th e m inor m others and th is very tre n d has continued to intensify being cu rrently 2,5 to 3 fold h igher by com parison to th e n atio n al average33. R esearch resu lts prove a n increase in th e nu m ber of th e m inor m others b u t above all they also confirm th a t m atrim ony conclu­ sion for an im p o rtan t reason such as pregnancy is a ra re occurrence in th is p a rticu la r age group.

Conclusion of m atrim ony prior to a tta in m e n t of sta tu to ry m ajority age b ears little fru it and a t th e sam e tim e fails to provide for extraordin ary

27 J . S trzeb iń czy k , op. cit., p. 27; M. A n d rzejew sk i, op. cit., pp. 1 7 -1 8 .

28 H . Chw yć, Z a w a rcie m a łż e ń s tw a w p ra w ie p o lsk im . P o ra d n ik d la k ie ro w n ik ó w u rzęd u

s ta n u cyw ilnego, L u b lin 1998.

29 M. L ec h -C h e łm iń sk a, W. P rz y b y ła, op. cit., p. 33.

30 H . H a a k , Z a w a rcie m a łże ń stw a , K o m e n ta rz, T o ru ń 1999, p. 112. 31 J . S trzeb iń cz y k , op. cit., p. 101.

32 D. K ow alczyk, op. cit., p. 532.

33 P. S z u k a ls k i, U ro d zen ia p o z a m a łż e ń s k ie w Polsce w X X i X X I w iek u , „W iadom ości S ta ty s ty c z n e G U S ” 2010, no. 2.

authorizations and/or privileges, w hereas circum stances of th e conclusion do not yield m uch hope for relatio n durability. The reasons for the observed downw ard tendency of m atrim ony conclusion upon th e court’s consent inclu­ de changes w ithin fam ily model, increase in consciousness an d prioritisation (first comes an inv estm ent in oneself - nam ely in education, well-paid pro­ fession, and only th e n comes th e family). Public opinion n e ith e r exerts p res­ sure to conclude m atrim ony as a resu lt of pregnancy nor is a fem ale w ith an illegitim ate child subjected to a public condem nation and/or rejection. An increase in th e age of th e newlyweds h as been notably observed. In Poland a t th e o u tset th e 1990’s over a h a lf of m ales and alm ost 1’ of fem ales conclu­ ding m atrim ony failed to a tta in th e age of 25. W hereas now adays th e n u m ­ b er of individuals in the age group of 2 5-29 concluding m atrim ony co n stitu­ tes approxim ately 44% of th e e n tire population (w hilst in 1990 - th is sta tistic am ounted to 14% only)3 4. The sam e is in o ther E uropean countries

(according to Commission of th e E u rop ean Com m unities R eposrt the average age to e n te r into a first m arriage is 27,3 years)3 5.

M ajority v e r s u s c a p a c ity to c iv il-la w lia b ility

W ithin th e m eaning of th e PCC, a m ajor is an individual who has a tta in e d eighteen years of age (Article 10 of the aforem entioned PCC) and an individual who h as not a tta in e d eighteen years of age b u t has concluded m atrim ony upon th e consent of th e Dom estic Affairs Tribunal (Article 10 § 2 of th e aforem entioned PCC). The L egislator stip u lates th a t upon a tta in m e n t of majority, one shall a tta in a capacity to civil liability alike (Article 11 of the aforem entioned PCC).

The concept of a tta in m e n t of such a liability has not been defined u n a n i­ mously w ithin sta tu to ry provisions of th e law. According to th e provisions of th e PCC th re e scopes of the aforem entioned capacity are plausible namely, complete, restrain ed and null. The legislator by m eans of th e age criterion, clearly determ ined “threshold levels” of the capacity36 establishing th a t the

individuals devoid of such capacity are persons who have not attained 13 years of age and those individuals who are completely incapacitated (Article 12 of th e PCC), however th e m inors who have a tta in e d 13 y ears of age and

34 M a te ria ls fro m C e n tra l S ta tis tic a l Office o f P o la n d p re s s conference in 28.01.2010,

N o ta tk a in fo rm a cyjn a : P o d sta w o w e in fo rm a cje o ro zw o ju g e o g ra fic zn y m P o ls ki w la ta c h 20 0 0 ­ - 2 0 0 9 , a v a ila b le a t <h ttp ://w w w .s ta t.g o v .p l/g u s /5 8 4 0 _ 3 0 9 1 _ P L K _ H T M L .h tm > ( la s t v is ite d

4.05.2010).

35 C o m m issio n o f th e E u ro p e a n C o n trie s, E U Y outh R ep o rt, a v a ila b le a t <h ttp ://e c .e u ro - p a .e u /y o u th /n ew s/d o c/n ew _ strate g y /y o u th _ re p o rt_ fin al.p d f> ( la s t v is ite d 1.02.2011).

36 M. W atrak iew icz , Wiek a zd o ln o ść do c zynności p ra w n y c h , „ K w a rta ln ik P ra w a P ry w a t­ nego” 2003, no. 2, p. 528.

26 E w a B ie n ie k

those individuals who are p a rtly incap acitated (Article 15 of th e PCC) hold re stra in e d capacity. Therefore, a tta in in g one’s m ajority shall not w arran tee holding complete capacity (since a m ajor individual m ay be subjected to incapacitation).

M ajority a tta in e d th rou g h th e process of reaching sta tu to ry m ajority age of 18 years, is not a sine qua non condition allowing for th e a tta in m e n t of the capacity to civil liability. This is clarified in th e quoted Article 10 § 2 of th e PCC. The m ain consequence of m atrim ony conclusion un d er extrao rd in ary course of events by a m inor fem ale m eans a tta in m e n t of th e aforem entioned capacity.

It is generally approved th a t holding complete capacity enables one to acquire and form individual rig h ts an d to assum e defined obligations37. The complete capacity scope comprises th e perform ance of all legally p erm itted acts an d deeds including in te r alia contract conclusions in c u rre n t an d every day life business such as food product or cosmetics purchases as well as contracts bearing unfrivoulous consequences associated w ith financial obliga­ tions as a rule. A m ajor individual who holds complete capacity is a person who acts sensibly w ithin the scope of the consequences of th e performed factual deeds and actions all bearing legally binding consequences upon one38.

C onsiderations regard ing co n strained and null capacity were purposeful­ ly om itted, since th ese issues do not form objective subject of th e study herein.

A m in o r fe m a le ’s le g a l c ir c u m sta n c e s p r io r to th e a tta in m e n t o f th e s ta tu to r y m a jo rity a g e o f 18 y e a r s

Pregnancy and/or a long-lasting factual relationship, even though they frequently form th e reasons for, th ey are still not obligatory factors to conclu­ de m atrim ony. W hat th e n m akes one to tak e a decision to m arry (or not)? W hat are th e consequences of m aking such a decision?

A m inor fem ale u n til a tta in in g m ajority (by the process of a tta in m e n t of th e s ta tu to ry m ajority age of 18 y ears or by concluding m atrim ony) continu­ es to rem ain u n d er p a re n ta l au th o rity (Article 92 of the Fam ily and G uar­ dianship Code). Such a wom an holds a re stra in e d capacity to u n d ertak e legal acts and deeds, therefore she is not en titled p a re n ta l au th o rity tow ards h e r child, and w h at is m ore - an a d m in istra to r to th e unborn child shall be appointed (Article 182 of th e aforem entioned F am ily and G uardian ship

37 E. G n iew ek e t a l., K o d eks cyw ilny. K o m e n ta rz, W arsz a w a 2008, pp. 3 7 -4 3 , 1 3 0 -1 3 3 ; M. W atrak iew icz, op. cit., p. 503.

Code) as well as a protector for th e born one (Article 94 of th e aforem entio­ ned F am ily an d G u a rd ia n sh ip Code). (It is m ost commonly a p a re n t of the m inor fem ale who acts as an a d m in is tra to r or a p rotector to a child3 9). Since, as it h a d been s ta te d above, th e re s u lt of concluding m atrim o n y by a 16-years-old fem ale m eans a tta in m e n t of th e m ajority and acquisition of complete capacity to u n d e rta k e legal acts an d deeds, h e r p a re n ts’ sta tu to ry g u a rd ia n s ta tu s ceases4 0, w hile a m inor m o th er assum es th e rig h t to

a complete p a re n ta l au th o rity tow ards h e r child.

A fem ale who holds a constrained capacity to u n d e rta k e legal deeds and acts, shall seek th e consent of h e r sta tu to ry g u ard ian to perform such deeds and acts w hich exceed c u rre n t daily life business m atters. Therefore, w ithout th e consent of the sta tu to ry g u ard ian s, a m inor fem ale m ay not subm it a m otion for any allowance (such as ‘child benefit’). G enerally such a resolu­ tion causes th e sta tu to ry g u ard ian of a m inor fem ale to assign th e benefit not for th e purpose of lay ette yet oth er purposes such as alcohol4 1. A m inor

m other will not receive any aid from th e state. As Labour M inistry adm its - “The system of fam ily w elfare does not provide any ex trao rd in ary kinds of benefits for m inor m others and th e ir progeny”4 2.

The m eaning of civil m ajority goes beyond th e problem of th e capacity to perform legal acts and deeds, w h at is clearly sta te d in Article 114 of th e aforem entioned Fam ily an d G uardian sh ip Code (whereby a m inor person m ay be subjected to adoption for one’s own best in terest), Article 70 of the aforem entioned Fam ily and G uardian sh ip Code (whereby a child after a tta ­ ining m ajority m ay bring an action for denial of p a te rn ity of his m oth er’s husband, b u t no la te r th a n w ithin th re e y ears after having a tta in e d m ajori­ ty), Article 81 of th e aforem entioned Fam ily and G uardian ship Code (w here­ by after a tta in in g majority, b u t no la te r th e n th re e y ears after having a tta ­ ined it, a child m ay dem and to estab lish ineffectiveness of the recognizing fatherhood, if a holder is not one’s father), or Article 173 of th e aforem entio­ ned PCC (whereby if th e owner of rea l e sta te, ag ain st whom acquisitive prescription has been filed, shall be a minor, the acquisitive prescription m ay not be completed e a rlie r th a n two y ears after the property ow ner a tta in s such m ajority)4 3.

The consequence of m atrim ony conclusion by a m inor fem ale on the grounds of th e courts consent m eans tre a tin g h e r accordingly to th e a tta in e d capacity to perform legally binding acts and deeds on equal term s to the

39 T. Sokołow ski, S y tu a c ja p r a w n a m a ło letn iej m a tk i p r z e d u ro d zen ie m d ziecka , „Ruch Praw niczy, E k o n o m ic zn y i Socjologiczny” 1995, no. 3(6).

40 J . Ig n ato w icz, M. N azar, op. cit., p. 334.

41 A. M onkos, N a s to la tk i ro d zą , ich ro d zice p ła c ą , „ D zie n n ik G a z e ta P r a w n a ”, A11, 27.04.2010, p. 81.

42 Ib id em , A11.

28 E w a B ie n ie k

m ajors (i.e. by th e virtu e of Article 944 of th e aforem entioned PCC such a person is eligible to m ake a will44). There is no equality betw een a legal position of a person who a tta in s m ajority u n d e r extrao rd inary course of events thro ug h the process of m atrim ony conclusion and a person who a tt a ­ ins such m ajority th ro u g h th e a tta in m e n t of sta tu to ry m ajority age of 18 years. There do exist special regulations which tre a t th e above-m entioned persons in a different m an n e r from a tta in m e n t of sta tu to ry m ajority age of 18, depending upon th e possibility of p a rticu la r behaviours or acting.

In support of th e above-m entioned th esis, the following ought to be considered:

1. Form ed in Article 10 of th e Fam ily and G uardian ship Code, th e age barrier, consisting of prohibition to e n te r into m atrim ony by a person who h as not a tta in e d 18 y ears of age. A fem ale who a tta in s m ajority by conclu­ ding m atrim ony, m ain ta in s it even if m arriag e has ceased and/or h as been ann u lled (Article 10 § 2 of th e Fam ily an d G uard ianship Code), b u t before a tta in in g 18 years of age she m ay not e n te r into next m atrim ony w ithout the consent of th e Dom estic Affairs Tribunal45.

2. Article 5 of th e Act d ated 16th Ju ly 1998 E lectoral law to commune council, d istrict councils and provincial councils (Jo u rn al of Law 2003, no. 159, item 1547), sta te s th a t voting rig h t (i.e. an active voting right) to a p a rtic u la r council is held by every Polish citizen, who a t lea st on th e voting day a tta in e d 18 years of age and p erm an ently resides in th e council’s activi­ ty area.

3. Article 2 of th e Act d ated 27th J u n e 1997 on Political P a rtie s (Jou rnal of Law 2001, no. 79, item 857) - a m em ber of political p a rty shall be a citizen of Republic of Poland who has a tta in e d 18 years of age.

4. Article 15 of th e Act dated 7th Septem ber 1991 on E ducation System (Jo u rn al of Law 2004, no. 79, item 2572) sta te s th a t education shall be compulsory upon a tta in in g 18 years of age.

5. Article 15 of th e Act dated 26th October 1982 on U pbringing in sobrie­ ty and alcohol counteraction (Jo u rn al of Law 2007, no. 70, item 473) directly forbids selling an d serving alcohol beverages to those who have not a tta in e d 18 years of age, however in th e second point of th is article th e legislator sta te s th e following: in an instance of being in doubt as to w h ether or not th e buyer is major, alcohol beverages seller or server is allowed to req u est to be p resen ted a docum ent confirm ing one’s m ajority - th is article m ay be qu ­ estionable as to w h at th e legislator m eans by the notion of majority.

6. Article 6 of th e Act dated 9th Novem ber 1995 on H e a lth protection a g a in st th e consequences of using tobacco and tobacco rela te d products

44 E. G n iew ek (ed.), op. cit., p. 1518. 45 J . Ig n ato w icz, M. N azar, op. cit., p. 103.

(Jo u rnal of Law 1996, no. 10, item 55) it is forbidden to sell tobacco products to persons who have not a tta in e d 18 y ears of age; th e supplem ent to this note is point 1a of Article 6, which sta te s th a t in case of having doubts as to w h eth er or not th e buyer is a m ajor th e seller is allowed to req u est to be p resen ted a docum ent confirm ing m ajority (therefore a fem ale who has not a tta in e d 18 y ears of age yet h as a tta in e d m ajority throu gh th e conclusion of m atrim ony, is not eligible to purchase tobacco or tobacco rela te d products).

7. Article 2 of th e Act dated 27th Septem ber 1990 on Election of the P resid en t of th e Republic of Poland (Jo u rn al of Law 2000, no. 47, item 544) stip u lates th a t an active p articip atio n in general election depends upon a tta ­ inm ent of 18 y ears of age a t least upon the day of voting.

8. The s ta tu to ry provisions dated 20th J u n e 1997 on Road Traffic Law (Jo u rnal of Law 2005, no. 108, item 908) in Article 87, 90 an d 96 stip ulate eligibility to drive vehicles upon a tta in m e n t of s ta tu to ry age (i.e. required s ta tu to ry age for elibibility to obtain driving license of th e categories such as A, B, B+, C, C+E, C1 or C1 + E is actually 18 years of age.

9. In conform ity to th e provisions of Article 36 item 2 of the Act dated 10th April 1974 on P opulation Records and N ational Identification, an id en ti­ ty card issued to a person who h as not a tta in e d 18 years of age, shall rem ain valid for th e d u ratio n of 5 y ears since its date of issue (however in relatio n to th e rem ain d er of th e population an id en tity card shall rem ain valid for the d u ratio n of 10 years).

10. On th e grounds of Article 3 of th e Act dated 14th M arch 2003 on N ational R eferendum (Jo urn al of Law 2003, no. 57, item 507) a rig h t to p articip ate in referendum shall be g ran ted to the citizen of Poland if upon th e date of voting one has a tta in e d 18 y ears of age.

11. The lim it of a tta in in g 18 years of age is also set by th e Em ploym ent Code (Act dated 26th J u n e 1974, J o u rn a l of Law 1998, no. 21, item 94) in Article 22 § 2. An employee m ay be a person who has a tta in e d 18 y ears of age. On th e grounds of th e stip u lation s defined in th e 9th section, an employ­ ee m ay be also a person who h as not a tta in e d 18 y ears of age, Article 197 § 1. A juvenile employee is obliged to continua education upon a tta in m e n t of sta tu to ry m ajority age of 18 years.

12. On th e grounds of th e Article 8 § 2 of th e P enal Code (Act date 6th Ju n e 1997, J o u rn a l of Law 1997, No 90, item 557) during court proceedings a plaintiff who has not attain ed 18 years of age shall be eligible to a defender.

R egulation quoted above prove th a t a fem ale who in th e course of e x tra ­ ordinary event th ro u g h conclusion of th e m atrim ony a tta in s majority, on the grounds of some legal regulations due to not having a tta in e d s ta tu to ry m a tu ­ rity age will be tre a te d differently th a n a m ajor eighteen-year-old. Taking into consideration num erous legal acts binding in Poland, it is not possible to en u m erate all such situations.

30 E w a B ie n iek

C o n c lu sio n s

As a m a tte r of principle it seem s to be m atterless w h eth er or not a tta in ­ m en t of m a tu rity has been caused by th e a tta in m e n t of sta tu to ry m ajority age of 18 y ears or as a direct consequence of m atrim ony conclusion. The regulations do no tre a t both of these m ethods of a tta in in g m a tu rity v a ria ­ bly46. In these areas w here th e legislator uses th e term “m ajor” or “m a tu ri­ ty ” or stip u lates th e application of law upon a tta in m e n t of complete capacity to perform legal acts and deeds, th e legislator refers th e sam e to a person who has a tta in e d 18 years of age and to a m inor who has a tta in e d m ajority in th e course of extrao rd in ary events.

The legislator does not d ifferentiate betw een th e concept of m ajority a tta in e d in one way or th e o th er yet adequately disperses both subject groups on th e grounds of p a rticu la r legal acts and a tta in m e n t of sta tu to ry m a tu rity age of 18 years. It m u st be sta te d th a t a fem ale who a tta in s m ajority th ro u g h conclusion of m atrim ony is not tre a te d on equal term s w ith a m ajor eighteen-year-old. This introduces certain inconsistency as a result.

Age restrictio n as well as stipu latio n of m ajority upon a tta in m e n t of 18 y ears of age is a purposeful act by th e legislator. Similarly, settin g age lim its for perform ing duties of a m em ber of p arliam en t (a tta in m e n t of 21 y ears of age), a sen ato r (a tta in m e n t of 30 y ears of age), p resident (a tta in m e n t of 35 y ears of age) is caused by th e need to acquire widely understood life expe­ rience by th ese individuals. The prohibition to perform certain activities on th e grounds of atta in m e n t of certain age (most commonly the age of 18 years) is attrib u tab le to generally accepted p a tte rn s and views regarding biological and em otional m atu rity of a h u m an being. In c e rtain circum stance, i.e. con­ sum ption of alcoholic beverages and/or tobacco products, a variable tr e a t­ m en t of a fem ale, who has a tta in e d m ajority in th e course of extraordin ary event th ro u g h conclusion of m atrim ony upon th e consent of Dom estic Affairs T ribunal from a m ajor eighteen-year-old is a m a tte r of necessity.

Sim ilar considerations shall be p resented according to oth er C entral and E a s te rn Europe countries, b u t in th is stage it is sim ply impossible. The A uthor should know the details an d m any special acts from nations legisla­ tu re , w h at because of lack of tra n sla tio n s will need years of studies.

Taking into consideration all of the above, a view m ay be sh ared th a t the significance of regulation of m ajority a tta in m e n t in the course of ex trao rd i­ n a ry events th ro u g h conclusion of testim ony upon the consent of Domestic Affairs T ribunal is strictly theoretical in n atu re. The consequences stip u lated in th e PCC (i.e. majority, complete capacity to perform legal acts and deeds) are subjected to restrictio n s in sta tu to ry provisions and m oreover contem po­ ra ry m inors rarely e n te r into m atrim ony in practise.

S tr e s z c z e n ie

P ra w n e kon sekw en cje em a n cyp a cji p r z e z m a łżeń stw o

S łow a kluczow e: e m an cy p acja, dorosłość, p ełn o letn o ść, w iek, m ałżeń stw o .

Wiek je s t obiektyw ną cechą każdego człowieka. U staw odaw ca może okre­ ślić lim ity wiekowe, które przyznają różne praw a dla osób fizycznych i spo­ wodować, iż będą one zgodne z różnym i zasadam i. Np. art. 10 k.c. określa, że pełnoletność je s t osiągana w w ieku 18 lat. Polski ustaw odaw ca przew idział jed n a k szczególną sytuację kobiety, k tó ra osiągnęła wiek 16 la t i wchodzi w związek m ałżeński za zgodą sądu, stając się w efekcie pełnoletnia przed 18 rokiem życia.

Niniejszy arty k u ł opisuje motywacje i powody uzysk ania pełnoletności w te n sposób. Om awia też konsekwencje praw ne w porów naniu z rozw iąza­ niam i stosow anym i w innych krajach. A utorka zastan aw ia się, czy osoba, k tó ra osiąga pełnoletność w w ieku 16 lat, m a tak ie sam e praw a i obowiązki ja k 18-latek. N a zakończenie stw ierdza, że regulacja pozw alająca n a osią­ gnięcie pełnoletności poprzez specjalny proces m ałżeństw a za zgodą sądu je st czysto teoretyczna ze względu n a szczegółowe ograniczenia, które spraw iają, że wiele praw uzależnionych je s t od osiągnięcia w ieku 18 lat.