Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Considerations for Ocean Engineers

Oceanic Engineering International, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1998, pp. 48-53

Integrated Coastal Zone Management: Considerations for Ocean

Engineers

Delft University of Technology

Ship Hydromectenics Laboratory

Library

Mekelweg 2 - 2628 CD Delft The Netherlands

Phone: 31 15 786373 - Fax: 31 15 781838

'Secretary, Canadian National Committee for ECOR (Engineering Committee on Oceanic Resources) and Canadian National

Committee for SCOR (Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research), #120I, 9921-104 Street, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada,

T5K 2K3.

e-mail: nicholls@telusplananet

ABSTRACT

Coastal areas are of immense importance for human habitation and economic activity. Around the world, coastal zones and their adjacent seas are coming under increasing stress due to rising populations and improved standards of living. There are also other pressures such as those due to natural disasters and climate change. It is only relatively recently that formal administrative systems have emerged for the management of coastal resources and their uses. As a result of Agenda 21 of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the concept of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) has received increased impetus. This paper reviews the basis of IC71/I and its application, particularly with regard to the integration of

all aspects of the management process. Considerations of ICZM applicable to ocean engineers are identified.

Brian Nicholls1

1. BACKGROUND

The coastal zone is one of the most dynamic regions on earth, involving the complex interaction of land, oceanic,

atmospheric, and human processes. From drainage basin to coastal ocean, it is a region of complex, interacting ecosystems

that include terrestrial, freshwater, wetland, estuarine and

marine habitats - habitats that are some of the most productive and valuable in the biosphere. Coastal areas are of immense importance for human habitation and economic activity. They

provide basic human needs (food, shelter, etc.) as well as

functional (e.g. trade), aesthetic (e.g. leisure environments) and

strategic (e.g. defense) resources [Dutton and Hotta 1995].

Over fifty percent of the world's population live on the small

area of the earth's surface that is defined as coastal which,

depending on the definition of the coastal zone employed, is between three and fifteen percent of the earth's land surface. This population percentage is increasing and, if present trends continue, will exceed seventy percent by 2030, or more than six billion people, compared with less than three billion today [Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 1998a]. In

economic terms, substantial wealth is generated by the

resources of the coastal zone, with a high proportion of

manufacturing and service related economic activity occurring in coastal cities and towns. In the United States, for example,

ten percent of the country that

is coastal is estimated to

generate over one-third of the Gross National Product [Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 1998a]. For

the residents of the coastal zone, its value in social, cultural

and spiritual terms is important.

Almost exclusively, coastal waters are within the Extended

Economic Zone of coastal states and therefore their

management and protection falls under national jurisdiction. However, there exists continuing interest by governments to cooperate and coordinate their respective national coastal zone interests at an intergovernmental level [Holland 1998]. During the 1990s the coastal zone has come under close scrutiny by intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations and regional associations, as well as national governments. The

1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development [United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992] was the starting point for many. The Rio

Declaration on Environment and Development from this conference proclaimed some 27 principles, many of which

apply to the coastal zone. For example Principal 9, which is of

interest to ocean engineers, states that: "States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity-building for

sustainable development by improving scientific understanding through exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing the development, adaptation, diffusion and

transfer of technologies,

including new and

innovative

technologies". El-Sabh et al. [1998] highlight several major

international conventions, declarations, etc. relevant to the

-coastal zone, including the Rio Declaration. These are listed

below:

The

1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and

Development;

The 1992 UNCED Agenda 21 Programme of Action

for Sustainable Development;

The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),

which came into force in 1994;

The 1992 UNCED Convention on Climate Change;

Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD) 1993 recommendations on

coastal zone management, the 1993 Noordwijk

Declaration, and the 1994 Lisbon Declaration;

Programme of Actions of the 1994 Global Conference

on the Sustainable Development of Small Island

Developing States (SIDS);

1995 Global Programme of Action (GPA) for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities;

1995 International Coral Reef Initiative Framework for Action; and

1995 Agreement of the UN Conference on Straddling

and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks.

To the above list could be added the 1982 United Nations Convention on the law of the sea (UNCLOS), which came into

force in 1994. This convention provides a comprehensive global legal framework governing ocean use. It is considered to be the most significant international instrument dealing with

the protection and preservation of the marine environment [Meltzer Research & Consulting 1996].

The demands for space and resources in the coastal zone are increasing exponentially [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1994]. Conflicting interests and competing demands for the use of coastal areas and resources necessitate trade-offs

both between conservation and development, and among

various development options. In such cases, the need for

cross-sectoral cooperation is obvious. Unfortunately, there are many examples in which agencies involved in the planning and

management of coastal areas have weak linkages to the

activities of the other sectors.

2. THE INTEGRATED APPROACH TO COASTAL MANAGEMENT

Coastal management is a relatively new field, it being only

in recent years that formal administrative systems for the

management of coastal resources and their uses have emerged

[Dutton and Hotta 19951. The conceptual beginnings of

integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) date back to the mid-1960s, with the U.S. being the first nation to put in place a reasonably comprehensive national coastal zone management program when it enacted the Coastal Zone Management Act in 1972 [Knecht and Archer 19931. There is no single common approach, nor one definition, to ICZM. Clark [1996] in his

Coastal Zone Management Handbook defines Integrated

Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) as "an integrative, holistic

system for ensuring sustainability of coastal resources, the

perpetuation of biodiversity, socio-economic improvement and security from natural hazards". A broader definition, from the World Coast Conference 1993 Conference Statement, specifies ICZM as involving "the comprehensive assessment, setting of objectives, planning and management of coastal systems and

resources, taking into account traditional, cultural and

historical perspectives and conflicting interests and uses; it is a continuous and evolutionary process for achieving sustainable development" [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

1994]. With respect to the term "sustainable development", the concept was formalized by the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations. As eloquently stated by Brundtland in her

report, "...Humanity has the ability to make developments sustainable - to ensure that it meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs..." [Brundtland 19871.

A key factor that

distinguishes ICTIVI initiatives from other coastal management initiatives is that coastal waters and coastal lands are addressed

together in a single unified management approach. ICZ1v1

addresses both the management of development (for the

benefit of the people who reside in the coastal zone and the country at large) and the conservation of natural resources.

While so doing, it has to integrate the concerns of all relevant sectors of society and of the economy [Clark 1996].

According to Chua [1993], ICZM is built on the essential elements of coordination and integration. The application of

integration to a variety of pathways includes the following concepts:

the integration between the land and ocean sides of the

coastal zone;

the integration of all stakeholders (economic sectors, environmental interests, etc.) in a shared process;

the integration of economic, ecological, social, cultural, etc. values;

the integration of various

forms and sources of

knowledge;

the integration of legislative instruments;

the integration of various levels of government

(including aboriginal) in implementing decisions and

monitoring consequences;

the integration of communities, including the people who live and work in the zone, as full participants in

the process;

the integration of the disciplines of management,

including engineering, science, economics and law.

Two management concepts of relevance to ICZIVI are

subsidiarity and co-management [Hansen 1998]. Subsidiarity

involves moving management decisions to the lowest possible jurisdictional level consistent with successful solution of the

problem. It is a term that covers a range of possibilities. For

example, if a problem can be handled at the local level this

should be allowed without national level intervention.

Co-management is a theme that bridges the subsidiarity concept with the more usual top-down management regimes found at

present. Resource management co-management, for example, requires full participation of all interested parties, including consumers, in decision making and recognition of stakeholder

interests. The successful models will involve more than just consultation. ICZM also embraces several other general principles: the precautionary principle; the polluter-pays

principle; the use of proper resource accounting; the principle of trans-boundary responsibility; and the principle of

intergenerational equity [World Bank 1993].

Finally, it should be recognized that ICZM is still largely in the developmental stage although implementation is at a fairly

advanced stage in such countries as the USA and Equador.

Many national programs are in the process of being developed and established. However, there is no overall agreement on a

specific approach to ICZM.

3. ICZM CONSIDERATIONS FOR OCEAN ENGINEERS The issues facing the coastal zone are many and varied. The

following list (based on Intergovernmental Commission [1998a1) presents "globally ubiquitous issues" by four operational categories:

1. Preserve healthy coastal environments

habitat loss and modification (e.g. wetlands, coral reefs);

nutrient over-enrichment (e.g. eutrophication, hypoxia/anoxia);

toxic contamination, oil spills; diseases in marine organisms; harmful algal blooms; non-indigenous species;

marine conservation through marine protected areas;

preservation of marine biodiversity.

2. Promote sustainable use of coastal resources

exploitation of living resources; mariculture (pond and open water);

marine biotechnology; salt-water intrusion.

3. Mitigate coastal hazards

flooding, storm surges, tsunamis; wind,tropical storms;

erosion; sea-level rise.

4. Facilitate safe and efficient marine operations

safe navigation (dredging, hydrographic charting, etc.)

efficient marine commerce;

exploitation of non-living resources (hydrocarbons, minerals, sand/gravel);

exploitation of the ocean as an alternative energy

source (wave energy, tidal power, etc.);

protection from spills of hazardous materials (oil, chemicals, radioisotopes).

It is axiomatic that ocean engineering, which is a broad,

multi-disciplinary and interdisciplinary field, contributes

toward the resolution of these many and varied issues. Vadus

and Graham [1998] and subsequent articles in the same

publication, present information on ocean engineering

activities in Europe, many of which pertain to the coastal zone.

Ocean engineers have historically played a major role in

addressing such issues as coastal erosion, safe navigation, and the exploitation of non-living resources. More recently they are becoming increasingly involved in emerging issues such as marine biotechnology [Pomponi 1997], marine biodiversity

[Solow 1997], and the exploitation of the ocean as

an

alternative energy source [FaInes and Lovseth 19911.

Discussed below are

some of the

considerations of

Integrated Coastal Zone Management that appear to be

relevant to ocean engineers. While these considerations are not specific to ocean engineers, as they are also applicable to other disciplines, all are regarded as matters of which ocean

engineers should be cognizant.

The review is

arranged

according to the "integration" categories listed in Section 2 of

this paper, these categories not being mutually exclusive.

Integration between the land and ocean sides of the coastal

zone

As noted in Section 1, the coastal zone is one of the most dynamic regions on earth, involving the complex interaction of land, oceanic, atmospheric, and human processes. If this is not

fully recognized, the consequences can sometimes be

devastating. The example is often quoted of mangrove forests

(a cheap source of fuel) being destroyed, resulting in major

(and expensive) coastal erosion problems. Ocean engineers, and other disciplines, need to be fully aware of the processes involved in the interactions between the land and the sea. A major international program, Land-Ocean Interaction in the

Coastal Zone, is currently devoted to this topic [Burns 1997]. Integration of all stakeholders in a shared process

Integration in coastal zone management involves

cooperation between all responsible actors. The incentives for

cooperation are the common needs to achieve objectives related to the coastal zone, resulting in `win-win' situations [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1994]. As

Bewers and Vandermeulen [1994] note: "In any move to

ICZM, the entire suite of sectoral management elements and

the various levels of planning authority within national

jurisdictions must be incorporated into a management system that deals comprehensively with the objectives and practices of all stakeholders". This is a complex requirement that will take considerable time to develop, it being recognized that, on the

one hand, there is a suite of developmental or promotional

sectors and, on the other, cultural, environmental, etc. interests. Ocean engineering, which encompasses a variety of fields, e.g. chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, environmental engineering, mechanical engineering, mining engineering, naval architecture and petroleum engineering, as well as such areas of activity as fisheries and dredging, will be

represented in many of these sectors and interest groups. Integration of economic, ecological, social, cultural, etc. values

The integration of the various fundamental values of the

coastal zone provides a measure of the importance of this zone

-to the economy of a region or nation, and provides justification

for ICZM. While in the past the emphasis has been on the economic value, increasing emphasis is now being placed on

aesthetic and other non-use (or passive) values. The

determination and integration of these various values, in which

ocean engineers may be involved,

is often complex as illustrated by the following projects:

i. _{estimation of the economic value of coastal and ocean} resources - the case of Nova Scotia [Mondale et al.

1998];

determination of non-use values in respect of environmental and other benefits in the coastal zone [Goodman et al. 1996].

(d) Integration of various forms and sources of knowledge Principle 22 of the Rio Declaration states that "Indigenous

people and their communities and other local communities

have a vital role in environmental management and

development because of their knowledge and traditional

practices...." [United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992].

Communities have a great deal of

valuable knowledge that is not always being considered by scientists, technologists and engineers.

One of the main

recommendations arising from the Coastal Zone Canada '94

Conference focused on the need

for the integration of

traditional knowledge with conventional science and

technology [Coastal Zone Canada Association 1996].

Instances where such integration is happening are increasing.

For example, in Canada fishers and the fishing industry are becoming more involved in the collection of information

needed to improve the accuracy and precision of stock

assessments and in determining what measures need to be undertaken to ensure resource conservation. [Parsons et al.

1998].

With respect to the integration of knowledge from various sources, mention is made here of the role of intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations in meeting the needs of

coastal nations

for information and data to address the

complexities of coastal zone management. It is important for

ocean engineers to be aware of such programs and their

outputs. Examples of major programs that provide such information include:

Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS),

specifically its "coastal module". This program involves several international organizations

(Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission,

World Meteorological Organization, United Nations Environment Programme, and International Council

of Scientific Unions) [Summerhayes 1997;

Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

1998b];

Land Ocean Interaction in the Coastal Zone (LOICZ)

Core Project of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme [Burns 1997; International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme 1995];

United Nations Agencies Group of Experts on the

Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Pollution

(GESAMP) [Group of Experts on the

Scientific

Aspects of Marine Pollution 1990];

Engineering Committee on Oceanic Resources

(ECOR) [Mira-Monerris 1997]; and

Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR)

[Gross and Healy 1995]. Integration of legislative instruments

According to Meltzer Research & Consulting [1996], there is

no one widely emulated model for ICZM legislation.

However, it is possible to

identify two general types of

legislation: CZM-specific legislation (e.g. France, Ecuador, Sri Lanka); and more general legislation that includes provisions

for CZM (e.g. Mexico, New Zealand, Mauritius). _Meltzer notes that

the enactment of ICZM legislation does

not

guarantee the successful implementation of a CZM program, noting that there are many examples of coastal states with legal

frameworks for ICZM where no program is implemented

because of lack of political

will, technical or financial resources, or adequate training.

Integration of various levels of government (including aboriginal) in implementing decisions and monitoring

progress

Designing an effective institutional arrangement for ICZM

is an important and challenging component for achieving integration. The hierarchy of governance ranges from local

communities through national governments, to regional and

international forums [Bewers and Vandermeulen 1994].

Meaningful development and implementation

of ICZM

therefore requires integration of activities and objectives along

several lines, as well as from several viewpoints, including

ocean engineering. According to

Meltzer Research &

Consulting [1996], it is possible to identify three general types

of institutional approach:

expand and enhance the duties of an existing agency. For

example,

in New Zealand

the Department of the

Environment was given significant powers under the Resources Management Act, fundamentally redefining

federal and lower-level government responsibilities; concentrate the authority in a new centralized agency as in

Sri Lanka where the Coastal Conservation Department

was formed to develop and coordinate management effort;

create an inter-ministerial council or inter-agency coordinating committee under a

lead agency, as

in Ecuador where an inter-agency committee was established and placed at the highest level of government.

Recognizing the rights and interests of indigenous peoples

in ICZM is reflected in Principle 22 of the Rio Declaration

[United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992], and was another key recommendation of the Coastal

Zone Canada '94 Conference [Coastal Zone Canada

Association 1996]. The latter noted that meaningful ways of incorporating aboriginal values into sustainable development must be found, and that steps must be taken toward building trust between indigenous and non-indigenous groups.

ii

iii.. iv. (e) (f) 2..

(g) Integration of communities, including the people who live and work in the zone, as full participants in the process Hildebrand [1997] notes that the question " `Top-down' or 'bottom-up' approaches to Integrated Coastal Management?" is being asked increasingly as national programs and

government ICZNI initiatives are complemented by integrated

and multi-stakeholder efforts at the community level.

Hildebrand continues: "It is clear that community-based

coastal management represents a new form of partnership

between government and community-based organizations. In essence, it is about power sharing in the integrated planning

and management of coastal zones". Meltzer Research &

Consulting [1996] suggests four reasons for this shift to

community-level involvement:

communities want to be involved in the management and protection of their coastal resources;

community-level efforts can often achieve many ICZM program objectives when other efforts fail;

the level of public support for a program generally

corresponds to the level of community involvement in the planning and decision making process;

since governments, increasingly constrained by shrinking financial resources, are unable to solve the

environmental problems that persist in a community's back yard, the communities involved have endeavored to fill this void (often with some government support).

Engineers, scientists and others will increasingly have to

interact with citizens at the community level, e.g. to explain the basis for their technical decisions on a particular issue.

(h) Integration of the disciplines of management, including science, engineering, economics, and law

In order to address the diverse requirements of ICZM, new mechanisms are being developed among the various disciplines and within policy and administration structures. Bewers and Vandermeulen [1994] state that revised modes of interaction will have to be developed among the physical, chemical and

biological sciences and the disciplines of coastal sociology,

anthropology, ocean and coastal economics to deal in a much more seamless way with cross-disciplinary problems. To these disciplines should be added the field of ocean engineering.

4. CONCLUSION

The application of integrated coastal zone management as a practical management system is gradually occurring. This is happening in response to several factors [Cook 1995]

including:

the recognition that change is

part of the natural

system in the coastal zone, bearing in mind that all

change is not 'natural';

the expectation that coastal issues will continue to rise

up the political agenda in most countries because of

development pressures;

understanding that a narrow, short-term market driven approach underlies many coastal and marine problems; the realization that a holistic approach must be taken to

coastal and marine issues.

The implementation of ICZM, with its key concepts of

integrated management and sustainable development, presents a number of important challenges. While the application of ICZM will not assure a sustained yield from coastal resources, its absence will almost inevitably lead to their depletion [Clark

1996]. As outlined in this paper, ICZM requires complete

integration, which is one of the major considerations facing ocean engineers and other technical resource persons. Such

integration is exemplified by the emerging situation in the U.K.

where the government favors an approach to coastal

management that builds on existing institutional structures so

that organizations retain their statutory responsibilities but

work together at the most appropriate local level. Rather than imposing solutions, the U.K. government seeks to encourage local resolution of conflicts and development of opportunities,

having stated that it considers a voluntary, devolutionary approach to integrated coastal management to be the most appropriate.

Such an approach requires agreement and

consensus building

that can only be achieved when all

potentially affected parties, including local communities, have been involved in the plan preparation or management process

[Edwards et al. 1997].

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