C o a l A g e
A McGr a w- Hi l l Pu b l i c a t i o n— Es t a b l i s h e d 1911
D E V O T E D T O T H E O P E R A T IN G , T E C H N IC A L , A N D B U S IN E S S P R O B L E M S O F T H E C O A L M IN IN G IN D U S T R Y
N e iv Y o r k , J u ly , 1 9 3 0
V o l u m e 3 5 N u m b e r 7
❖
When Normalcy Returns
W H E N will business be norm al again?
P o lly ann as o f last fall who declared th a t the industrial depression a t its w orst was only a fleeting visitation were ro u ted by the black jubilations o f s te rn e r seers foretelling long and lean penance f o r p ast indulgence. N o w these doleful p ro p h e ts of p ro tra c te d flagella
tion a re challenged. Basing its opinion on a convincing analysis of fun d am ental economic factors, T h e Business W e e k predicts a retu rn to norm alcy in October.
E V E N M O R E im p o rta n t th a n the d a te of this retu rn , however, is the question of w h a t will follow the return . Disillusionment over the collapse of “ the new e r a ” which was to o v e rtu rn all precedent and all economic law seems to have blinded many business men to the opportunities which the present situation offers to sound and progressive m anagem ent.
W e e p in g has been easier than working. W ill the r e tu rn to normalcy revive the fatuous doctrines so recently and so painfully dis
c re d ite d ?
F O R ov er sixty years, business has been car
ried on a s tre a m o f expanding development.
T h e n a tu r a l g ro w th o f the country has cre
a te d an ever-widening demand for goods.
But the ra te o f increase is flattening o u t; in some cases, it has become a descending curve.
T h e o p e ra tio n o f the economic law o f dimin
ishing g ro w th, shadow ed in the p a s t by the volume o f business, is a tta in in g a h ig h er visi
bility. N ew , g rea ter, and m ore complicated problem s of production and m a r k e t a d ju s t
m ent are on the horizon.
'
N O I N D U S T R Y is in a b e tte r position to m eet these new conditions th a n coal. On business as a whole, the precipitous pitch f ro m eight soft years of super-prosperity has p r o duced industrial shell-shock. Coal has been denied cushioned ease fo r a decade. M a n y of the physical read justm ents which industry at large now m ust m ake, coal alre ad y has m ade u n d e r the compulsion o f necessity. T o coal, fo r example, the law o f diminishing grow th is an actuality— n ot an econom ist’s theory.
L E A D E R S H I P in coal, th e re fo re , has an unusual o p p o rtu nity to build soundly on the retu rn to normalcy. But leadership w ith o u t followers is a fo rlo rn hope. A M o ses con
ducting a one-man exodus cannot hold the promised land fo r those w ho t a r r y indefi
nitely in E g y p t.
■S-.V :i.
“M o d ern e ”— A t the C olorado Fuel 8C Iro n Co.
STANDARDIZATION PLUS
+ Island Creek Equips All Mines With Mounted Machines and Drills
July, 1930
— C O A L A G E
P
R O B A B L Y n o o th e r c o m p an y o f c o m p a ra tiv e p ro d u c tio n — o v e r s ix m illio n to n s in 1929—h a s g o n e as f a r in s ta n d a r d iz a tio n o f in sid e e q u ip m e n t as h a s th e Is la n d C re e k C oal Co. a t its se v en o p e ra tin g m in e s in L o g a n C o u n ty , W e s t V ir g in ia . B u t s ta n d a r d iz a tio n d o es n o t blo ck th e a d o p tio n o f n e w e q u ip m e n t w h ic h w ill y ie ld a n a ttr a c tiv e r e tu r n o n th e in v e stm e n t. W ith in th e p a s t y e a r, 7 0 s h o rtw a ll m in in g m a ch in e s all o f o n e ty p e h a v e b ee n d isp lac ed b y 36 tr a c k -m o u n te d b o tto m c u tte rs , a n d coal d rills h a v e b ee n rep la c e d by 17 d o u b le -sp in d le m o u n te d d rillin g m a c h in e s. R o o m d e v e lo p m e n t an d tr a c k a r r a n g e m e n t h a v e been c h a n g ed w ith th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e n ew eq u ip m e n t.
E x c e lle n t m in in g c o n d itio n s, in c lu d in g a to p w h ich as a ru le re q u ire s n o p o s tin g in ro o m s, sim plifies th e m a k in g o f c h a n g e s. T h e coal bed lies n e a rly flat a n d th e a v e ra g e w o r k in g h e ig h t is 7 ft. A th in p a rtin g n e a r th e c e n te r o f th e seam b re a k s f r e e f ro m th e coal a n d in to la rg e flat pieces, f a c ilita tin g s e p a ra tio n a t th e face.
T w o y e a r s ag o , w h e n th e o p e ra tin g
officials becam e co n v in ce d th a t it w as tim e to d is c a rd sh o rtw a ll m a ch in e s, 9 0 -d a y te s ts o f se v e ra l ty p e s o f m o u n te d m a ch in e s w e re c o n d u c te d . S u p e rin te n d e n ts , fo re m e n , m a in te n a n c e m en, a n d o th e r officials w e re a ssig n e d to o b se rv e each m a c h in e in o p e ra tio n . A s a re s u lt o f w e ig h in g p e r fo rm a n c e re c o rd s, m a in te n a n c e costs, a n d o p in io n s o f o p e ra tiv e s a n d officials, th e co m p a n y se lec ted th e G o o d m an ty p e 3 2 4 A A b o tto m -c u ttin g sla b b in g m ach in e.
A f t e r a sim ila r te s t o f m o u n te d d rillin g m a ch in e s, th e J e f f r e y ty p e 56A , w h ich d rills tw o h o les a t once, w as cho sen . C o m p lete w ith all to o ls a n d acce sso ries, th is m a c h in e w eig h s 7,250 lb. I t is 12 ft. 3 in. lo n g a n d 62 in. w id e. S o m e o f th e m a c h in e s a re 42 in. h ig h a n d th e o th e rs 50 in.
T h e tra m m in g sp e ed v a rie s f ro m a p p r o x im a te ly 2 % m iles p e r h o u r on g ra d e s to 6 m iles p e r h o u r o n th e level.
R e d u c e d co st o f c u ttin g , o f c o u rse , w as th e g o v e rn in g f a c to r in th e d e cision to ch a n g e to m o u n te d m in in g m ach in es. T w o m e n in an 8 -h o u r
By J. H. EDWARDS
Associate Editor, Coal Age
s h if t can easily c u t 70 0 to n s, a s c o m p a re d to 4 0 0 to n s w ith th e s h o rtw a ll ty p e . O n a te s t, in o n e c o n tin u o u s s h if t o f 13 h o u rs , o n e o f th e n ew m a ch in es c u t 4 6 places, o r 1,400 to n s.
M o re to n s a r e c u t p e r p la ce b y th e tra c k -m o u n te d m a c h in e s b ecau se th e se m a c h in e s a r e h e a v y e n o u g h to w o rk a c u tte r b a r th a t m a k es a n a v e r ag e c u t o f 6 f t. 9 in. B e ca u se th e b o tto m coal is q u ite h a rd , th e lig h te r s h o rtw a ll m a c h in e cou ld n o t c u t to th is a v e ra g e d e p th .
T h e b o tto m -c u ttin g sla b b in g m a c h in es w eig h a p p r o x im a te ly 9 . to n s a n d th e tr a m m in g speed is 5 m iles p e r h o u r. A m o to r r a te d 50 h p . f o r 1 h o u r d riv e s th e c u tte r c h a in a n d ele
v a te s th e c u tte r a r m ; a second m o to r r a te d 10 h p . f o r 1 h o u r h a n d le s th e tra m m in g , fee d ro p e, a n d tu rn ta b le . W i th a 7 - f t. c u tte r b a r, th e c u ttin g ra d iu s is 13.5 ft.
C u ttin g is d o n e o n th e b o tto m a n d th e b o tto m is m a d e s u r p ris in g ly sm o o th . T h is e lim in a te s b o tto m s c ra p p in g , w h ic h , w ith th e sh o rtw a ll
Suvtping to Cut a 27-Ft. Room W ithout Slabbing The Bottom Can Be Cut "as Smooth as a Tabic"
Drilling Two Holes at Once in a 27-Ft. Room
m a c h in e s, a v e ra g e d a b o u t 6 in. o f coal. T h is s c ra p p in g w a s d o n e w ith lig h t d o b ie sh o ts a n d b y h a n d picks.
E x p lo s iv e f o r b o tto m sh o o tin g cost a b o u t 75c. p e r cu t. D o in g a w a y w ith s c ra p p in g c o n s e rv e s th e lo a d e r ’s tim e sufficien tly to allow h im to a v e r- ag e 2 ^ to n s m o re coal p e r d ay . I t h a s m a te ria lly re d u c e d eye a c c id e n ts an d e lim in a te s th e sla c k th a t w a s m a d e by th e sc ra p p in g . T h e d e s ig n o f th e m a c h in e allo w s a r a n g e o f a d ju s tm e n t o f th e b o tto m o f th e k e r f f ro m a p o in t 8 in. below th e to p o f th e ra il to 7 \ in . ab o v e. T h e c o m b in a tio n o f th e sw in g in g tu r n ta b le a n d th e sw in g in g a r m allo w s d r iv in g
Sequence of Cuts in Driving and Widening Room
places d o w n to 10 f t. in w id th w h e n c u ttin g o n th e b o tto m .
P h y sic a l e f fo rt is so r e d u c e d th a t th e m en a r e n o t all tir e d o u t a t th e e n d o f a s h if t, a s th e y w e re w h e n o p e r a tin g th e s h o rtw a ll m a ch in e s.
B e c a u se o f th e f e w e r m a c h in e m e n re q u ire d o n th e p a y ro ll a n d th e e a sie r w o rk , th e c o m p a n y c a n b e m o re selec
tiv e a n d o b ta in m o re efficient m en . R e d u c tio n in n u m b e r o f m a c h in e o p e ra tiv e s h a s m a d e a v a ila b le a n u m b e r o f h o u se s f o r lo a d ers.
C o m p a n y officials r e p o r t th a t in sta lla tio n o f th e m a c h in e s a n d d rills b r o u g h t a re d u c tio n o f 15 to 2 0 p e r c e n t in th e slack. S e v e ra l fa c to rs e n te r in to th is re d u c tio n . E lim in a tio n o f b o tto m s c ra p p in g a lre a d y h a s been m e n tio n e d . C o a rs e r m a c h in e c u ttin g s is a n o t h e r ; m o re effec tiv e d rillin g is a th ir d ; a n d a c h a n g e to w id e n in g ro o m s b y sla b b in g , w h ic h w ill be d is cu ssed la te r, is a f o u r th .
C o a rs e r c u ttin g s th a n w ith a s h o r t
w all is a t tr ib u te d to th e f a s te r feed . A fee d o f 36 in. p e r m in u te , m e a s u re d a t th e e n d o f th e b a r w h en c u ttin g an a rc , is u se d , e x c e p t in h a rd c u ttin g , w h e n it is re d u c e d by m o to r c o n tro l.
A t 36 in. th e m e an fe e d o f th e b a r is a b o u t 30 in . F a s te r a n d m o re p o s i
tiv e fee d ca u se s th e b its to te a r o u t la rg e r pieces. T h e c h a in sp e ed is a b o u t th e sa m e as w a s u se d on th e s h o rtw a lls.
I n p u rc h a s in g th e m d iin te d c u tte rs th e I s la n d C r e e k . c o m p a n y specified tw o h e a d lig h ts -p e r m a c h in e to illu m in a te th e fa c e -d uring c u ttin g . T h e a d v a n ta g e o f g o o d -lig h t is so ev id e n t th a tj'a c c o r d in g to one o f th e officials,
“ I do n o t se e h o w w e u se d to g e t a lo n g w ith o u t lig h ts f o r u n d e r c u t
tin g .” T h e G o o d m a n c o m p a n y m a d e h e a d lig h ts s ta n d a r d e q u ip m e n t a f t e r a p p ly in g th e m o n I s la n d C re e k m a c h in es.
S p ecial steel tie s, d e s c rib e d in a p r e ce d in g issu e ( Co a l Ag e, V o l. 34, p. 5 5 8 ) w e re d e v e lo p e d f o r h o ld in g
“ b a lle d ” e x te n s io n ra ils u p o n w h ich th e m a c h in e s w o rk a n d m o v e a t th e fac e. R a il o f 2 5-lb. w e ig h t is u se d in ro o m s.
T h e r e g u la r p ra c tic e w ith s h o rtw a ll m a c h in e s w a s to d riv e ro o m s 2 8 ft.
w ide. A sw itc h w a s in sta lle d a n d th e ro o m d o u b le -tra c k e d , a llo w in g th e p la c in g o f tw o c a rs a b r e a s t a t th e face. A s is still th e p ra c tic e , suffi
c ie n t d e v e lo p m e n t is p ro v id e d so th a t each lo a d e r is a llo tte d tw o ro o m s o r th e ir e q u iv a le n t in w o rk in g places.
A b o u t a y e a r b e f o r e b e g in n in g to d is c a rd th e s h o rtw a ll m a c h in e s, d r iv in g th e ro o m s n a r r o w w ith s in g le tra c k a n d w id e n in g b y sla b b in g w a s tr ie d e x te n s iv e ly in o n e m ine. W i th th e tr a c k -m o u n te d m a c h in e s th is m e th o d h a s p ra c tic a lly re p la c e d th e d o u b le tra c k e d w id e -ro o m sy stem .
T h e ro o m is n ec k e d a n d d r iv e n 16 f t. w id e f o r a d is ta n c e o f 32 ft. fro m th e c e n te r o f th e h e a d in g . A t th is lin e w h ic h m a rk s th e firs t b r e a k th r o u g h s in a lte rn a te ro o m s, th e ro o m is w id e n e d . S ta r tin g h e re , th e a d v a n c in g c u ts a r e m a d e 13 to 14 ft.
w id e, a n d a f t e r e v e ry f o u r th c u t each sid e is sla b b e d b ack , th u s m a k in g th e ro o m a p p r o x im a te ly 2 7 f t. T h e sid e sla b s u s u a lly a r e c u t a lte rn a te ly — th a t is, a f t e r tw o fa c e c u ts, th e le f t sid e is sla b b ed a n d th e n a f t e r tw o m o re fac e c u ts th e r ig h t sid e is slab b ed .
A ll m a c h in e s a r e e q u ip p e d w ith fe e d ro p e s a n d sh e a v e s f o r u se in c u ttin g sla b s. T o s t a r t th e sla b th e a r c o f th e c u t te r b a r is c o n tin u e d f ro m th e fa c e c u t to th e r ig h t a n g le
Face and Slab Coal Shot Doum and Two Cars Spotted
404 C O A L A G E — Vol.35. No.7
Smnping to Make a Face Cut Which W ill Be Continued Into a
Right-H and Slab
p o sitio n a n d th e n th e m a c h in e is p u lle d b ac k a lo n g th e tra c k a d istan c e o f 19.5 ft. to th e e n d o f th e slab.
T h e tr a c k is b y n e c e s sity in th e c e n te r o f th e ro o m . T w o ca rs, co u p le d to g e th e r, a r e sp o tte d a t th e face. T h e f r o n t c a r is lo ad ed fro m th e fa c e coal a n d th e o th e r fro m th e slabs. B e c a u se th e fac e o r a d v a n c in g c u ts p ro v id e a to n n a g e eq u al to th a t f ro m b o th slab s, lo a d in g th e f r o n t c a r a lw a y s f r o m th e face in s u re s th a t slab coal a lw a y s w ill be av a ila b le f o r th e r e a r car.
S p o ttin g tw o c a rs in ta n d e m o n th e sin g le tr a c k a n d sla b b in g h a v e se v eral a d v a n ta g e s o v e r c u ttin g w id e ro o m s a n d s p o ttin g tw o c a rs by th e d o u b le
tr a c k sy stem . L o a d e rs find it ea sie r to lo a d a c a r o v e r th e sid e f ro m th e sla b coal. A h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f lu m p is p ro d u c e d fro m th e slabs, b e
c a u se th e o p en en d m a k es it possible to b r in g d o w n th e coal w ith a lig h t c h a rg e o f ex p lo siv e . C o st o f g a th e r in g is re d u c e d by h a n d lin g tw o cars a t a tim e . T h e r e also is a re d u c tio n in th e la b o r a n d m a te ria l costs fo r ro o m tra c k s .
C u ttin g a sla b o n th e a lte r n a te side a f t e r ev e ry se co n d fa c e c u t is n o t fo llo w ed in v a ria b ly . I f th e m ach in e m e n h a v e a h e a y y s h if t, th e y w ill p a s s u p c u ttin g sla b s in ro o m s w h e re sla b b ed coal a lre a d y is available.
A g a in , if th e s h if t is lig h t, th e y m ay c u t sla b s a h e a d o f sch ed u le. T h e se ctio n fo re m a n is c h a rg e d w ith th e r e s p o n s ib ility o f k e e p in g ev e ry lo a d er in co al a n d is th e r e f o r e allo w ed to v a r y th e se q u e n c e o f slab a n d face c u ts as h e sees fit.
P re v io u s ly it w a s m e n tio n e d th a t tw o ro o m s a r e p ro v id e d f o r each lo a d er. A n a d v a n ta g e o f th is sy stem is th a t sw itc h e s do n o t h a v e to be la id in ro o m s to p ro v id e th e lo a d e r w ith tw o w o rk in g p la ce s w h ile ro o m b re a k th ro u g h s a r e b e in g d riv e n . F a c e w o rk is sto p p e d te m p o r a r ily a n d th e e n d o f th e tr a c k is tu r n e d in to th e b re a k th ro u g h . T h e o th e r ro o m p r o v id es th e se co n d w o rk in g place.
T h e d e c re a se in sla c k c re d ite d to th e n e w d rills is believed to be d u e to d r illin g th e holes close to and p a ra lle l to th e r o o f, so th a t th e e x p lo siv e c h a rg e is all in a n 8 -in . to p vein o f s o f t coal w h ich b re a k s u p re g a rd le ss. W i th th e o ld p o s t
m o u n te d d rills, th e hole h a d to be p laced in th e h a r d e r b o d y o f coal below a n d s ta rte d a b o u t 2 ft. fro m th e top. In a 6 - ft. c u t, th is m e a n t an an g le o f a b o u t 18 deg., m a k in g it difficult to keep f ro m d r illin g in to th e to p once in a w hile.
P la c in g all o f th e c h a rg e a t th e to p w h e re it b elo n g s h a s p ra c tic a lly e lim in a te d th e , h a n g in g coal so o f te n e n c o u n te re d in th e old m e th o d o f d r ill
ing. T h e fa c e -a n d -sla b m e th o d o f d riv in g ro o m s p ro v id e s a flex ib ility in d rillin g sc h ed u le s even g r e a te r th a n in c u ttin g . I f th e d rill m e n h a v e an esp ecially lig h t s h ift, th e y c a n go so f a r as to d rill th e rib s b e fo re th e slab cu t h a s been m ade. T h r e e holes a re d rille d in th e 19.5 ft. o f rib w hich is th e a v e ra g e sla b c u t le n g th .
O f th e fo u r m in in g m a ch in e s in u se a t m in e N o . 22, th e n e w e st o p e ra tio n , th r e e w e re rec eiv e d eq u ip p e d to c u t in a p a r tin g n e a r th e c e n te r o f th e seam in ste a d o f on th e b o tto m . A s th e m in e is b e in g d ev e lo p e d fro m th e s h a ft, w h ic h is in o n e c o rn e r o f th e p ro p e rty , to w a rd th e m a in bo d y o f
Face Cut Arc Continued to 90-Deg. and Machine Ready to Move Back
Along Track and Cut the Slab
coal, th e p a r tin g e n c o u n te re d th in s to n o rm a l, so th a t u n d e r c u ttin g is a d v isab le. T w o o f th e m a c h in e s h a v e been c h a n g e d to u n d e rc u tte rs . O n e w ill be le ft a s a c e n te r c u tte r , d e s ig n a te d a s th e ty p e 1 2 4 A A to finish th e th ic k p a r tin g a re a .
T a k in g in to a c c o u n t o n ly th e a d v a n ta g e s th a t a r e ea sy to e v a lu a te , it is e s tim a te d th a t th e n ew e q u ip m e n t sh o u ld sa v e th e firs t c o s t in less th a n tw o y e a r s ’ o p e r a tin g tim e. I f it sh o u ld h a p p e n th a t th e s e n ew m a c h in e s ca n be u se d as lo n g a s w e re th e s h o rtw a lls — so m e h a d se rv e d a p p r o x im a te ly 2 0 y e a rs w h e n d isc a rd e d , b u t w e re in e x c e lle n t co n d itio n , b e ca u se o f th e th o r o u g h m a in te n a n c e m e th o d s— th e y w ill h a v e e a rn e d a h a n d s o m e r e tu r n .
Places Do-wn to 10-Ft. in W idth Can be Cut "on the Bottom"
July, 1930
— C O A L A G E 405
WANTED: MORE RESEARCH
+ On Acid Mine Drainage
By LEWIS V. CARPENTER
N
o r t h e r n w e s t V i r g i n i a is n o w fa c e to facew ith th e p ro b le m o f s tre a m p o llu tio n f r o m a c id c o a l-m in e d r a in ag e. A s a c a se in p o in t, it h a s been e s tim a te d th a t 5 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 g a llo n s o f a c id m in e w a te r, w ith a n a v e ra g e a c id ity o f 2 0 0 g r a in s p e r g allo n , is e m p tie d d a ily in to th e M o n o n g a h e la R iv e r ab o v e M o r g a n to w n , W . V a.
A t tim e s o f low flow , th is a c id w a te r m a k es th e m a jo r s tr e a m s u n s u ita b le f o r e ith e r in d u s tria l, d o m e stic , o r r e c re a tio n a l p u rp o s e s , th e M o n o n g a h e la o f te n h a v in g a n a c id ity o f 100 p a r ts p e r m illio n a n d a p H * v a lu e o f 3. Y e t th is is th e o n ly w a te r s u p p ly f o r a n u m b e r o f c o m m u n itie s a lo n g th e riv e r. I n a d d itio n to th e e n d a n g e re d w a te r su p p lie s, fish lif e is ra p id ly d isa p p e a rin g .
T h e s itu a tio n is ra p id ly b ec o m in g c rtic a l a n d n o so lu tio n se em s to b e fo rth c o m in g . L e g is la tio n is fu tile , u n le ss it be n a tio n a l le g isla tio n , as it w ill a d d to th e co st o f m in in g a n d , u n d e r p re s e n t c o m p e titiv e c o n d itio n s, a d v e rse ly a ffe c t th e p a r tic u la r d is tric t w h e re it is e n fo rc e d . A n y m e th o d o f tr e a tin g m in e w a s te w a te r in sta lle d a t th e p r e s e n t tim e w o u ld h a v e to be s e lf-s u p p o r tin g a n d no su c h sy ste m is n o w availab le.
P ra c tic a lly all o f th e co al se a m s o f n o r th e r n W e s t V ir g in ia c o n ta in iro n a n d s u lp h u r in th e f o rm o f p y r ite s a n d m a rc a site s. B e fo re th e coal is m in ed , a i r a n d w a te r c a n n o t g e t to th e p y rite s, a n d th e d r a in a g e is n e u tra l. O n e x p o s u re to th e a ir th e fo llo w in g re a c tio n ta k e s p la c e : 2 F e S 2 + 7 0 2 + 2 H ..O = 2 F e S 0 4
+ 2 H 2S 0 4
T h is re a c tio n c o n tin u e s a s fo llo w s:
4 F e S 0 4 + 2 H 2S 0 4 + O* = 2 F e 2( S 0 4) 3 + 2 H 20
A s th e w a te r com es in to f u r th e r
* E d i t o r ’s N o t e— p H v a l u e is a n u m b e r d e n o t i n g t h e a c i d i t y o r a l k a l l n i t v o f a s o l u t i o n . S o l u t i o n s w i t h a p H v a l u e o f o v e r 7 a r e a l k a l i n e , a n d t h o s e w i t h a v a l u e l o w e r t h a n 7 a r e a c i d . A s t h e v a l u e s i n c r e a s e a b o v e 7, o r d e c r e a s e b e lo w 7, t h e s o l u t i o n b e c o m e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y m o r e a l k a l i n e o r m o r e a c i d , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
c o n ta c t w ith th e a ir, th e s e ac id s o x id iz e to h y d ra te s , w h ic h g iv e th e f a m ilia r b ro w n ish -y e llo w co lo r to ro c k s in th e s tre a m s th a t c a r ry
“ s u lp h u r ” w a te r.
S u lp h u r is fo u n d in coal in b o th th e o r g a n ic a n d in o rg a n ic sta te . T h e in o rg a n ic s u lp h u r o c c u rs p rin c ip a lly in th e f o rm o f p y r ite s a n d m a rc a site s, b o th o f w h ic h h a v e th e fo rm u la , F e S 2. S u lp h a te s u lp h u r o r d in a r ily is p r e s e n t a s c a lc iu m s u lp h a te ( g y p s u m ) , o c c u rrin g in th in w h ite flakes a lo n g th e c le a v a g e p la n e s. B e ca u se o f th e m a rk e d co lo r c o n tra s t b e tw e e n th e g y p s u m a n d th e coal, it is v e r y ea sy to o v e re s tim a te th e to ta l s u lp h a te s u lp h u r. A s a ru le , f re s h ly m in e d coal w ill c o n ta in less th a n 0.05 p e r c e n t o f s u lp h a te . S u lp h u r in coal m a y co m e fro m th e o rig in a l p la n t a n d a n im a l su b sta n c e s, o r h y d ro g e n s u l
p h id e c a rrie d b y p e rc o la tin g w a te r s m a y c h a n g e th e iro n o f th e iro n a n d ca lc iu m p re c ip ita te d fro m th e g r o u n d to th e su lp h id e o f p y rite s a n d m a r ca sites. T h e o r g a n ic s u lp h u r u su a lly is m o re u n ifo rm ly d is trib u te d a n d is n o t th o u g h t to c a u se a s m u c h acid d ra in a g e as th e in o rg a n ic s u lp h u r.
S u lp h u r c o n te n t se e m in g ly is no c rite r io n o f th e acid c o n te n t o f th e m in e d isc h a rg e . E x a m in a tio n o f th e d r a in a g e f ro m 28 m in e s in n o r th e r n W e s t V ir g in ia fa ile d to in d ic a te a n y d ire c t r e la tio n b e tw e e n th e s u lp h u r
Professor of Sanitary Engineering IVest Virginia University Morgantown, W . Va.
c o n te n t o f th e coal a s m in e d a n d th e a c id ity o f th e m in e d ra in a g e .
T h e o x id a tio n o f p y r ite s is a very- slow p ro ce ss. W in c h e ll1 fo u n d th a t o n tr e a tin g p y r ite s w ith a e ra te d w a te r f o r o n e m o n th n e ith e r th e iro n n o r s u lp h u r h a d g o n e in to so lu tio n . I t also h a s been fo u n d th a t a lk a lin e w a te r s d ec o m p o se p y rite s a n d m a r c a site s to f e r r i c o x id e . A ll o f th e se c h a n g e s a r e r a th e r slow a n d it is diffi
c u lt to e x p la in th e ra p id fo rm a tio n o f acid w a te r s in m in e s b y ch em ical th e o ry alone.
A n a e ro b ic b a c te ria l a c tio n by so m e o f th e s u lp h u r -p ro d u c in g o rg a n is m s m ig h t p o ssib ly e x p la in so m e o f th e h ig h a c id itie s fo u n d in m in e w a ste w a te rs . P o w e ll a n d P a r r 2 p e r f o rm e d a se rie s o f e x p e r im e n ts to d e te rm in e th e re la tiv e o x id a tio n o f p y r ite s in s te rile a n d in o c u la te d coals. T h e y fo u n d th a t a t th e e n d o f 8 8 d a y s th e in o c u la te d coal sh o w e d a d ec id e d ly g r e a te r in c re a se in so lu b le s u lp h u r.
M u c h fu n d a m e n ta l re s e a rc h is n e e d e d to e x p la in finally th e e x a c t fo rm a tio n o f ac id m in e w a te r, h o w e v e r, a s it is a w ell e s ta b lish e d fa c t th a t th e s u l
lE c o n o m i c G e o l o g y ; V o l. 2, p . 2 9 0 ( 1 9 0 7 ) . S‘‘A S t u d y o f t h e F o r m s i n W h i c h S u l p h u r O c c u r s in C o a l ” ; P o w e l l a n d P a r r ; B u l l e t i n N o . I l l , I l l i n o i s E n g i n e e r i n g E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n .
Experimental Flume Used in Testing Culverts W ith Acid Mine W ater
406 C O A L A G E
— Vol.35, N o .7p h u r in th e coal is n o t so lu b le en o u g h to a c c o u n t f o r th e a m o u n t o f s u l
p h a te s fo u n d .
M in e s u n d e r d isc u ssio n in th is a r tic le a r e o p e r a tin g in th e P i t t s b u rg h , S ew ick ley , R e d s to n e , an d U p p e r F r e e p o r t se am s o f n o r th e rn W e s t V irg in ia . T h e s u lp h u r c o n te n t o f th e P itts b u r g h coal, fro m w hich th e m a jo r p ro d u c tio n com es, is fro m 1 to 4 p e r ce n t. I n m in in g , 1 ft. o f
“ h e a d co al” u su a lly is le ft to su p p o rt th e d r a w s la te r o o f a n d a b o u t 5 in. o f b o tto m coal is n o t m in e d , b ec au se o f th e h ig h s u lp h u r c o n te n t. T h e d r a in a g e f ro m th e P itts b u r g h seam u s u a lly is m o re acid th a n th a t fro m o th e rs in th e reg io n .
I n an a tte m p t to c o rre la te th e r a in fa ll w ith th e m in e d ra in a g e th e d a ta g iv e n in T a b le 1 w e re o b ta in e d . D e te rm in a tio n s w e re m a d e on th e b asis o f th e y e a r b e g in n in g J u ly 1, 1928, a n d e n d in g J u n e 30, 1929. T h e to ta l r a in f a ll a t M o r g a n to w n , W . V a ., d u r in g th a t tim e w as 38.37 in. A ll c a l
c u la tio n s w e r e m a d e o n th e b asis o f 2 ,8 6 0 gal. p e r a c re p e r d a y a v e r a g e ra in f a ll. T h e ta b le v e r y clea rly in d ic a te s th a t th e d a ily m in e d to n n a g e is n o t a f a ir c rite rio n o f th e q u a n tity o f acid m in e w a te r.
C r ic h to n 3 r e p o r ts on th e e x a m in a tio n o f 2 5 0 to 3 0 0 m in e s in P e n n sy lv a n ia a n d finds in f a ir ly deep m in in g , sa y 2 5 0 ft. o r m o re, th e m a x im u m y ie ld o f m in e d ra in a g e sh o u ld n o t be e x p e c te d to exceed 25 p e r c e n t o f th e ra in f a ll, th e estim a te d p e n e tra tio n . T h is v alu e a g re e s r e m a rk a b ly w ell w ith th e v alu es o b ta in e d f o r m in e s 2, 3, 4 a n d 5 o f th e ta b le . M in e s 1 a n d 6 h a d a b o u t 50 to 6 0 f t. o f co v e r a n d m in e d p r a c ti
cally to th e o u tc ro p . I n th e deep m in e s, th e q u a n tity re m a in s p r a c ti- Tablc I—Relation' Betzi'ccn Mine Discharge
and Rainfall
P er C ent of A nnual A pproxim ate G allons per Rainfall
D aily D ay p er Appe-aring
C ap acity , Acre of C oal as M ine M ine N o. T o n s E x h au sted D rainage
1 1,000 1,600 5 5.8
2 800 820 28.7
3 200 700 24.4
4 500 750 26.2
5 1,500 700 24.4
6 400 1,100 38.5
Table I I — Partial Analysis of Some Mine W aters in Northern W est Virginia*
Sam ple . S am ple Sam ple Sam ple
D eterm in atio n 1 2 3 4
T o ta l r e s id u e .. . 13,600 69,560 5,262 32,600 A cidity... 6,980 47,800 1,375 22,700
S u lp h ates 7,400 41,700 3,560 19,300
T o tal iro n 1,530 12,270 460 5,900
C alcium ... 590 412 477 682
M agnesium 6 13 12 20
pH v alue 2 .6 1.4 2 .9 2.0
_*A11 re su lts except p H values a re in p a rts per m illion; to o b ta in g rains p er gallon, divide b y 17.3.
• ‘‘D i s p o s a l o f D r a i n a g e F r o m C o a l M in e s ” ; A n d r e w B . C r i c h t o n , T .A .S .C .E . ; V o l. 92.
p. 1 ,3 3 2 ( 1 9 2 8 ) .
Le w i s V. Ca r p e n t e r
The author of this article on mine ivaste waters brings to this study a wide experi
ence in sanitary engineering. Born at Wheeling, W . Va., in 1895, M r. Carpenter was graduated from W est Virginia Univer
sity with the degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering in 1916, and in 1925, received his master’s degree from the same institution. In 1926, he ivas graduated from the University of Illinois with the degree of Master of Science in Sanitary Engineer
ing. During the W orld W ar he served w ith the 6tli and 304th Engineers and after
ward spent three years in constructing waterworks and sewerage systems in the West. Since 1923, he has been teaching at W est Virginia University, besides carry
ing on a consulting practice for various waterworks and the State W ater Com
mission.
cally c o n s ta n t, th e e x tre m e v a ria tio n fro m th e m e a n b ein g a b o u t 14 p e r cent. T h is fa c t is im p o rta n t, b ecau se o f th e la rg e a m o u n t o f a c id ity in o u r stre a m s d u r in g low flow.
T h e a c id ity o f th e w a te r s in th is field is v e ry hig h . L e itc h 4,5 fo u n d a n u m b e r o f m in e s, som e a b a n d o n e d ones, th a t h a d d ra in a g e w ith a n a c id ity o f o v e r 10,000 p.p.rn. a n d fo u n d th a t th e c o n d itio n s o f a b a n d o n ed se ctio n s w e re u su a lly h ig h e r th a n th e ac tiv e ones. A n a ly s e s o f som e m in e w a ste w a te rs in n o r th e r n W e s t V ir g in ia a r e g iv e n in T a b le I I .
D u rin g th e p a s t th r e e y e a rs, th r e e se p a ra te in v e stig a tio n s o f th e effect o f m in e w aste w a te r h a v e b ee n c o n d u cted . th e first o f w h ich w a s c o n ce rn ed w ith th e effect on p u b lic w a te r su p p lies in th e M o n o n g a h e la R iv e r b a s in 0. A b o v e th e in ta k e o f
*"A C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e A c i d i t y o f W a t e r s F r o m S o m e A c tiv e a n d A b a n d o n e d C o a l M in e s ” ; I^ e itc h a n d Y a n t ; B u r e a u o f M in e s p a p e r N o . 2 8 9 5 ; O c to b e r , 19 2 8 .
=''O b s e r v a t i o n s o n A c id M in e D r a i n a g e in W e s t e r n P e n n s y l v a n i a ” ; R . D . L e i t c h . B u r e a u o f M in e s p a p e r N o . 2 8 8 9 , S e p t e m b e r , 1928.
»“ P o l l u t i o n in t h e M o n o n g a h e l a R i v e r B a s i n a n d I t s E f f e c t o n P u b l i c W a t e r S u p p lie s ,” W .V .U . E n g i n e e r i n g E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n N o . 2, p . 27.
th e M o rg a n to w n w a te r su p p ly , it w as es tim a te d th a t 50,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 g a llo n s o f ac id d ra in a g e w a s d is c h a rg e d daily.
D u rin g th e s u m m e r m o n th s , it w a s fo u n d th a t th e r iv e r u su a lly is ' acid a n d , o f c o u rse , h a s a h ig h iro n c o n te n t. B a c te ria in th e ra w w a te r d e cre a se s a s th e a c id ity in c re a se s a n d th e r iv e r f re q u e n tly is ste rile . T h e w a te r is v e r y h a rd , w ith th e r e s u lt th a t th e c ity e x p e c ts to in sta ll a s o fte n in g p la n t d u r in g th e p re s e n t y e a r. A s th e a c id ity in c re a se s it b e com es n e c e s sa ry to a d d m o re lim e, a n d th e w a te r b eco m es m o re c o r r o sive a n d less p alata b le .
D u r in g th e s u m m e r o f 1929 a p o llu tio n s u rv e y o f th e C h e a t R iv e r b a s in 7 w as m a d e. T h e C h e a t R iv e r is fo rm e d b y th e ju n c tio n o f D r y F o r k a n d S h a v e r ’s F o rk , a b o u t o n e m ile b elow P a r s o n s , in T u c k e r C o u n ty , a n d flow s p ra c tic a lly n o r th u n til it e m p tie s in to th e M o n o n g a h e la R iv e r a t P o in t M a rio n , P a . I ts e n tir e le n g th is 75 m iles a n d its d ra in a g e a r e a is 1,417 s q u a re m iles. A se rie s o f su rv e y s m a d e d u r in g tim e s o f low flow sh o w ed th a t th e r iv e r Was acid f o r p ra c tic a lly its e n tir e le n g th a n d th a t th e s tre a m d id n o t h a v e e n o u g h d ilu tin g w a te r to n e u tra liz e th e a c id ity o f th e m in e w a te r. T h e d isso lv e d o x y g e n w a s n e v e r below 50 p e r ce n t s a tu ra tio n d u r in g th e te s ts .
T h e th ir d in v e s tig a tio n w a s d e v o te d to th e effec t o f acid m in e w a te r s o n m e ta l-p ip e c u lv e rts. I n o r d e r to d e te rm in e if a n y o n e o f th e five s ta n d a r d b a se m e ta ls u se d in th e fa b ric a tio n o f g a lv a n iz e d , c o r r u g a te d c u lv e rt p ip e w a s s u p e rio r to o th e rs w h e n s u b je c te d to th e a c tio n o f h ig h ly acid m in e w a te rs , a field te s t in s ta lla tio n w a s m a d e, in w h ic h all m e ta ls w e re su b je c te d to as n e a rly s im ila r c o n d itio n s a s po ssib le. T h e f irs t lo c a tio n h a d to be r e je c te d b e ca u se th e w a te r w a s so acid th a t th e life o f th e c u lv e rt w'as a b o u t 24 h o u rs.
In th is te s t, th e re seem ed to be v e ry little d iffe re n c e in th e life o f th e b ase m e ta ls w h e n su b je c te d to th e a c tio n o f h ig h ly acid m in e w a te r s . V a rio u s b itu m in o u s c o a tin g s se em e d to m e e t th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r p ro te c tio n w h e n th e c o a tin g w a s h eav y . S e v e ra l te s t se ctio n s o f sp e cia lly co a te d p ip e w e re in sta lle d in p ip e lines in som e o f th e m in e s a n d it w a s f o u n d th a t w h e n e v e r th e c o a tin g re m a in e d in ta c t th e p ip e w o u ld re s is t th e a c tio n o f th e acid. I f ex p o se d , h o w e v e r, th e m etal w o u ld fail in a v e ry s h o rt tim e. P r a c
7" P o l l u t i o n S u r v e y o f t h e C h e a t R i v e r B a s i n ” ; C a r p e n t e r a n d H e r n d o n ; B u l l e t i n o f S t a t e W a t e r C o m m i s s i o n o f W e s t V i r g i n i a .
July, 1930
— C O A L A G E 407
tically all o f th e m in e s in th e reg io n u se w o o d en p ip e f o r all o f th e d r a in a g e a n d th e te s ts in d ic a te d th a t if m e ta l p ip e is u se d it is n e c e s sa ry to p r o te c t th e m e ta l f r o m acid a tta c k .
T h e fe a sib ility o f u s in g v a rio u s n e u tra liz in g a g e n ts f o r th e tr e a tm e n t o f acid m in e w a te rs w a s ta k e n u p in a se rie s o f la b o ra to r y e x p e rim e n ts . W a t e r w ith a n a c id ity o f 2 2 ,7 0 0 p .p .m . a n d a p H v a lu e o f 2 w a s se lec ted f o r th e te sts. T h e n e u tra liz in g a g e n t w a s ad d e d in v a r y in g q u a n titie s u n til th e p H v a lu e h ad re a c h e d 5.6. T h is v a lu e is h ig h w h e n th e v o lu m e o f d ilu tin g w a te r a v a ila b le is a p p re c ia b le , b u t it is a b o u t th e lo w e st lim it f o r th e s u p p o r t o f m a jo r fish a n d p la n t life . T h e q u a n tity o f slu d g e f o rm e d w a s m e a s u re d , a n d its w a te r c o n te n t d e te rm in e d .
Table 111— Data on the Neutralisation of 1,000 Gallons of Acid Mine W ater and
the Resultant Sludge
A p proxim ate
\ o l u m o o f W eight, N eu tralisin g Lb. p er Sludgo, D ry ,
A gent 1,000 Cial. P e r C en t Lb.
Lim e (90% C aO ).. 172.5 35 424
P ulverised lim e
s to n e ... 434.6 35 621
Sodium hydroxide. 130 0 25 188
C alcium carb o n ate 161.5 40 352
Sodium carb o n ate. 20 0 .0 40 194
A m m onium h y
droxide... 160.0 20 130
Sodium carb o n ate (80 lb.) plus lime
(6 6 .3 1 b .)... 146.3 25 Lim e (6 1 ,9 lb.) -f
N a O H (6 0 1 b .). 121.9 35 183
P otassium ferro-
oyanide... 142.3* . . 264
Lim e (60 lb .) *f po
tassium ferrocy-
a n id e (103 . 5 lb.) 163 .5 . . 389
Sodium c y a n i d e ,.. 140 188
♦T his q u a n tity of p o tassium ferroeyanide b ro u g h t th o p H v alue to 3 .0 only, sis co m p are« to 5 .6 fo r the o th e r processes.
B a se d o n th e re s u lts o b ta in e d fro m th e s e te s ts , lim e sto n e is th e c h e a p e r tr e a tm e n t f r o m th e s ta n d p o in t o f co sts, p rin c ip a lly b ec au se a c h e a p s o u rc e o f lim e sto n e is a v a ila b le lo
cally. I n o th e r lo c alitie s, it is p ro b a b le th a t th e lim e tr e a tm e n t w o u ld be c h e a p e r. I n c lu d in g th e
c a p ita liz e d co st o f a tr e a tin g p la n t a n d slu d g e d ry in g p la n t, a n d e x c lu d in g a n y r e tu r n f ro m th e sa le o f slu d g e , th e to ta l co st p e r 1,000 g a l
lo n s w o u ld b e 90c. T r e a t m e n t w ith lim e sto n e w o u ld n e u tra liz e th e w a te r, b u t w o u ld n o t m a k e it s u ita b le e ith e r f o r d o m e stic o r in d u s tria l u se, b e c a u se o f th e re s u ltin g h a rd n e s s . O n th e o th e r h a n d , lim e sto n e d o es seem to re m o v e th e m a jo r ity o f th e iro n f ro m th e w a te r. T h e la b o ra to ry te s ts c le a rly in d ic a te — a s m a n y o th e r r e s u lts h a v e a lre a d y sh o w n — th a t th e su c ce ss o f tr e a tin g m in e w a te r s w ill n o t be a s s u re d u n til so m e m e th o d o f u tiliz in g b y p ro d u c ts h a s b ee n d e velo p ed th a t w ill h e lp p a y th e o p e r a tio n costs.
T h e H . C. F r ic k C o k e Co. a t its C a lu m e t M in e 8 a d d e d p o w d e re d lim e sto n e to m in e w a te r a n d re m o v e d a b o u t 2 ,0 0 0 lb. o f f e r r i c o x id e f o r ea ch 1,500 lb. o f lim e sto n e ad d e d . T h e s e ttlin g ta n k slu d g e ( a b o u t 75 p e r c e n t w a te r ) w a s re d u c e d to a d ry p o w d e r b v s p la s h in g it a g a in s t a h e a te d s te a m d ru m . D u rin g th e y e a r 1920, th e C a lu m e t m in e p la n t p r o d u ce d a b o u t s ix to n s o f f e r r ic h y d r a te p e r d ay . T h is m a te r ia l is u se d f o r re m o v in g h y d ro g e n su lp h id e fro m artific ia l g a s a n d a s a n in g r e d ie n t o f a n u m b e r o f p a in ts . B u t if a ll o f th e m in e s in w e s te rn P e n n s y lv a n ia a n d n o r th e r n W e s t V ir g in ia w e r e to p r o d u c e f e r r i c h y d r a te , o n e d a y ’s p r o d u c tio n w o u ld suffice to m e et th e p r e s e n t d e m a n d f o r th is p ro d u c t f o r o n e y e a r.
C o llin s9 o u tlin e s a te n ta tiv e d e sig n f o r tr e a tm e n t p la n t u s in g sla k ed lim e in baffled s e d im e n ta tio n b a sin s, w ith a p e rio d o f re te n tio n o f tw o h o u rs. H e su g g e s ts th a t th e slu d g e
sC o a l A g e ; J u l y 1, 1 9 2 0 ; p . 12.
‘" • P o l l u t i o n o f W a t e r S u p p l i e s b v C o a l M in e D r a i n a g e ” ; C . P . C o l l i n s : E n g ' X e w s - R e c o r d : V o l. 9 1 -1 6 , p . 63S ( 1 9 2 3 ) .
Samples o f Culvert Pipe A fte r Being Exposed to Acid Mine W ater:
L eft— Pure Iron W ithout Copper; Right— Pure Iron W ith Copper
be d rie d o n b ed s so c o n s tru c te d th a t th e le a c h in g s w ill n o t e n te r th e s tre a m . T h e d rie d slu d g e ca n th e n b e b u rie d . S u c h a p la n t w o u ld p ro v e v e ry co stly to o p e ra te , p a r tic u la rly w h e n h ig h a c id itie s a r e e n c o u n te re d .
A n a r tic le 10 te lls o f th e re s u lts o b ta in e d by a T r a v e r s m a rl c lay sy ste m f o r tr e a tin g m in e w a te rs . T h is p la n t w a s b u ilt in H a r r i s o n C o u n ty , W e s t V irg in ia . T h e p ro c e ss c o n s iste d o f a d d in g a lim y m a rl to th e w a te r a n d a llo w in g it to se ttle . D e ta ils o f co st a n d o p e ra tio n w e re n o t g iv e n , b u t th e p la n t h a s sin c e b ee n a b a n d o n e d .
A n u m b e r o f p a te n ts h a v e b ee n g r a n te d f o r th e tr e a tm e n t o f p o llu te d ac id w a te rs . O n e o f th e s e p r o c e s s e s 11 is b ased 011 tr e a tm e n t b y p a s s in g th e liq u id w a s te th r o u g h p o r o u s ca lc iu m c a r b o n a te a n d m a in ta in in g th e p e rio d o f c o n ta c t b e tw e e n tw o a n d five m in u te s . T h e w r i te r d o es n o t k n o w o f a p la n t o f th is ty p e th a t h a s b e e n in sta lle d o n a c o m m e rc ia l scale.
A b o u t o n e y e a r a g o th e W e s t V i r g in ia G eo lo g ical S u rv e y re le a se d a p r e s s d is p a tc h in w h ic h it a n n o u n c e d th e K a p la n - R e g e r p ro c e ss f o r t r e a t in g m in e w a s te w a te rs . A c c o rd in g to th e d is p a tc h , “ it c o n s ists in a d d in g to th e su lp h a te w a te r s a c o m p le x o r - g a n o -m e ta llic c o m p o u n d w h ic h c o m b in e s w ith th e ch e m ic al c o m p o u n d s o f th e w a te rs a n d f o rm s a b lu e p ig m e n t to be k n o w n a s M o n o n g a h e la B lu e, a n d a t th e sa m e tim e re m o v e s th e a c id .” I n c o n c lu sio n , th e d is p a tc h s ta te s th a t “ in th e K a p la n - R e g e r p ro c e ss, th e a d d e d c h e m ic als c o m b in e c o m p le te ly w ith th e ch e m ic a ls in th e w a te r to f o r m a n in so lu b le , m a r k e t
ab le p ro d u c t, le a v in g th e w a te r p r a c tic a lly f re e f r o m a c id a n d m in e ra l su b s ta n c e s .” T h is p ro c e ss h a s n o t bee n tr ie d o n a la rg e scale a n d n o t e n o u g h te c h n ic a l d a t a h a v e b e e n r e p o rte d to p ro p e r ly in te r p r e t th e p o s sible r e s u lts f r o m th e p ro c e ss.
I n s tu d y in g th e s itu a tio n , se v e ra l f a c ts a r e a p p a r e n t: T h e ac id m in e w a s te w a te r in n o r th e r n W e s t V i r g in ia a n d w e s te r n P e n n s y lv a n ia is ra p id ly d e s tro y in g all o f th e s tr e a m s , m a k in g th e w a te r u n s u ita b le f o r d o m e stic o r in d u s tria l c o n s u m p tio n a n d r e c re a tio n a l p u r p o s e s ; no a d e q u a te ec o n o m ic so lu tio n to th e p ro b le m h a s bee n ev o lv ed , a n d n o n e o f th e tr ie d p ro c e sse s f o r tr e a tm e n t h a v e p ro v e d ec o n o m ic ally f e a s ib le ; m u c h f u n d a m e n ta l r e s e a r c h o n th e o r ig in o f m in e w a te r s is n e e d e d , w h ic h m ig h t le ad to so m e m e th o d o f p r e v e n tin g th e f o rm a tio n o f th e a c id v a r ie ty .
in V e s t V i r g i n i a W ild L i f e L e a g u e : M a r e h , 192S. p . 29.
UU . S . P a t e n t 1 ,6 S 3 ,3 0 0 ( 1 9 2 S ) .
SYSTEMATIZATION
+ Pays W ay in Track Maintenance
W
I T H ele c trific a tio n , u n d e r g ro u n d h a u la g e h a s e n te re d a s ta g e o f in c re a s in g speed a n d c a p a c ity o f th e tr a n s p o r ta tio n u n its . T o g e t th e m a x im u m fro m th e se u n its , th e tra c k s s e rv in g th e m m u s t be b r o u g h t to th e sa m e p la n e o f efficiency. T h e e x ig e n c ie s o f th e coal s itu a tio n d e m a n d th a t th is be a c co m p lish e d w ith a d e c re a se in p e r-to n co sts. T o o b ta in th e d e s ire d re su lts, a th o r o u g h s tu d y o f e x is tin g c o n d itio n s a n d a c a r e fu l a n a ly sis o f m e th o d s a n d m a te ria l m u s t be m ade.
S tu d ie s o f th is c h a r a c te r h a v e been in s titu te d by a few o f th e m o st p ro g re s s iv e m in in g co m p an ie s th a t re a liz e d th a t th e e n o rm ity o f th e e x p e n d itu r e m a d e o n tr a c k w o rk w a r ra n te d a th o ro u g h in v e stig a tio n as to w h e re th is m o n e y w a s goin g .
A s a n o u tc o m e, te s ts h av e been c o n d u c te d to find th e re la tiv e life o f th e v a rio u s ty p e s o f m a te ria ls a n d th e lo c atio n s to w h ich each is b est a d a p te d , so th a t o n ly su ch m a te ria ls w ill be p u rc h a s e d as h a v e been d e m o n s tr a te d to be th e m o st eco n o m ical in th e lo n g ru n . In v e stig a tio n s also w e re m a d e , o f th e m e th o d s o f d o in g w o rk . T h e m e th o d s w e re fo u n d to v a r y c o n s id e ra b ly b etw e en col
lie ries, b e c a u se a specific m e th o d w o u ld n o t g iv e th e sa m e efficiency in e v e ry case.
A s n o te d in a p re v io u s a rtic le , such in v e s tig a tio n s a n d stu d ie s n e tte d one c o m p a n y a s a v in g o f $ 4 3 3 ,2 0 0 p e r y e a r in th e m a in te n a n c e o f u n d e r g r o u n d tra c k . I n m a k in g stu d ie s o f th is k in d , it w ill b e fo u n d th a t th e c o sts c a n be r e d u c e d in se v e ra l w ays a n d th a t,, b e c a u se th e e x p e n d itu r e fo r la b o r u s u a lly is th e b ig g e st item , m e th o d s f o r p r o m o tin g th e efficiency o f th e tr a c k fo rc e m u s t be co n sid ered first.
B e f o r e a m o re m o d e rn sy ste m o f m a in te n a n c e w a s in s titu te d , th e tim e o f tr a c k la y e r s a n d th e ir h e lp e rs w as d is trib u te d a p p r o x im a te ly a s f o llo w s :
By
T h e y re p o rte d a t 7 a.m . to th e f o r e m an , w h o to ld th e m w h a t jo b to ta c k le first. T h e f e r e m a n ’s in s tr u c tio n s w e re b ased o n th e r e p o rts o f se v e ra l o f th e tr a n s p o r ta tio n u n its, also on his o w n o b s e rv a tio n s a n d the r e p o r ts o f th e tra c k la y e rs , w h o w ere a w a re o f p laces w h e re tr a c k n ee d ed re p a ir. P la c in g th e sp ik e h a m m e r, sp ik e b ar, a n d o th e r to o ls on th e ir sh o u ld e rs, th e w o rk e rs s ta rte d fo r th e ir d e s tin a tio n , a r r iv in g a b o u t 7 :30 a.m . W h e n se v eral jo b s w e re u rg e n t, w hich u su a lly w as th e case w h e re th e tra c k s w e re in p o o r c o n d itio n g e n e rally , o n ly sufficient tim e w as ta k e n to m a k e te m p o ra r y re p a irs . T h e n , w ith a reso lv e to fix th e tra c k b e tte r w h en th e y h a d m o re tim e, th e tra c k la y e rs se t o ff f o r th e scen e o f th e ir n e x t job.
I t w o u ld th e n be 1 0 :3 0 a.m ., a n d a f te r a 15- to 2 0 -m in u te w a lk a n d a little re st, th e tra c k la y e rs w e re re a d y to ta ck le jo b N o . 2. A f t e r lo o k in g th e jo b o v er, th e y sp e n t c o n sid e ra b le tim e co llec tin g m a te ria ls b e fo r e b e g in n in g th e a c tu a l wro rk o f re p a irs . B e fo r e m u c h h a d been acco m p lish ed , th e y w e re n o tified th a t a tr ip w a s off th e tra c k on th e slope.
A f t e r a n o th e r 15 -m in u te w a lk th e y w ere c o n fro n te d by se v e ra l loaded ca rs re s tin g c ro ssw ise o f th e tra c k , one on its side, w ith som e coal spilled e v e r th e ro a d w a y . T h e firs t ste p ta k e n w as to u n lo a d en o u g h a d d i
tio n a l coal fro m th e tu rn e d -o v e r ca r to fa c ilita te th e r ig h tin g o f it. P o s sibly th e o th e r c a rs o f coal h a d to be p a rtly u n lo a d e d b e fo re th e y co u ld be re ra ile d w ith an im p ro v ise d lever.
T h e n a f te r th e c a rs w e re re ra ile d a n d pulled o u t o f th e w ay , th e sp illed coal w o u ld be sho v eled o ff th e tr a c k a n d a n u m b e r o f sp ik es d riv e n to h o ld th e rails to g ag e te m p o ra rily . A f t e r s u r v ey in g th e d am a g e d o n e to th e tra c k th e crew w o u ld h a v e to o b ta in m a -
JO H N F. M cCRYSTLE
Transportation Engineer Scranton, Pa.
te ria ls f o r m a k in g m o re p e rm a n e n t r e p a irs .
A s s u m e th a t th e d e ra ilm e n t w as c a u se d b y b ad tie s w h ich allo w ed a ra il to s p re a d a n d th a t a la tc h p o in t w as b ad ly b e n t b y th e d e ra ile d c a rs.
T h e tr a c k la y e r s sp e n t, p e rh a p s , a h a lf h o u r g e ttin g a n e e d ed sw itc h p o in t fro m a p lace a h a lf m ile aw a y . M o re tim e w as c o n su m e d in p r o c u rin g n ew ties. In all lik e lih o o d th e re m a in d e r o f th e s h if t a n d p o ssib ly tw o o r th r e e h o u r s o f o v e rtim e w as s p e n t in r e p a irin g th e tr a c k s sufficiently to m ak e s a fe th e o p e ra tio n o f h a u la g e a t n o r m al speed th e n e x t d ay . T h e ro ad c le a n e rs m a y h a v e s p e n t se v e ra l h o u rs lo a d in g u p th e sp illed coal. A ll w e n t h o m e fe e lin g th e y h a d w o rk e d h a rd . T h e fo re m a n in p a r tic u la r w as p leased th a t h e h a d g o t th in g s m o v in g a g a in a n d m a n a g e d by s tre n u o u s e x e rtio n , to k ee p h is p r o d u c tio n a t n o r m al. Y e t th e a c tu a l a c c o m p lish m e n t w as th a t th e tr a c k la y e rs in te n o r eleven h o u rs re n e w e d a b o u t fifte e n ties.
T o p re v e n t th e fo re g o in g o c c u r
ren c e s it is e sse n tia l th a t th e tra c k s be k e p t in su ch a s ta te o f r e p a ir th a t d e ra ilm e n ts d u e to b a d tr a c k s w ill be in f re q u e n t. T h is ca n be a c co m p lish ed b y p r e p a rin g a m a in te n a n c e p ro g ra m , by d iv id in g u p th e r o u tin e w o rk o v e r a p e rio d , a n d by b rin g in g p r e s s u r e to b e a r to see th a t th e w o rk is ac co m p lish e d a s p la n n e d . A p r o g ra m o f th is s o r t c a n b e p u t in to ex e c u tio n , w ith o u t to o g r e a t an e x p e n d itu r e o f tim e in c o m p ilin g s ta tis tics, w'ith th e a id o f p r in ts o f tn e w o rk in g s a n d a c h a r t s im ila r to th a t sh o w n on p a g e 4 1 1 . A s th e tr a c k s a r e g o n e o v e r— tie s b ein g re n e w e d , a lig n e d a n d s u rfa c e d , a n d b o lts b e in g tig h te n e d — th e p r in ts c a n b e p o ste d
July, 1930
— C O A L A G E 409
so th a t a g la n c e a t th e m w ill rev e al th e s ta tu s o f th e w o rk .
F r e q u e n t e x a m in a tio n s o f th e tr a c k w ill rev eal p o te n tia l so u rc e s o f d e ra ilm e n ts , su c h as a b ro k e n f r o g o r loose s w itc h p o in ts , w h ic h c a n be re m e d ie d b e f o r e tr o u b le is e x p e r i
enced. M a te r ia l can be f o rw a rd e d to th e re q u ir e d lo c a tio n s b e f o r e th e tr a c k la y e rs a r e s e n t to th e jo b s, a l
lo w in g th e m to d e v o te th e ir e n tire tim e to th e r e p a irs . A ll m a te ria ls w h ich ca n a t low co st be p re p a re d , re a d y f o r in s ta lla tio n , o n th e s u r fa c e by m a c h in e ry , o r in th e p la n ts o f th e m a n u f a c tu r e r , sh o u ld be so fu rn is h e d . T h e n th e tr a c k la y e r s n ee d n o t d o th is w o rk u n d e r a d v e rs e c o n d itio n s, w ith th e few sim p le to o ls a t th e ir d isp o sal.
T h e tra c k la y e rs sh o u ld be f u r n ish e d w ith su ita b le to o ls, a n d f r e q u e n t in sp e c tio n s sh o u ld be m a d e to see th a t th e se to o ls a re k e p t in p r o p e r re p a ir. S o m e tr a c k la y e r s a r e alw a y s th r e a te n in g to g e t so m e th in g fixed, b u t n e v e r g e t to it. W h e n th e n e c e s
sity a rise s f o r th e u se o f a c e rta in tool n o t in r e p a ir, m u c h la b o r is w a ste d in tr y in g to m a k e it fu n c tio n . A s th e co m p a n y p a y s f o r th is la b o r, th e tr a c k la y e r s h a v e n o in c e n tiv e f o r g o in g o u t o f th e ir w a y to v is it th e b la ck sm ith o r m a c h in e sh o p to h a v e th e to o ls re p a ire d .
'O n m a in h a u la g e s, w h e re traffic is h ea v y , a g r e a t deal m o re can be a c c o m p lish e d if th e g e n e ra l m a in te n a n c e w o rk is d o n e a f t e r w o rk in g h o u rs.
I n a f te r h o u r s th e tr a c k g a n g can w o rk w ith o u t in te r ru p tio n s o r d elay s c a u se d by th e f re q u e n t p a s s in g o f tr i p s ; a n d th e n th e g a n g n ee d n o t do th e w o rk piecem eal in o r d e r to k ee p th e tr a c k a t all tim e s in o p e r a tin g c o n d itio n .
T
H I S is n o t to b e c o n s tru e d a s a d e fe n s e o f w o rk in g th e re g u la r d a y fo rc e th r e e o r fo u r h o u rs o v e rtim e. L ittle ca n be ac co m p lish e d by th e m e n w h e n th e y a r e t i r e d ; too, th e ir efficiency is im p a ire d o n th e fo llo w in g day. P la c e a special g a n g o n th e o ff s h if t u n d e r a sp ecial f o r e m a n a n d h o ld h im s tric tly a c c o u n ta b le f o r th e w o rk . I t is also e s se n tia l, in o r d e r to se c u re g r e a te s t efficiency, th a t a s m u c h o f th e a c tu a l tr a c k w o rk as p o ssib le be d o n e b y fu ll-fle d g e d tra c k m e n . T h e c u sto m o f p la c in g in e x p e rie n c e d m e n a t th e ir w o rk r e s u lts in g r e a tly in c re a se d co st, d u e to th e lo n g e r tim e re q u ir e d a n d th e u n s a tis f a c to r y w o rk d one.
N e w tr a c k in sta lla tio n s , especially tu r n o u ts , sh o u ld be c a r e f u lly in sp e cte d on co m p letio n , a n d a n y o v e r
s ig h t d u e to c a re le ssn e ss o r h u r r y
sh o u ld b e called to th e a tte n tio n o f th e tra c k m e n . I n th is w a y , a n d in a s h o r t tim e, th e m e n a r e ta u g h t th a t each jo b m u s t be co m p leted b e f o r e to o ls a r e re m o v e d . I t is n o t a n u n co m m o n o c c u rre n c e f o r tra c k la y e rs to n e g le c t th e sp lic in g o f jo in ts . T h e n , w ith in a few m o n th s , d u e to th e c re e p in g o f th e tra c k , th e ra ils se p a ra te , c a u s in g th e r o llin g s to c k to p o u n d h ea v ily . I f th e f a u lt is n o t c o rre c te d , it b eco m es a p o te n tia l s o u rc e o f d e ra ilm e n ts . R e s u lta n t r e p a irs r e q u ire c o n s id e ra b le tim e, f o r a ra il m u s t be c u t a n d in sta lle d to clo se u p th e sp a c e c a u se d b y th e c re e p in g .
A s id e fro m th e lo w e r la b o r co st d u e to th e g r e a te r efficiency o f th e tra c k fo rc e , th e re is a f u r th e r r e d u c tio n in o u tla y f o r m a in te n a n c e if m a te r ia l is u se d w h ic h h a s been fo u n d to g iv e a lo n g e r life . T o te s t v a rio u s m a te ria ls p ro p e rly , lo c atio n s f o r th e ir tr ia ls sh o u ld be ch o sen w h ic h clo sely a p p r o x im a te a v e ra g e c o n d itio n s. I f se v e ra l k in d s o f o n e m a te ria l a r e te ste d , th e y sh o u ld be in sta lle d sid e by sid e f o r c o m p a riso n . T h e m a te r ia ls sh o u ld b e in sp e c te d a t re g u la r in te r v a ls a n d a c a r e f u l r e c o rd k e p t o f th e ir re la tiv e la s tin g q u a li
tie s a n d fre e d o m f ro m o p e r a tin g d i f ficu lties a n d re p a irs . I f th e te s t m a te r ia l is m e re ly d is trib u te d p r o m is c u o u sly w ith a r e q u e s t “ L e t m e k n o w h o w y o u lik e i t,” o n c h e c k in g u p , it w ill be fo u n d th a t c o n flic tin g o p in io n s w ill o f te n be rec eiv e d .
A S e v e ry o n e k n o w s th e w e ig h t o f
■L th e ra il to b e u se d is d e te r m in e d la rg e ly b y th e w e ig h t o f th e lo c o m o tiv e s in u se a n d th e d e n s ity o f th e traffic. T h o u g h ra il u p to a n d in c lu d in g th a t w e ig h in g 4 0 lb. p e r y a r d can b e p u rc h a s e d a t a le sse r p ric e p e r to n th a n ra il o v e r th is w e ig h t, a n d th o u g h o n e to n o f th e lig h te r ra il w ill g iv e a g r e a te r le n g th o f tra c k , th u s re d u c in g th e c a p ita l cost, th e h e a v ie r ra il p ro v id e s g r e a te r rig id ity in p r o p o rtio n to its g r e a te r w e ig h t. T h e r e f o r e th e h e a v ie r ra il w ill re q u ir e less m a in te n a n c e in a lig n in g a n d s u rfa c in g . A n d th e ea sie r rid in g q u a litie s o f th e tr a c k w ill re d u c e th e m a in te n a n c e co st o n th e ro llin g stock.
E x p e r ie n c e h a s sh o w n th a t, w h e re e le c tric lo c o m o tiv e s w e ig h in g u p to 10 to n s a r e u se d , 4 0-lb. ra il w ill g iv e e x c e lle n t se rv ic e o n se c o n d a ry h a u l
a g e ro u te s w ith n o rm a l m a in te n a n c e ; it also h a s b ee n p ro v e d th a t o n m a in h a u la g e s, tr a c k o f 60-lb. ra il is w a r r a n te d , b ec au se th e co st o f m a in ta in in g it is n o t u n d u ly h ig h e r th a n th a t o f lig h te r tra c k . D u r in g th e la s t fe w
y e a rs, w ith th e in s ta lla tio n o f loco
m o tiv e s w e ig h in g 2 0 to n s a n d m o re , 8 0 - a n d 90-lb. ra il h a s b ee n m a k in g its a p p e a ra n c e in m in e tra c k s . I n d e c id in g u p o n s ta n d a r d s o f ra il w e ig h t, th o u g h t sh o u ld b e g iv e n to th e p ro b a b ility , w ith in th e c o m in g te n y e a rs , o f traffic in c re a se o n ev e ry m a in h a u la g e ro u te .
O
N E difficu lty in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e e le c trific a tio n o f h a u la g e r o u te s is to k ee p th e tr a c k s p ro p e rly a lig n e d . D u e to th e ir s h o r t w h e e lbase, th e c a rs in m o tio n a r e c o n tin u a lly lu r c h in g fro m sid e to side.
T h is la te ra l th r u s tin g c a u se s th e tr a c k s to m o v e o u t o f a lig n m e n t u n til a ta n g e n t so o n b eco m es a s e rie s o f re v e rs e c u rv e s. T h is d is to rtio n d e c re a se s th e v elo c ity a t w h ic h tr ip s ca n tr a v e l a n d in c re a s e s th e p o w e r r e q u ire d a n d th e w e a r on th e ro llin g sto c k . I t s h o r te n s th e lif e o f th e rail.
T h e w h e e lb a se o f th e c a rs in co m m o n u se w a s d e te rm in e d in d a y s w h e n th e m u le w a s e x te n siv e ly u se d . T h e e a se o f g e ttin g th e c a rs a r o u n d s h a r p c u rv e s a n d th e fa c ility w ith w h ic h a c a r w ith w h e e ls close t o g e th e r co u ld be re r a ile d w a s m o re im p o r ta n t th a n a n y s lig h t la te r a l m o v e m e n t o f th e c a rs w h e n tr a v e lin g tw o o r th r e e m iles p e r h o u r. B e c a u se o f th e lo n g e r w h e e lb a se o f e le c tric lo c o m o tiv e s, e x tre m e ly s h a rp c u rv e s c a n n o lo n g e r b e in sta lle d . T h e o ld c u s to m o f h a v in g five o r s ix m e n r e ra il a c a r w ith th e aid o f a le v e r h a s g iv e n w a y to th e less c o s tly m e th o d o f h a v in g th e t r a n s p o r ta tio n c re w do th e ir o w n r e r a ilin g w ith th e aid o f c a r re p la c e rs . T h e la te r a l m o v e m e n t o f th e c a r e n d s h a s b ee n e x te n d e d by th e g r a d u a l in c re a se in th e le n g th o f th e c a rs to p ro v id e g r e a te r c a p a c ity , w ith o u t a p r o p o r tio n a te in c re a s e in th e w h e e l
b ase.
O n ta n g e n t tr a c k o n slo p e s a n d p la n e s, w h e r e th e v e lo c ity o f th e c a rs m a k e s it e s s e n tia l th a t a lig n m e n t be m a in ta in e d , th e te n d e n c y o f th e tr a c k s to m o v e la te r a lly c a n b e p r e v e n te d to a g r e a t e x te n t b y in s ta llin g lo n g tie s a t in te rv a ls , h itc h in g th e m in th e b o tto m ro c k o f th e rib o n each sid e . T h is p ra c tic e also a id s in p r e v e n tin g th e tr a c k s fro m c re e p in g d o w n th e in clin e.
T h e d im e n sio n s o f th e c ro s s tie s is d e te r m in e d by th e w e ig h t o f ro llin g sto c k , th e d e n s ity o f traffic, th e g a g e o f tra c k , a n d th e b a lla s t u se d . T ie s o f m in im u m le n g th sh o u ld e x te n d a p p ro x im a te ly 10 to 12 in. o u ts id e th e ra il in o r d e r to p r e v e n t s p littin g w h e n
