Guide for implementing
Geographical
Information Systems (GIS)
dedicated
to
shoreline
management
prepared in the framework of MESSINA project
Christophe Dekeyne Institut Géographique National March 15, 2004
TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION... 3
A. The definition of a Geographical Information System (GIS) ... 3
B. The components of an information system ... 3
C. Application in the fields of shoreline management ... 4
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM ... 6
A. Prelimina ry specifications for MESSINA information products... 6
A.1. Information products relating to coastal erosion risk and coastal flooding risk mapping ... 6
A.2. Information products relating to the impact of human activities to shoreline stability ... 8
A.3. Information products relating to the cost-benefit analysis of shoreline management scenarios ...10
B. Preliminary review of relevant local data ...13
B.1. Aerial photographs and orthophotographs ...13
B.2. Historical and current coastline positions...13
B.3. Administrative boundaries ...14 B.4. Infrastructure...14 B.5. Hydrography ...14 B.6. Terrestrial elevation ...15 B.7. Bathymetry ...15 B.8. Sedimentology ...16 B.9. Wave regime...17 B.10. Wind regime...18 B.11. Tidal regime ...18 B.12. Near-shore currents ...19 B.13. Sea level ...19
B.14. Coastal defence works ...19
B.15. Land cover ...20
B.16. Demography ...20
B.17. Land market value...20
B.18. Registered economic activities ...21
B.19. Land use ...21
B.20. Areas of high ecological value ...21
B.21. Cultural heritage sites ...22
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY ...22
A. GIS project set-up ...22
B. Requirement engineering...23
C. System prototyping ...23
D. System demonstration ...24
E. System documentation ...25
F. System installation and training ...25
STANDARDS FOR GIS DATABASE MODELLING ...26
A. Reference model...26
B. Application schema ...26
C. Data dictionary...29
D. Metadata ...31
E. Establishment of permanent identifiers ...33
INTRODUCTION
This document has been prepared in the framework of the MESSINA project part-funded by the INTERREG III C West Zone programme. It aims at adapting the guidelines developed in the framework of EUROSION to the particular purposes of MESSINA. These guidelines are intended to help regional authorities willing to make a major contribution to coastal erosion management and coastal information sharing.
A. The definition of a Geographical Information System (GIS)
An information system (IS) can be defined as “a set of technological, human, organisational, financial, and information resources organized in such a way to produce, archive, retrieve, modify, process, combine, represent, exchange and/or disseminate information with a view to reach the objectives the system is designed for”.By geographical information system, or GIS, we mean that the information which will be “manipulated” by the system has a spatial reference, i.e. is linked to geographical locations.
B. The components of an information system
An information system - either it be geographical or nor – includes 6 generic components and is best illustrated by the diagram below. These 6 components are equally important though a number of definitions tend to put the technology (software and hardware) upfront.
The 6 components of an information system
The component data and information products covers a number of considerations relating to the architecture of data manipulated by the system, their storage and dissemination formats and the standards used to describe and represent them. A distinction is made between the term data which refers to the raw collection of measurements and observations, and information products which refers to the meaningful combination of data which ultimately responds to the expectations of the system “owner”.
The component policies, procedures and practices addresses both the administrative and technical rules that should be followed by the staff managing and operating the information system. Policies are broad specifications of the manner in which management expects operations to be performed, for example in the fields of system documentation and record keeping, acquisition of data from external data providers, diffusion of data generated by the system, quality control, back-ups, system performance review, etc. These policies are implemented through procedures which consist of explicitly written and well-documented protocols. As for the term practices, it refers to the way operations are actually carried out by the system staff, regardless of their compliance with the procedures. Specific practices may emerge either to adjust to procedural gaps, or as a result of a weaknesses in the system.
The component human resources addresses the human aspect of the information system. The component encompasses the staff members managing and operating the system, but also the activities which are undertaken to enhance their ability to manage or operate the system. This include notably training activities.
The component software refers to the software modules or packages which are used by the system to generate the information products expected from the system owner. The software component can be made of both commercial-on-the-shelf (COTS) modules or modules specifically designed and coded for the purpose of the system. All modules shall be adequately documented to facilitate its use and maintenance by the system staff.
The component hardware addressed the logistics needed to operate the system. This generally includes computer equipment but not only. Hardware can be extended to survey equipment (GPS, total stations, sounders, etc.) and transport logistics (e.g. vehicles) if the system requires so.
The component finances covers all the considerations relating to funding issues. This includes the sources of funding and the allocation of financial resources to the various components of the system. Finances are essential to ensure the sustainability of the system operations and upgrade it when technologies have sufficiently evolved. When some of the data or services generated by the system are fee-based, this financial component may include promotional or marketing activities. Experience has shown that the lack of a long term funding vision is responsible for the failure of an outstanding number of information systems.
C. Application in the fields of shoreline management
The EUROSION study has reviewed a number of European experiences of shoreline management in which GIS played a particular role, and based on these experiences has formulated some broad recommendations on the “ideal” specifications for GIS dedicated to coastline management. The objective of MESSINA is to take forward some of these recommendations and see how they can practically be implemented to answer the needs expressed by MESSINA partners. In turn, the experience of MESSINA is expected to fertilize and be distilled to other European regions.
EUROSION has particularly highlighted that the objectives which are assigned to an information system, hence its functions, are central for its sustainability and should be in line with demands formulated at the highest level of management (for example by the mayor). In too many cases, the design of information systems is technology-pushed and without an explicit support from the top management, which often results in the information system to be abandoned after a few years of operations.
EUROSION has identified 3 generic objectives are proposed to constitute the backbone of GIS dedicated to shoreline management. These are:
- the mapping of areas at risk of coastal erosion and coastal flooding (Function 1) - the assessment of impact of human activities to shoreline stability (Function 2)
- the balance of costs and benefits associated to different shoreline management scenarios (Function 3)
These three generic objectives are expected to reflect – if not all – at least the major part of shoreline management questions asked by decision-makers on a daily basis.
MESSINA agrees on this analysis and intends to translate this into practical achievements. However, while EUROSION provisions are expected to be applicable to any European region, MESSINA will complete EUROSION analysis by assessing the feasibility of their implementation and determining which site-specific factors influence the performance of the system. Major among these factors are the availability of local input data, the complexity of local coastal processes (e.g. wave-dominated processes, tide-dominated processes, etc.) and the local institutional arrangements.
This document has been prepared to support this analysis and to provide a modus operandi to test the EUROSION approach on three sites, namely: (i) the Basin of Thau (French region of
Languedoc-Roussillon), the Côte d’Albâtre (French region of Haute-Normandy), and city of Rewal (Polish region of Zachodniopomorskie). It includes:
- a preliminary analysis of the component data and information products.
- A GIS project implementation strategy to design, develop, and install prototypes of the information system on the three pilot sites.
Other components of the information system prototypes will be developed at a later stage of MESSINA.
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION SYSTEM
As previously mentioned, this preliminary analysis focuses on the component data and information
products of the information system. Other components will be elaborated at a later stage of the
MESSINA project.
A. Preliminary specifications for MESSINA information products
In line with EUROSION recommendations, information products to be generated by MESSINA GIS prototypes at the level of the three pilot sites, will address:- the mapping of areas at risk of coastal erosion and coastal flooding - the assessment of impact of human activities to shoreline stability
- the balance of costs and benefits associated to different shoreline management scenarios The diagram below schematises the process of input data conversion into information products via GIS analysis as proposed by MESSINA.
A.1. Information products relating to coastal erosion risk and coastal flooding
risk mapping
The mapping of areas at risk of coastal erosion and coastal flooding is an essential information input prior to any investment along the coastline. This can be best summarised by the question: “Is my investment at risk of coastal erosion and coastal flooding during its lifetime ?”. This question may be generalized into the following questions: “Where should constructions be avoided ?” or alternatively “Which areas need to be protected first ?”
Answering these questions is a far from trivial task. It requires knowledge on current and future erosion rates, knowledge on the probability of occurrence (or exceedance) of extreme water levels, knowledge of the investment site topography, and knowledge on values of assets located along the
coastline. In turn, knowledge on erosion rates requires the accumulation and the analysis of a great deal of data including for example the historical positions of the coastline, the volumes of sediments transported, or the impact of sea level rise on the foreshore profile. Depending on the nature of the coastline - cliffy, sandy, or muddy - these data are estimated via various methods. This shows that behind the original question (Is my investment at risk of coastal erosion and coastal flooding during its lifetime ?), a multiplicity of sub-questions are posed.
In the framework of MESSINA, the concept of risk at position x is described by the product of the probability that an erosion-related or flood-related event exceeds x and the value of the investment at x (in an erosion or flood prone area). which is vulnerable to this event:
Risk (x) = (1 - Fe(x)) * fv(x)
The relevance of this formula is that it weights the probability of erosion and flood hazard with the value of assets along the coastline. By doing that, even areas characterized by a relatively low hazard probability may be considered at significant risk if the value of assets in the hazard zone is considerable.
The probability that erosion or a flood event exceeds the position x can be respectively visualised by information products INF1 and INF2:
- INF1: the projection of coastline positions in the future (typically for the coming 5, 10, 25, 50
and 100 years).
- INF2: The delineation of flood-prone areas for different exceedance probability of water levels
(typically for 10, 50, 100 and 200 year return period events)
Combining these information products with the estimated value of coastal assets is in turn expected to generate risk maps, which are best represented by the following information products:
- INF3: Population living in coastal land parcels at risk
- INF4: Economical values of coastal land parcels at risk
- INF5: Heritage values of coastal land parcels at risk
- INF6: Ecological values of coastal land parcels at risk
The map below provides an example of information products which could be derived from GIS (here INF1 and INF2). More information on population, economical, heritage and ecological valuation (INF3 to INF6) can be found under the section A.3.
A.2. Information products relating to the impact of human activities to
shoreline stability
To some extent, information products reflecting the impact of human activities to coastal processes are quite similar – in nature - to risk mapping products. The major difference between the two sets of information products comes from the introduction of human activities which modify some of the input data, hence the shoreline response. In the case of environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies, the modification of input data (also called “boundary conditions”) induced by human activities is simulated as EIA studies take place prior the investment and mainly derives from modelling techniques.
Human activities may induce changes which will in turn effect shoreline stability in a wide range of ways, as demonstrated by the EUROSION studies. Human activities may indeed alter shoreline stability if they are expected to result in:
• a modification of near-shore bathymetry and wave propagation patterns • a disruption of long-shore drift currents
• a removal of sediment from the sediment system • a reduction of river debits
• a reduction of volume of tidal basins • a modification of near-shore vegetation • a modification of soil weathering properties • a modification of aeolian transport patterns • land subsidence
The two figures below provide an illustration of the extent to which dredging activities and harbour extension may modify input data, hence the shoreline stability. This example is an extract from the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study relating to the harbour extension of Cape Town. In this example, the harbour extension will induce both dredging construction aggregates offshore Robben Island and increasing the area of Cape Town harbour facilities. Both the expected dredging hole and the harbour extension site are depicted in purple. Shoreline instability is expected to result from a modification of wave heights and wave directions which is induced by the cumulated effect of the two project operation sites. These modifications have been simulated and are represented in the figure below.
source: EIA specialist study on the impacts of the container terminal expansion on shoreline stability.
Typology of projects having an impact on coastal erosion processes (source: EUROSION study) IMPACTS PROJECTS Modification of bathymetry and/or wave propagation patterns Disruption of long-shore currents Removal of sediment from the sediment system Reduction of river debits Reduction of volume of tidal basins Modification of near -shore vegetation Modification of soil weathering properties Modification of Aeolian transport patterns Land subsidence Land reclamation • Harbour/airport extension ü ü ü
• Energy production plants (e.g.
windfarms) ü ü ü
• Recreational parks ü ü ü
River regulation works
• River damming ü ü
• Irrigation systems ü
Sediment dredging
• Channel dredging for navigation ü ü ü
• Aggregate extraction for
construction ü ü ü
• Sand extraction for nourishment ü ü ü
Construction of tourism/leisure facilities
• Marinas ü ü
• Hotel resorts ü
• Recreational parks including golf
amenities ü ü
Coastal defence
• Cross-shore hard defence including groins, breakwaters and jetties
ü ü ü
• Alongshore hard defence including seawalls, bulkheads and revetments
ü ü
• Beach nourishment (see
sediment extraction) ü ü ü
In the framework of MESSINA, it is unlikely that all potential impacts of human activities on shoreline stability will be addressed and experimented. In the early stages of the project, MESSINA partners will decide which human activities will be paid a closer attention. Expected information products include:
- INF1var: the projection of coastline positions in the future (typically for the coming 5, 10, 25,
50 and 100 years) with modification of boundary conditions.
- INF2var: The delineation of flood-prone areas for different exceedance probability of water
levels with modification of boundary conditions.
- INF3var: Population living in coastal land parcels at risk with modification of boundary
conditions.
- INF4var: Economical values of coastal land parcels at risk with modification of boundary
conditions.
- INF5var: Heritage values of coastal land parcels at risk with modification of boundary
conditions.
- INF6var: Ecological values of coastal land parcels at risk with modification of boundary
conditions.
A.3. Information products relating to the cost-benefit analysis of shoreline
management scenarios
EUROSION study has demonstrated that poor attention is generally paid to the balance of costs – including environmental costs - and benefits – including environmental benefits – when designing and implementing shoreline management solutions. In a significant number of cases, this has resulted into shoreline management investments superseding the value of assets to be protected or into unplanned costs which are hardly affordable by local communities at the long run. There is therefore a need for developing specific tools and information products which can demonstrate the relevance or irrelevance of certain scenarios. The approach which will be tested in the framework of MESSINA is based upon the concept of Net Present Value (NPV) estimated for each shoreline management scenario envisaged.
The Net Present Value (NPV) is a key indicator to assess and compare the economical viability of different coastal erosion and flood management scenarios, including the “do nothing” scenario which will be systematically reviewed and will constitute the reference scenario. The NPV is calculated using the formula:
t=T
NPV=
Σ
( BE
t-IC
t-EC
t) [1/(1+r)
t]
t=0
where:BE are the estimated benefits for year t IC are the estimated internal costs for year t EC are the estimated external costs for year t
T is the life expectancy of the Shoreline management scenario r is the annual capitalisation rate
Internal costs
Internal costs are the investment and recurrent expenses relating to the implementation of the shoreline management scenarios. They include:
Ø the preliminary costs, which is to say the costs of preliminary studies including technical feasibility, environmental impact assessment, cost-benefit analysis, and social perception studies.
Ø the investment or capital costs necessary to implement the Shoreline management scenario. These costs include the collection and production of baseline data and indicators, consulting fees for shoreline modelling and technical design, expenditures related to input materials and field operations, and the costs of project management and administration.
Ø the operating and maintenance costs, which are the costs to be spent annually to maintain the effectiveness of the Shoreline management solution over its life expectancy. These costs should be capitalised at present bank interest rate.
Ø the operating cost of environmental monitoring procedures, which is to say the costs of measures and procedures to monitor and mitigate the adverse effects of the Shoreline management scenario, as defined by the environmental impact assessment study. These costs should be capitalised at present bank interest rate.
External costs and benefits
External costs and benefits respectively reflect a decrease or increase of values induced by the different scenarios. These values include:
Ø the human value, which is to say the value derived from goods (including or lands) which can be extracted from or built on near-shore areas as a direct result of mitigated coastal erosion, such as new infrastructure built in areas less prone to coastal flooding, new hotel resorts built along waterfronts and to a lesser extent small scale mining activities of sea products. Once estimated, annual direct use benefits should be capitalised at present bank interest rate.
Ø the economical value, which is to say the value – mainly in monetary terms – that humans can extract from the sale of products, services and/or rights derived from a land parcel or from assets built on this parcel (such as infrastructure). The economical value may be expressed in a variety of ways including in terms of capital invested, land market value, replacement costs, turnover, or jobs. It may concern a wide range of economic sectors: tourism, mining, agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries, services, etc. Once estimated, annual economical benefits should be capitalised at present bank interest rate.
Ø the ecological (or regulation) value, which is to say the value derived from functions fulfilled “naturally” (i.e. without human intervention) by a coastal land parcel. This include for example dunes protecting freshwater lens and filtering waters, wetlands and local marine habitats providing suitable conditions for fisheries and aquaculture, marshes and flats absorbing nutrients and contaminants drained by rivers. Ecological value may be expressed in terms of replacement costs or willingness of the public to pay for protection. Once estimated, annual ecological benefits should be capitalised at present bank interest rate.
Ø the heritage (or existence or information) value, which is to say the value derived from the benefits which do not involve using the site in any way, the value that people derive from the knowledge that the site exist, even if they may never actually visit the site. Heritage value may be estimated for designated buildings and monuments (e.g. churches), designated natural parks (national, regional parks, site of scientific interest), archaeologic sites, historic gardens, parks, or battlefields, and remarkable sites. Annual budget spent for the conservation of heritage sites, or willingness to pay for their conservation can be taken as proxy of heritage value. Once estimated, this value should be capitalised at present bank interest rate.
The table below summarizes the different value indicators which are expected to be experimented in the framework of MESSINA. It is worth mentioning that the originality of the approach proposed by MESSINA is to couple the estimation of these values – in the case of different scenarios - with GIS facilities allowing their cartographic representation (“value mapping”). This approach has not been extensively used neither in Europe, nor outside Europe, and is therefore considered as an innovation in the fields of shoreline management.
Value indicators to assess benefits and external costs
Value types Value indicators Applicability Interpretation
Human value population at risk • Population • Decrease of population at risk induced by a scenario is a benefit
• Increase of population at risk induced by a scenario is an external cost
Economical value Capital invested or replacement costs
• Infrastructure (road, railways, harbours, airports) • Protection of an infrastructure induced by a scenario is a benefit • Loss of an infrastructure induced by a scenario is an external
cost
Land market value • Urban areas, agricultural areas, non-designated
natural areas
• Rise of market value induced by a scenario is a benefit • Fall of market value induced by a scenario is an external cost
Full time equivalent jobs • All registered companies (tourism, agriculture,
aquaculture, fishery, mining, industry, service, etc.)
• Creation of jobs induced by a scenario is a benefit • Loss of jobs induced by a scenario is an external cost
Annual turnover • All registered companies (tourism, agriculture,
aquaculture, fishery, mining, industry, service, etc.)
• Increase of annual turnover induced by a scenario is a benefit • Decrease of annual turnover induced by a scenario is an external
cost Ecological (or regulation) value Replacement costs or
willingness-to-pay for protection
• Habitats stabilising slopes (e.g. forests)
• Habitats providing protection against storm surges (dunes, mudflats)
• Habitats providing protection against salt water intrusion (dunes)
• Habitats absorbing nutrients and contaminants
(e.g. marshes, mudflats)
• Habitats provide suitable conditions for animal feeding, nesting and hatching (e.g. dunes, mudflats, marshes, beaches)
• Protection or improvement of an ecological function induced by a scenario is a benefit
• Loss of an ecological function induced by a scenario is an external cost
Heritage (or existence or information) value
Conservation budget or
willingness-to-pay for conservation
• Designated buildings and monuments (e.g.
churches)
• Designated natural parks (national, regional parks, site of scientific interest)
• Archaeologic sites
• Historic gardens, parks, or battlefields
• Remarkable sites
• Protection of a heritage site induced by a scenario is a benefit • Loss of a heritage site induced by a scenario is an external cost
Resulting information products are respectively:
- INF7: Net Present Value (NPV) of the “do nothing” scenario.
- INF7var: Net Present Value (NPV) of the alternative scenario
B. Preliminary review of relevant local data
The availability of local data is key to ensure a successful implementation of the GIS prototype. This section proposes an brief inventory of data sets which are considered as relevant to achieve the information products described under the section A and, more generally, the goal of MESSINA.
B.1. Aerial photographs and orthophotographs
The use of aerial photographs has become a popular method for measuring coastal change. Aerial photographs are taken from cameras embarked on aircrafts flying at variable altitudes. Typical photograph scales vary from 1:30,000 to 1:10,000 depending on the altitude. Aerial photographs provide a reliable picture of the ground at a specific time, including information on the type and position of buildings, infrastructure, vegetated and not vegetated areas. They provide as well the position of “one” interface between land and sea (depending on the tide at the time of photo acquisition). In most cases however, aerial photographs are not usable as such as they have significant geometrical distortions - due to their conic perspective - especially at their edge. A mosaic of geometrically corrected aerial photographs is therefore preferred. These so-called “orthophotographs” are made super-imposable to a map and are more appropriate for further analysis. To provide an accurate position of the coastline, the resolution of aerial photographs and ortho-photographs should be sub-metric - ideally between 0,2 to 0,5 metre – which require that the flight scale ranges from 1:10,000 to 1:25,000. In addition, aerial photographs should cover a minimal area which extends from 10 km inland to 2 km offshore. In the landward direction, aerial photographs are expected to provide information on urban, industrial, agricultural and natural assets located along the coast and potentially at risk of coastal erosion and flooding. In low-lying areas, it is however recommended to extend the spatial coverage of aerial photographs landwards up to the contour line corresponding to an elevation of 2 meters. Though aerial photographs provide few information on the wave regime near-shore, they can still provide indications on the topography of shallow waters including the locations of rip, flood and ebb currents, especially if aerial photographs are acquired at low tide.
B.2. Historical and current coastline positions
Coastline can be defined as the interface between land, sea and air. However, due to the relentless fluctuations of the sea, its position cannot be precisely defined. To remove ambiguity, the coastline is therefore defined as the level reached by the highest high waters, i.e. the upper limit of the inter-tidal areas. This upper limit is generally easily identifiable on the ground (e.g. foot of the fore-dune) or can be derived from aerial photographs or high resolution satellite images. The current and historical positions of the coastline are key information to understand coastal processes, anticipate future changes and prevent building in highly dynamic areas. In that respect, valuable information is provided by historical topographical maps from the early 1900s.
A number of techniques make it possible to delineate the shoreline position (either current or historical). The coastline may be:
• Digitised directly from existing ortho-photographs (see mapping of cliff erosion) using computer-aided photo-identification functions offered by most GIS software, provided the coastline is easily identifiable as, for example, a characteristics feature of the cliff profile, the foot dune, or hard seafront structure.
• interpolated from cross-shore profiles (see cross-shore profiles), i.e. the “probable” position of the shoreline is deduced from the position of the shoreline accurately known at certain locations along the shore. This method may be particularly efficient if cross-shore profiles are spaced 500 metres or less.
• derived by intersecting the highest high water level (excluding storm level) known at a certain location with an accurate elevation model produced from remote sensing technologies (mainly LIDAR or aerial photogrammetry)
In the case of historical coastline position, the coastline may be derived from ancient from old topographical maps (e.g. in France Carte de l’Etat Major, 19th century) or old aerial photographs generally available in all Europe since the early 1950’s.
The horizontal positioning accuracy of the coastline position should be better than 5 metres.
B.3. Administrative boundaries
Terrestrial administrative boundaries provide a geographical delineation of administrative units – ranging from national borders to the infra-municipal district. Though the spatial extent of coastal erosion processes has little to do with administration, administrative boundaries are important in the sense that they help identify which local authorities are potentially exposed by coastal erosion and therefore arrange appropriate platforms of dialog and participation. Boundaries of administrative units ranging from the national level borders to the municipal level can be found at the level of national mapping agencies and are generally part of digital topographical databases (see infrastructure). For the infra-municipal level, it is recommended to adopt the units used for census purposes (e.g. “enumeration districts” in the UK, “îlots” in France, etc.). The boundaries of these units may be generally accessible through national statistics office but their availability in GIS format varies from one country to another. In case this information on infra-municipal districts is not available in GIS format, the method recommended is to digitize this information from existing plans or textual descriptions obtained from the statistics office. This process is not expected to be time consuming since not all the municipalities are divided into census units (a typical census unit regroups approximately 2000 people, but this varies from one country to another).
The horizontal position accuracy of terrestrial administrative boundaries should ideally be better than 5 meters, which is consistent with the existing sources of administrative boundaries in digital format (in general 1:10,000 or better).
B.4. Infrastructure
Spatial data on infrastructure and hydrography (see next alinea) constitute the backbone of most land information system. Infrastructure data include a graphical representation of roads, railways, high voltage lines, large jetties, large human constructions (harbours, airport, plants), and remarkable objects (e.g. lighthouse, geodetic benchmarks). In most of European countries, such data exist in digital format at a typical scale of 1:10,000 (in some countries, the scale may reach 1:5,000). They are distributed by the National Mapping Agencies. The horizontal position accuracy of infrastructure objects should be better than 5 metres. Vertical accuracy should be less than 1 metre. These accuracies are consistent with the accuracy of databases distributed by national mapping agencies.
B.5. Hydrography
Hydrographical data include a graphical representation of rivers, canals, lakes and other water bodies, and some of their key attributes, notably the debit and suspended matter concentration of water flows. In turn, these data makes it possible to estimate the amount of sediments which are drained to the coast by river flows, hence their contribution to the coastal sediment budget. In most of European countries, the graphical representation of hydrographical data exist in digital format at a typical scale of 1:10,000 (in some countries, the scale may reach 1:5,000) and are distributed by the National Mapping Agencies. They are derived from the interpretation of aerial pictures. The horizontal position accuracy of the hydrographical features should be better than 5 metres. Vertical accuracy should be
less than 1 metre. These accuracies are consistent with the accuracy of databases distributed by national mapping agencies. As for the availability of river attributes (debit, suspended matter concentrations), it varies quite a lot from one country to another.
B.6. Terrestrial elevation
Terrestrial elevation is the altitude above sea level. In most of European countries, the altitude “zero” (the so-called vertical datum) corresponds to the mean sea level (MSL), i.e. the average level of the sea as recorded by tide gauges. This “zero” differs from the “zero” of the bathymetry (see near-shore bathymetry), which is defined as the mean lowest low water level (MLLW). The difference may reach a few meters. Terrestrial elevation is important to assess the exposure of human assets located along and behind the coastline to the sea processes (mainly storm surges and coastal erosion). This section must be considered in complement to the section cross-shore profiles.
Terrestrial elevation should preferably be available for all terrestrial areas located within 10km from the coastline. In the case of low-lying areas, it is recommended to expand this spatial extent to areas located below the 2-metre contour line. Terrestrial elevation should be made available either as vector contour lines, or in a raster grid of elevation points. Key contour lines include the contour line “zero” corresponding to the mean sea level (MSL), the contour lines 1m, 2m, 3m, 4m and 5 m above MSL, and, above 5 metres, all contour lines with 5 metre equidistance (10m, 15m, 20m, 25m, etc.)
A wide range of techniques are available to determine the terrestrial elevation. Major among these techniques are:
• Elevation contour lines in vector format are generally routinely distributed by national mapping agencies as part of digital topographic databases (see infrastructure as well). The list of existing digital topographic databases may be found under the section infrastructure.
• Laser altimetry or LIDAR. LIDAR is an airborne device which send laser pulses downwards. LIDAR is particularly efficient for near-shore areas as it can “sense” the elevation for both terrestrial and underwater areas (see near-shore bathymetry). The accuracy of LIDAR survey approximates 15 centimetres and its raster resolution can be one metre. However its extremely high cost limits the possibility to use the technique for the complete coverage of the coastal areas.
• Alternatively, terrestrial elevation can be extracted from “stereo-plotting”. Stereo-plotters are devices which can, from two aerial photographs of the same area but taken from 2 different perspectives, reconstruct a three-dimensional view of the area. This 3-D view makes it possible for an operator to “capture” from the aerial photographs the contour lines which are then digitised and structured in a database. (see also hydrography)
The accuracy of terrestrial elevation should be 5 metre for horizontal positioning, and better than 0.5 metre for vertical accuracy.
B.7. Bathymetry
Bathymetry is the depth below sea level. In most of European countries, the depth “zero” (the so-called vertical datum) corresponds to the mean lower low water level (MLLW), i.e. the level reached by water at low tide during the period where the tidal range is the highest (spring tides). This “zero” differs from the “zero” defined for terrestrial elevation, which is defined by the mean sea level (MSL). The difference may reach a few meters. Changes in nearshore bathymetry occur as a result of sediment processes or dredging activities. It is an important feature for understanding coastal erosion as erosion processes mainly occurs underwater and affect the sea bottom therefore coastline retreat is effectively observed. The bathymetry plays also an important role for nearshore wave propagation, as waves modifies their courses as soon as they “feel” the sea bottom.
Bathymetry should preferably be available for a maritime area extending up to the 20 meter water depth. The 20-meter-water depth approximately corresponds to the depth at which shoaling processes start. Near-shore bathymetry should be made available as vector contour lines (or “isobath”). The contour line “zero” corresponds to the lowest low water line (LLW).
A wide range of techniques are available to determine the bathymetry. Major among these techniques are:
• Waterborne acoustic sensors. Acoustic sensors like multibeam echosounders or sidescan-sonar. are emitters-sensors onboard ships. The sensor sends a signal in the direction of the sea bottom. After it has reached the seabed, the signal is back-scattered to the sensor with a delay which is converted into a distance. Performance of echo-sounding for very shallow waters (0 to 3 metres) is limited since ships cannot get too close from the shore.
• CRAB echo-sounding. The technology of CRAB echo-sounding beamers is similar to the technology of waterborne echo-sounding. However, instead of being embarked on a ship, the beamer is mounted on a mobile crane able to move easily on the foreshore and in shallow waters.
• Laser altimetry or LIDAR. LIDAR is an airborne device which send laser pulses downwards. Just like SONAR, the laser signal is reflected by the ground and a part is backscattered with a delay to the sensor. LIDAR is particularly efficient for water depths down to 5-10 metres (and with limited turbidity) and for terrestrial elevation (elevation of terrestrial and shallow waters are provided “seamless”). The performance of LIDAR however decreases for deeper waters. Since data recorded by echo-sounding or LIDAR sensors are not easily exploitable by a GIS, they need to be converted into either into raster image or vector contour lines.
• Interpolation of cross-shore profiles. A cross-shore profile (or transect) is a line set at right angle to the shoreline and along which the difference of elevation with respect to a fixed benchmark located on the shoreline is measured (using ground levelling techniques). Profiles are spaced at regular intervals which may range from a few hundreds meters to a few kilometres. The bathymetry between these locations can be interpolated using standard GIS functions such as spline.
The accuracy of bathymetric contour lines should be compatible with scale 1:25,000, i.e. 5 metre for horizontal positioning. Contour lines should ideally have a 1-metre-equidistance, i.e. contour lines should be provided for the following water depths: 1m, 2m, 3m, until 20m.
B.8. Sedimentology
Sediment is defined as fragmented material formed by physical and chemical weathering of rocks. As fragmented materials, sediments are more easily subject to transport by fluids (air and water) than their original rocks. This transport particularly affects the sediments deposited on the sea bottom and is the central element of morphological changes of the coastline. Nearshore and foreshore sedimentology aims at providing information on the properties and distribution of the sedimentary materials deposited on the sea bottom, and is therefore a key information layer to understand the interaction of seafloor sediments with water. Key properties include: (i) grain sortedness (texture), (ii) grain size and grain size distribution, (iii) grain shapes (roughness), and (iv) grain density. Nearshore and foreshore sedimentology is complementary to the near-shore bathymetry.
In the framework of an operational coastal GIS, nearshore and foreshore sedimentology should ideally be made available for maritime areas extending up to the 20-meter-water depth, i.e. the approximative depth at which wave interactions with the bottom starts. Information on nearshore and foreshore sedimentology mainly consists of sediment properties including size, size-distribution, density and roughness and should be made available as attribute of points scattered over the nearshore and foreshore area. Each point represents a location where sediments have been sampled and their properties measured. Sediment properties are known through direct measurements. Sediments are collected at a specific location via grab samplers or sediment cores. The oldest, but still widely accepted, method for determining grain-and grain-size distribution uses a nested set of sieves in which the size of the mesh is progressively smaller down the stack. In the case of muddy sediments, pipette analysis shall be conducted. Sediment density and shapes are determined via Rapid Sediment Analysers (RSA). The most popular RSA is a settling tube - a vertical cylinder one to two meters high filled with distilled water. Note that there is no standardized classification for sediment. It is recommended to use the following classification adapted from the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Sediment classification
Adapted from the Unified Soil classification system (USCS)
cobble greater than 75 mm Gravel 4.75 - 75 mm Sand coarse medium fine 2.0 - 4.75 0.43 - 2.0 0.075 - 0.43 Silt 0.002 - 0.075
Clay less than 0.002 mm
B.9. Wave regime
The wave regime defines the sea state in a specific area. It can be defined as the physical and statistical characteristics of waves propagating over this specific area. Wave regime is characterized by a number of parameters which include wave heights, periods and direction and their remarkable value, such as their mean or their extreme values. Waves are generated by the action of winds over the sea surface. Wave regime is closely related to coastal processes in so far as:
• Energy liberated by breaking waves is directly responsible for stirring up sediments deposited on the foreshore or undermining the cliff toe;
• Wave run-up and backwash on the foreshore transport sediments in the cross-shore direction and contribute to maintain the foreshore profile to an equilibrium profile.
• Waves breaking with an angle generate a current parallel to the shore and responsible for the long-shore transport of sediments
• Accurate knowledge on the wave regime, and its changes overtime as a result of seasonal processes or human activities, therefore helps predict sediment movements.
Nearshore wave regime should preferably be known for a maritime area extending up to the 20 meter water depth. The 20-meter-water depth approximately corresponds to the depth at which shoaling processes start. Information on wave regime should be provided as attributes of vector point (GIS format) locations disseminated along the European coastline. For each location and for each directional sector (0, 45, 90, 135, 180, 225, 270, and 315 degrees), the following parameters should be provided as a statistical estimator of recorded values:
• Mean wave height
• Significant wave height (i.e. the average height of the highest third waves) • Extreme wave height
• Mean wave period • Peak period
Such parameters are determined through two alternative methods: (i) direct measurement, and (ii) wave modelling. In the case of direct measurements from wave gauges or buoys, these parameters are available as attributes of wave buoy locations. In the case of direct measurements fro high frequency (HF) Doppler radar (see figure) or in the case of wave modelling via wave transformation models, wave attributes are estimated over a regular grid of locations. Commonly used wave transformation models include SWAN (Delft Hydraulics), MIKE (DHI), and STWAVE (USACE).
Note that in the case of wave transformation models, information on offshore wave regime is needed. Major difference between offshore and nearshore wave regime is that offshore wave propagation patterns are not altered by changes in the bathymetry, but are mainly driven by winds. The EUROSION project has provided for the entire European coastline statistical wave data related to offshore wave regime with a resolution of 1 point for 100 km, derived from ERS-1, ERS-2, Topex/Poseidon, and Geosat satellite images. This dataset of offshore data could be considered as starting point for wave modelling.
Nearshore wave regime attributes should be ideally made available with a density higher than 1 point for every 1 km. These locations should be situated between 1 and 5 km away from the shoreline (or alternatively at locations where water depth is between 5 and 20 meters).
B.10. Wind regime
Wind circulation in near-shore areas primarily results into the generation of waves and is therefore partly reflected in data relating wave regime. However, the collection of information on wind regime is also important per se, since:
• Winds blowing from off-shore areas to the coast generate a surge effect (elevation of the sea surface) which is function of their speed. The surge effect combined with high tides may lead to coastal flooding
• Such as near-shore currents, winds are responsible for a significant part of sediment transport (aeolian transport) especially along coastal dunes.
Data on wind regime take the form of wind speed measurements at 10 metres above the sea surface and statistics meant to outline dominant trends (in terms of extreme values and direction). They are now produced routinely by scatterometers and radiometers onboard several satellites. Scatterometers provide wind vectors by taking advantage of the backscatter being a function of the azimuth angle between the radar beam and the wind-driven surface waves. Microwave
radiometers produce wind speed information only as they are sensitive to the total emission from the air-sea interface.
Data on wind regime may be accessible through different data providers among which IFREMER (CERSAT unit) or through the HIPOCAS project funded by the European Commission.
B.11. Tidal regime
The tide is the periodic rise and fall of oceanic and coastal waters as a result of the relative positions of the earth, moon and sun. Tidal periodicities vary from semi-diurnal, through diurnal, fortnightly, monthly, seasonal, annual to even longer. The tidal range (i.e. the difference in elevation between consecutive high and low waters) varies from a year centimetres (micro-tidal) to up to 10 meters (macro-tidal) according to the location on earth and the time during the year. Spring tides are associated with higher tidal range. In addition, the tide does not occur at the same tide everywhere: its propagation is governed by the geometry and the bathymetry of the sea basin. A distinction is made between the periodic and non-periodic components of the tides. The periodic component is referred as the astronomic tide and is governed by the relative positions of the earth, moon and sun as well as the geometry of the sea basin. The non-periodic component is referred as the meteorological tide or surge and is governed by weather conditions.
Astronomic tide data take two formats. (i) the most commonly used format is the so-called “tide table” which give the daily prediction of the times and heights of high and low waters. They are generally computed at standard locations corresponding to major harbours. Other locations, corresponding to secondary harbours, are given in the form of time and height from standard locations; (ii) alternatively to tide tables, mathematical models of tides can also be implemented directly in a GIS with a few developments: tide data can indeed be mathematically approximated as the sum of a series of sine waves of determined frequency "harmonic constituents". The parameters of each sine wave are called "harmonic constants", and are the amplitude (half the height) of the wave and phase, or time of occurrence, of the maximum.
A number of software packages and computer models specialised in the provision of tide data over a great number of locations (more than 7,000 locations worldwide) are available. Analysis of data observed by tide-gauges constitutes the basics for all of these models. Tide-gauges – generally at the locations of harbours – record the hourly fluctuations of sea level which includes both the astronomic tide, the meteorological tide and the wave height. If recordings are available for a sufficiently long period of time, the periodic elements of sea level corresponding to the astronomic tide can be calculated using such methods as least-squares tidal harmonic analysis, the admittance method of Munk and Cartwright (1966) or the Fourier harmonics. The primary role of tides in beach processes is exposure and submergence of the foreshore, and hence changes in how effective incoming waves may be in modifying the foreshore.
B.12. Near-shore currents
Currents can be defined as movements of fluid particles towards determined directions. In the near-shore, currents occur as the results of tides and waves (see also wave regime). The impact of oceanic (or deepwater) currents can be considered as negligible in shallow water compared to tide and wave generated currents. More precisely:
• Tidal currents. Tidal currents are generated by the rising and falling tidal waters. During the rising tide, water flows onshore following specific paths (“flood” streams) along which water velocity is maximal. Current velocity is zero at high tide because the water has reached its highest stage and is about to begin its outward flow. As the water flows offshore, it follows other paths (“ebb” streams) . Tidal currents are more pronounced in places where constrictions such as narrow entrances (inlet) to large bays cause strong flows. Such as the tidal range, tidal currents generated vary widely and consequently, have an effect that can range from strong in shaping the coast to almost no effect on beach processes.
• Wave associated currents. In shallow water, the movement of the water particles become very complex in terms of onshore and offshore motions resulting in an excess of water carried to the shoreline. This excess of water is translated to a long-shore movement (long-shore currents) and a cross-shore circulation movement (rip currents).
Current measurements through current meters, acoustic current profiler (e.g. ADCP), GPS drifters or hydraulic tracers, should take place at different locations of the coastal sediment cell. Fixed measurement stations should be preferably located at key locations such as bay entrances or inlets (where tidal currents are expected to be the highest). Fixed or mobile measurement stations should be considered as well along the surf zone (where wave associated currents occur) and where ebb and flood currents are expected to occur. Near-shore current data should be made available as a time series for each measurement station, or as trajectories in the case of drifters. For each measurement station, both the current velocity and direction should be recorded. Velocity should be expressed in m.s-1.
B.13. Sea level
Sea level is the fluctuation of the sea surface due to the combined actions of the tide, the waves, meteorological events and climatic changes. It is generally accessible from observations made at the level of tide gauges. Tide gauges records the “effective” water level above mean sea level (MSL) with a frequency ranging from a few minutes to an hour. Though sea level fluctuations are unpredictable on a real time basis, the analysis of time series of sea level records over long periods provides useful information, notably:
• The probability of exceedance of extreme water levels, which can be estimated for different “return period” water levels (e.g. 100-year-return period = 1% annual probability of exceedance) by analysing the distribution of extreme water levels recorded by tide gauges in the past.
• The trend of sea level rise, by averaging tide gauge data per year and by analysis the evolutionary trends of year-averaged water level through mathematical regression analysis. It is worth mentioning that the Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level (PSMSL) hosted by the Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory has mandated internationally to provide statistics on relative sea level rise worldwide
B.14. Coastal defence works
Information on coastal defence works should make it possible to inventory and document structures and schemas which are implemented along the coastline to counteract the adverse effects of coastal erosion. Key data such as geographical extent, year if implementation, technical characteristics, and costs should be adequately recorded.
B.15. Land cover
Land cover corresponds to a (bio)physical description of the earth's surface. It is that which overlays or currently covers the ground. This description enables various biophysical categories to be distinguished — basically, areas of vegetation (trees, bushes, fields, lawns), bare soil, hard surfaces (rocks, buildings) and wet areas and bodies of water (watercourses, wetlands). As for land use, it can be defined as the socio-economic description (functional dimension) of areas: areas used for residential, industrial or commercial purposes, for farming or forestry, for recreational or conservation purposes, etc. Land cover and land use can be used alternatively since it is possible to infer land use from land cover and conversely. But situations are often complicated and the link is not so evident. Contrary to land cover, land use is difficult to 'observe'. For example, it is often difficult to decide if grasslands are used or not for agricultural purposes. Distinctions between land use and land cover and their definition have impacts on the development of classification systems, data collection and information systems in general (source: EEA glossary).
The experience of CORINE Land Cover in Europe has demonstrated that most reliable land cover data are obtained from computer-aided photo-identification of satellite images (see satellite images) or aerial photographs (see aerial photographs). Photo-identification consists of a visual recognition and delineation of land cover patterns on-screen (via a GIS) and is facilitated by ancillary data (such as existing maps), discussions with experts and through ground truth surveys.
“Supervised classification” is an alternative methodology for obtaining land cover data. Contrary to computer-aided photo-identification, supervised classification does not require the assistance of an experienced photo-identification specialist. A number of predefined land cover classes are defined as ranges of values that a pixel may take: each pixel of the satellite image or the aerial photograph is given the land cover code corresponding to the range of values it belongs to. Contrary to computer-aided photo-identification, the final product of supervised classification is a raster image.
To enable efficient analysis, land cover/land use data should be compatible with scale 1:25,000 (or alternatively with a geometric accuracy of 5 meters). Land parcels smaller than 5 hectares should be neglected.
B.16. Demography
Demographic data and their trend analysis provide valuable information to assess the attractive power of coastal areas on citizens. They also provides key information for assessing population at risk opf coastal erosion and coastal flooding and therefore identifying areas where coastal invetsments become a priority.
Best sources for demographic data are national census. In general, census are conducted every 10 years and provides statistics at the level of municipality or ínfra-municipal. Note that most of European countries have demographic data at an infra-municipal level (in general, parcels of approximately 2000 inhabitants or less). These datasets are generally subject to access fees which may vary from one country to another. In France, access to infra-municipal census data (IRIS 2000 database) in GIS format costs 12 Euros per set of 100 infra-municipal units (2000 inhabitants).
B.17. Land market value
Land market value is defined as the most probable price in cash, or terms equivalent to cash, which lands or interest in lands should bring in a competitive and open market under all conditions requisite to a fair sale, where the buyer and seller each acts prudently and knowledgeably, and the price is not affected by undue influence. Such a value can be said to comprise two main components: land (or location) and improvement (buildings, etc.).
Land value mapping depends on the availability of land value data, which may vary from one country to another. When such data exist, the following procedure is recommended:
• a sample of land value data is collected. A land value data is determined by three elements: the location of the land parcel (more precisely the coordinates of one point of the land parcel),
the size, the real estate value as recorded by the cadastre. The sample density should be ideally 10 points per square kilometre, but this depends on the average size of parcels (in urban areas, the sample should be more dense).
• Land value data are converted into a scattered set of points characterised by their location and value per unit (parcel value divided by the parcel size).
• Once in this format, the data can be converted into data surface using one of a number of interpolation techniques including spline, inverse distance weighting and kriging. These functions are not standards but they may be found in a number of commercial GIS like ArcInfo (module Spatial Analyst)
Not all national land registration systems in Europe enable a quick and easy access to land value data. When such data are not readily available, a survey can be conducted among local real estate agencies or association of clerks to retrieve a sample of land value data. The survey may range from a week to a month depending on the sample density and accuracy required
B.18. Registered economic activities
Such as demography, economic activities provide valuable information to assess the attractive power of coastal areas on citizens and provides as well key input for capital at risk assessment in terms of jobs, turnover, value, production. If the information on economical activities exist in digital format in almost all European countries with a rather good level of details (for tax and statistical purposes), the greatest challenge is to access the data which are stamped "confidential", and when eventually they are made accessible, another challenge is to link these activities with their geographical locations Information on economic activities and companies is found at the level of chambers of commerce, trade registries or statistics offices, depending on the countries. This information is generally not geocoded which means it cannot be automatically displayed on a map. This shortcoming is however expected to be overcome by considering that each company has an address (street name, number, postal code) duly registered which may be linked to geographical coordinates. Linkage between street addresses and geographical coordinates can be achieved via existing GIS-based street location databases, such as those developed and distributed by TeleAtlas Multinet (www.teleatlas.com) and Navtech Navstreets (www.navtech.com). Information is provided by Teleatlas in a variety of formats including shapefile (ArcInfo), Oracle spatial, or tabfile (Mapinfo). It must be noted however that street-based geocoding of registered companies may be delayed by mismatching errors between the "street address " as registered by registration authorities and the "street address" as recorded within existing databases.
B.19. Land use
To some extent, land use may complement land cover in the sense that land use may provide information on economic activities attached to land parcels, and therefore finetune the knowledge of economical value at risk. In the framework of MESSINA, it is suggested to restrict to certain land use features which are not covered by land cover . These land use features should include at least fishery, aquaculture and mining (dredging) concessions.
B.20. Areas of high ecological value
Information on the designated areas can be found at the level of public authorities in charge of nature conservation. There are a number of designation levels which refer to international conventions, European directives or agreements, or specific national regulations. The table below lists the different types of designations encountered in Europe.
Level of designation Type of designation
Areas of international importance UNESCO Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO)
Wetlands of international importance (Ramsar convention) World Heritage Sites (UNESCO)
Areas of European importance proposed Special areas of conservation (under the Habitat Directive)
Special areas of conservation (under the Habitat Directive) Special protection areas for birds (under the Bird directive) Biogenetic reserve conservation (Council of Europe) Areas of national and regional importance Commonly found designation statutes, only:
Natural heritage sites National and regional parks Nature reserves
Wildfowl reserves
Sites of special scientific interest
Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) National scenic areas
Environmentally sensitive areas
Information on the ecological functions are however hardly accessible. It is therefore recommended to resort to expert judgement to complement existing data.
B.21. Cultural heritage sites
Europe's historic structures, archaeological fields and natural sites are major contributors to the quality of life enjoyed by the citizens and visitors of the state. These places are of substantial economic value, contribute to urban revitalization, serve as sources of recreation, and provide important tangible links to Europe's heritage. In Europe, there are about 1,5 millions registered sites which benefit from a specific protection and conservation statutes, a significant part of which is located in coastal areas. However, the availability of data on such heritage sites varies considerably from one country to another.
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY
The design, development and implementation of a geographical information system within an organisation are complex tasks which should not be underestimated. They require leadership, adequate planning and a project-wise approach. This section therefore provides a generic organisational framework which is meant to support the design, development and installation of a geographical information system for coastline management.
A. GIS project set-up
The GIS project set-up consists in defining the organisation within which the GIS project will be executed. This includes:
Establishment of the GIS project steering group
The GIS project steering group represents the interest of the local organisations which will use the GIS and for which the system is designed. It shall be chaired by the local authority which initiates the project and shall include representatives of local stakeholders in particular those which are funding the system and those which are may provide local data. The role of the GIS project steering group is to provide guidance to the GIS project team and qualify the future GIS.
Establishment of the GIS project team
The GIS project team is in charge of executing the design, development and installation activities under the guidance of the GIS project steering group. In that respect, the GIS project team is selected by the GIS project steering group to which it shall report. The GIS project team includes at least: • A project manager in charge of the overall coordination of the GIS design, development, and
installation
• An UML modeller / database architect • Software programmer(s)
• Independent validation team members
Project planning
The project implementation plan (PIP) shall be prepared by the GIS project team and shall describe all tasks to be carried out in relation with the design, development and installation of the geographical information system. The PIP shall be approved by the GIS project steering group during a kick-off meeting between the project team and the project steering group. These activities are briefly described in sections B, C, D, E and F.
B. Requirement engineering
Requirements consolidation
During this task, the GIS project team in close collaboration with the local authorities shall review and detail the user requirements provided in the preliminary analysis and shall derive a consolidated set of products and system requirements. The requirement for an easy integration into user practices regarding coastline management shall be adequately analysed. Because the incorporation of a new system may alter or conflict with existing systems and procedures at the level of user organisations, the linkage between the future geographical information system (GIS) and existing systems and procedures at the level of the user organisations shall also be adequately examined. Recommendations to re-engineer these existing systems and procedures shall be formulated on the basis of a detailed analysis of the current working procedures. The results of this task shall be reported in a document called Requirements Baseline (RB)
Technical specifications
In response to the consolidated user requirements, the GIS project team shall provide a technical answer to the requirements baseline with a detailed and complete specification of the products information system expected. The results of this activity shall be reported in a document called
Technical Specifications (TS) and associated Inventory ox existing datasets (IED), Design Justification Report (DJR) and Data Model Report (DMR).
DJF is a document that assemble the critical analysis performed by the GIS project team on all implementation choices for the local information system. It shall in particular describe all trade-off, design choice justifications, feasibility analysis, make-or-buy decisions and supporting technical assessments done during the software development.
The DMR shall be developed in accordance with the requirements of the ISO 19000 series. This include in particular the adoption of the ISO 19104 terminology, the development of data model using the Universal Modelling Language (UML), the elaboration of data dictionary and object catalogue conform to ISO 19109, and the adoption of ISO 19115 requirements for metadata modelling.
System Qualification Planning
This planning process shall describe the activities to be carried out by the GIS project team to obtain the best acceptance of the information system by the GIS project steering group. It shall be a response to the Requirements Baselines (RB) and shall include a “scientifically sound” validation protocol for all products to be generated by the information system, including the description of all ground and ancillary data available locally on the basis of which validation shall be performed. Problems such as lack of insufficient validation data shall be investigated, the impact assessed and the solutions identified. The results of this task shall be reported in a System Qualification Plan (SQP).
C. System prototyping
The objective of this phase is to prototype the local information system and to demonstrate a preliminary compliance with the consolidated user requirements by executing a representative set of
