TADEÜSZ SULIMIRSKI
REMARKS CONCERNING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME VARIETIES OF FLINT IN POLAND
Several varieties of flint were used in Poland for making tools during the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. S. K r u k o w s k i1 was first to start, 38 years ago, the study of those found mainly in Central Poland. He has described their special features and demonstra-ted the varying geographical distribution of artifacts made of some of them. Subsequent investigations by S. K r u k o w s k i and J. S a m-s o n o w i c z2 have established a number of sites in Central Poland
in which occur the primary deposits of various kinds of flint, and have also led to the discovery of several flint mines, some of which, eg. that at Orońsk in the district of Radom3 and Kapitula in the district of Radomsko4, dated from the Mesolithic.
1 S. K r u k o w s k i , Pierwociny krzemieniarskie górnictwa, transportu i handlu
w hołocenie Polski. Wnioski z właściwości surowców i wyrobów. (Exploitation,
transport et commerce de silex dans le holocène de la Pologne. Conclusions sur les qualités de silex cru et de ses instruments), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", Part I, vol. V, 1920, pp. 185—206; P a r t Π, vol. VII, 1922, pp. 34—57. I d e m , Kronika
kon-serwatora zabytków przedhistorycznych okręgu kieleckiego za rok 1924, „Wiadomości
Archeologiczne", vol. X, 1929, p. 244 ff.
2 J. S a m s o n o w i c z , O złożach krzemieni w utworach jurajskich
północno-wschodniego zbocza Gór Świętokrzyskich (Sur les assises de silex dans les dépots
jurassiques du versant nord-est des montagnes de Święty Krzyż), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VIII, 1923, pp. 17—24. I d e m , Odkrycie pierwotnych złóż
krze-mienia szarego biało nakrapianego (Sur la découverte des lits primaires du silex
„gras avec mouchetures blanches"), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. IX, 1924—1925, pp. 99—101. S. K r u k o w s k i , Sprawozdanie z działalności państwowego
konser-watora zabytków przedhistorycznych na okręg kielecki w r. 1922. „Wiadomości
Archeologiczne", vol. VIII, 1923, pp. 64—72.
3 S. K r u k o w s k i , Paleolit. „Prehistoria Ziem Polskich", Kraków 1939—1948, pp. 89, 101, 106 ff. See also: L. S a w i c k i , Działalność Wydziału konserwacji i badań
zabytków w terenie w latach 1945—1947 (Activité de la Section de conservation des
monuments et d e recherches dans le terrain dès l'an 1945—1947), „Sprawozdania PMA", vol. I, 1948, pp. 121—130.
* K, J a ż d ż e w s k i , Ważniejsze osiągnięcia badawcze łódzkiego ośrodka
282 T A D E U S Z S U L I M I R S K I
The primary deposits of flint raw material are not evenly distri-buted over Poland. They form a belt extending over southern Poland, the westernmost region known so far being the Cracow—Wieluń Hills, situated near the eastern edge of Upper Silesia. Nearest to this region lay the very rich deposits around the Świętokrzyskie (Łysogóry) Mountains which yielded a great variety of species of flint. Flint deposits were also found on the eastern side of the Vistula, north of the junction of the San. Further east very rich deposits were found near Sokal, west of (the Bug; they extended eastwards along the Upper Bug and then along the northern edge oi the Podolian Plateau to Krze-mieniec (Kremenetz) and probably further east.
On the other hand, large regions of Poland had no local flint at their disposal, and in the vast Polish Plain only flint of inferior type was available, originating from secondary, glacial, deposits. It was suitable only for the manufacture of small implements, whereas for the larger ones flint of a better quality had to be brought from other, sometimes remote, regions. In these circumstances trade in flint had developed, the beginning of which can be traced back to the Mesolilthic or final Palaeolithic5. At 'the same time, in the regions rich in deposits of flint of good quality specialized workshops were established which worked almost exclusively for a very wide market. Their products were often found a few hundreds kilometres away. Maps showing the distri-bution of implements, made of two of the varieties of flint found in Poland, were published several years ago. The distribution of the implements made of the black, or black-and-grey Volhynian variety (krzemień nadbużański, .południowo-wschodni) was illustrated by L. K o z ł o w s k i6, and J. K o s t r z e w s k i has published a similar map of the distribution of .the „banded" flint7.
Most of the works mentioned above, including the maps, were published almost exclusively in Polish, only a few of the articles con-cerned being provided with a summary in other language. This fact
Łódź Archaeological Centre During the 1945—1955 Period). „Prace i Materiały Mu-zeum Archeologicznego i Etnograficznego w Łodzi", nr 1, 1956, p. 12.
5 S. K r u k o w s k i , L c., „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VII, p. 41.
6 L. K o z ł o w s k i , Młodsza epoka kamienna w Polsce (Neolit), L w ó w 1924,
p. 87, map, fig. 4.
TJ , K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu do okresu wędrówek ludów. Prehistoria Ziem Polskich, Kraków 1939—1948, p. 146, map 3. I d e m Pradzieje Polski. Poznań 1949, p. 41, fig. 10 (map), A . G a r d a w s k d , J. G ą s o w s k d , Z. R a j e w s k i , Archeologia i pradzieje Polski, Warszarwa 1957, .p. 79 (map).
T H E D I S T R I B U T I O N O F S O M E V A R I E T I E S OF F L I N T I N P O L A N D 283
probably accounts for the appearance in the western archaeological literature, even in recently published works8, of mistaken views con-cerning the distribution of some varieties of flint in Poland, and in particular of the „banded" flint.
A farther examination of the geographical distribution of the artifacts, made of various types of raw material of higher quality, reveals that at various periods different varieties of flint were pre-ferred in some parts of the country. This observation is of importance for the study of interrelations between the various regions and cultures, in particular during the Neolithic, and of their changes.
In this short article, which I offer to my old friend, Professor Wło-dzimierz A n t o n i e w i c z , as a token of my esteem and of my appre-ciation of his scholarship, his wide knowledge and his contribution to the advancement of Polish prehistory, I intend to review the distri-bution of the better known varieties of flint in Poland, and to indicate a few conclusions which can be drawn from this study. In my investi-gations I have had to rely mainly upon the material published in tha odd 35 years which elapsed since the results of investigations of this subject by S. K r u k o w s k i and J. S a m s o n o w i c z appeared. Unfortunately, most of the publications and reports do not mention the variety of flint of which the implements described were made. In many reports the names used to denote the kind of flint are con-fusing, and the question also remains whether the classification was always done correctly by the authors of the publications concerned. This is why I am well aware of the shortcomings of my article, and of the incompleteness of the maps drawn by me, and should be most pleased if they incite a discussion and a wider study of this impor-tant topic.
THE „ B R O W N " OR „ C H O C O L A T E " F L I N T
One of the most common varieties in Poland, which appears already in the Paleolithic remains, was the „chocolate", or „wax-chocolate", flint (krzemień woskowo-czekoladowy), so called on account of its colour. It has been also called the „Wąchock" flint (krzemień wąchocki) after a site in the district of Iłża in which its deposits were found9.
The primary deposits of the „chocolate" flint extended over the 8 E. g.: J. G. D. C l a r k, Prehistoric Europe. The Economic Basis, London 1952,
p. 245, fig. 135 (map).
9L . S a w i c k i , Przyczynek do znajomości techniki obróbki krzemienia
(No-tions sur la technique de la taille du silex). „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VII, 1922, p. 61.
284 T A D E U S Z S U L I M I R S K I
northern edge of the foot-hills of the Świętokrzyskie (Łysogóry) Moun-tains in the southern part of Central Poland (map 1, fig. 1). It was either extracted from the upper-Astratian layers in their natural exposures, or was mined. One of 'the largest mines, the work on which
Fig. 1. Map showing the geographical extent of the artifacts made of brown, „chocolate", flint.
had already begun by the end of the Palaeolithic, was found by St. K r u k o w s k i1 0 at Orońsk and its neighbouring villages in the
district of Radom. It extended over an area about 3 kms long, 50— 250 ms wide. Flint was mined in funnel-shaped pits, 1,2—2 ms in diameter, up to 3 ms deep, hundreds of which were accounted to.
The „chocolate" flint was of a very good quality. Artifacts made of it were found all over the central part of the Polish Plain11. The 10 St. К г u k o w s k i, Paleolit, p. 89. J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Pradzieje Polski, p. 25.
THE D I S T R I B U T I O N OF S O M E V A R I E T I E S OF F L I N T IN P O L A N D 285
main area of their distribution is marked on map 4 (area II, fig. 4). However, it was carried far beyond 'these boundaries as shown in map
1 (fig. 1), on which are marked the extreme points which the „chocolate" flint had reached in various prehistoric periods. It was carried by the palaeolithic hunters eastwards as far as Gródek near Równe in Volhy-nia12, over a distance of about 350 kms (220 miles), and southwards
in the region of Cracow13. During the final Palaeolithic and Mesolithic,
this was the most commonly used flint in Central Poland west of the Vistula and in parts of Western Poland14, besides the local flint of
poor quality originating from secondary glacial deposits. Implements of the Swiderian and its subsequent Tardenoisrian cultures were made, to a great extent, of this flint15. It was found in (the mesolithic grave
at Janislawiee in the district of Skierniewice1®, and also in the
meso-lithic (Azilian) site at Tarnowa in the district of Konin17, some 260 kms
north-west of its primary deposits. A depot, dating from the final Palaeolithic, consisting of several blades of the „chocolate" flint was found at Świdry Wielkie near Warsaw, east of the Vistula, on the site after which the Swiderian culture was called18. Two similar depots
were found in the mining district, at a distance of several miles from the mines.
11 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. V, p. 189 ff. 12 Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , Archeologia Polski, Warszawa 1928, p. 10.
1 3 A. Ż a k i , Pradzieje Małopolski w świetle wykopalisk i opracowań, „Z otchłani
wieków", vod. XIX, 1950, p. 121.
14 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VII, pp. 37 ff., 189 ff.
J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Wielkopolska w pradziejach. Warszawa—Wrocław 1955, pp. 15, 21. A. Z ą b k i e w i c z - К os z a ńs к a, Przyczynki do poznania pradziejów Wielkiej Łodzi i powiatu łódzkiego (Contribution à la connaissance de la pré-histoire de la ville de Łódź et du district de Łódź), „Przegląd Archeologiczny", vol. IX, 1952, pp. 197, 304. M. C h m i e l e w s k a , Stanowisko mezolity czne w Cich-mianie w pow. kolskim (Gisement mésolithique prés de Cichmiana ddstr. de Koło), „Prace i Materiały Muzeum Archeologicznego w Łodzi", nr 2, 1957, pp. 7, 9.
16 S. K r u k o w s k i , Paleolit, p. 84. J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu...,
p. 122. A. Ż a k i , 1. c., p. 122. M. P i a s z y k ó w a, Nabytki Działu Przedhistorycz-nego Muzeum Wielkopolskiego w latach 1933—1937 (Acquisitions de la Section Préhistorique du Musée de Grande Pologne à Poenań en 1933—1937), „Fontes Archeologici Posnanienses", vol. VI, 1956, p. 186 (Kołdrąb).
16 M. C h m i e l e w s k a , Grób kultury tardenoaskiej w Janisłauńcach, pow.
Skierniewice (A Tardenoisian Grave at Janiisławtice, Skierniewice Admin. District), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne'vol. X X , 1954, pp. 26, 41.
l T S. K r u k o w s k i , Paleolit, p. 92. 18 S. K r u k o w s k i Paleolit, p. 107.
286 TADEUSZ SULIMIRSKI
The geographical extent of the „chocolate" flint was the same during the Neolithic. It was used by the Funnel Beaker folk in Kuyavia19, and the flint implements excavated in the Kuyavian megalithic graves were made mostly of this variety20. It also penetrated southwards into the territory in which other varieties of flint were in common use. J. K o s t r z e w s k i2 1 remarks, that it was found among the remains of the „Moravian" painted pottery culture in Poland. Single implements made of this flint were reported from a number of neolithic sites in southern22, and also in north-eastern Poland2s (map 1, fig. 1).
The predilection for this variety of flint seems to have declined during the final Neolithic. According to K. J a ż d ż e w s k i2 4, no „chocolate" flint was found in the remains of the late stage of the Funnel Beaker culture in Greater Poland and Kuyavia. Neither was it found there in the slab-cists of the Globular Amphora culture, which replaced the Kuyavian megalithic graves.
T H E G R E Y - W H I T E - S P O T T E D F L I N T
Another variety of a very good quality was a light-grey flint, sometimes slightly brcwnish, with white spots quite densely and evenly distributed throughout 'the whole substance. It has been called also the „Rachów" (rachowski) or the „Swiecieohów" (świeciechowski) flint after two neighbouring villages in the district of Kraśnik, on the right bank of the Vistula, north of the junction of the San, in which its
19 K . J a ż d ż e w s k i , Kultura pucharów lejkowatych w Polsce zachodniej
i środkowej (Die Trichterbecherkultur in W e s t - und Mittelpolen), Poznań 1936, p. 290 f.
2 0 W . C h m i e l e w s k i , Zagadnienie grobowców kujawskich w śiwetle
ostat-nich badań ( L e problème des sépultures de C u y a v i e dans la lumière de récentes
études), Ł ó d ź 1952, p. 24.
2 1 J. K o s t r z e w s k i , O d mezolitu..., p. 137.
2 2 В . C z a p k i e w i c z , Sprawozdanie z poszukiwań archeologicznych za lata
1924—1925 (Raport sur les recherches archéologiques des 1924—1925). „Wiadomości
Archeologiczne", vol. Χ , 1929, p. 297. J. Ż u r o w s k i , Pierwsze ślady kultury
pucharów dzwonowatych w Polsce (Les premières traces de la culture des vases c a l
-ciformes en Pologne), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. X I I , p. 132 ff. S. N o s e к.
Wyniki badań terenowych w rejonie Igołomia-wschód, prowadzonych w latach 1953 i 1954 (Results of the Reserches Carried on in the Zone of Igołomia-East
in the Y e a r s 1953 and 1954), „ S p r a w o z d a n i a Archeologiczne", vol. I, 1955, p. 31.
2 3 Z . S z m dt, Sprawozdanie z poszukiwań archeologicznych w Hryniewiczach
Wielkich kolo Bielska Podlaskiego (Compte rendu des recherches archéologiques
à H r y n i e w i c z e Wielkie, près d e Bielsk Podlaski), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. V I I , 1922, p. 109.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME VARIETIES OF FLINT IN P O L A N D 287
primary deposits were found by J. S a m s o n o w i c z2 5 (map 2, fig. 2). It was exploited from natural exposures; no mines have so far been recorded26.
Fig. 2. M a p showing the distribution of the g r e y - w h i t e - s p o t t e d and the north-western, „milky", flint.
The grey4white-sę>otted flint was used by the palaeolithic hunters of the middle Aurignacian site of Góra Puławska on (the left bank of the Vistula27, some 50—60 kms down the river from its natural deposits.
25 J. S a m s o n o w i c z , 1. е., „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vod. I X . 2 6 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. V, p. 195 ff. L. G a
-j e w s k i , Kultura czasz le-joicatych między Wisłą a Bugiem ( L a culture dite à ooupes eil f o r m e d'entonnoir s u r le territoire entre la VistuLe et l e B u g ) , „ A n n a l e s Umdversitatis M . C u r i e - S k ł o d o w s k a " , vol. I V F, 1963, p. 19.
288 T A D E U S Z S U L I M I R S K I
During the Mesolithic, it was used by the Tardenoásian hunters in Masovia and in the southern part of Central Poland (Małopolska), and even in the Tardenoisian sites in Greater Poland, along with the „chocolate" variety28.
During the Neolithic, the grey-white-spotted flint was widely used by various subsequent cultures. Its main area, marked IV in map 4 (fig. 4), extended over the central part of South Poland, south-east of the area of the „chocolate" flint (area II). Axes of the early neolithic settlement (Danubian I) at Iwanowice, district of Miechów, implements of the Danubian II (stroke-ornamented), the Theiss and the Funnel Beaker cultures in that territory were made mostly of this flint29. It
was also the most commonly used variety in the remains of the Corded Ware and in particular of the Zlota culture30. The same was the case
with the Nałęczów group of the Funnel Beaker culture east of the Vistula, on the western part of the Lublin loess plateau31. Axes made
of this flint were found stray in the country on both sides of the Middle Vistula and in Masovia22. Workshops in which they were
manufactured were found at Zbrza Wielka and Pleczyska, on the left bank of the Vistula in the district of Sandomierz33.
28 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VII, p. 43 f. J. K o
s-t r z e w s k i , Od mezolis-tu..., p. 122. I d e m , Wielkopolska w pradziejach, p. 21.
29 S. K r u k o w s k i , as above, pp. 48, 52 f. Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z ,
Archeo-logia Polski, p. 60. J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu..., pp. 131, 134 f., 144, 175. S. N o s e k , Zarys archeologii Małopolski, Kraków 1956, p. 22. See also articles by Z. Po d к o w i ή s к a, quoted in footnote 44 below.
30 Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , Eneolityczne groby szkieletowe we wsi Zlota w pow.
sandomierskim (Tombeaux énéolithiques à inhumation à Złota distr. de Sandomierz), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. IX, 1924—1925, p. 221. J. Ż u -r o w s k i , 1. е., p. 132 ff.
81 L. G a j e w s k i , 1. е., p. 12. S. N o s e k , Materiały do badań nad historią
starożytną ł wczesnośredniowieczną międzyrzecza Wisły i Bugu (Matériaux pour servir aux recherches sur l'histoire ancienne et l'époque protohistorique du ter-ritoire entre la Vistule et le Boug), „Annales Universiftaiis M. Cuiie-Skłodowska", vol. VI F, 1957, pp. 62 ff., 220 ff. J. G u r b a , Materiały do badań nad neolitem Młaopolski (Materiale zur Untersuchung über das Neolithikum in Kleinpolen), „Annales Univereitatis M. Curie-Sklodowska", vol. IX F, 1957, p. 129 ff. J. К o-w a l c z y k , Osada i cmentarzysko kultury pucharóo-w lejkoo-watych o-w miejscoo-wości Klementowice, pow. Puławy (A Settlement and a Cemetery of the Funnel Beaker Culture at Klementowice, the Puławy District), „Materiały Starożytne", vol. II, 1957, p. 175 ff.
32 St. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VII, p. 49. 33 Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , Archeologia Polski, p. <51.
THE D I S T R I B U T I O N OF SOME V A R I E T I E S OF F L I N T IN P O L A N D 289
The grey-white-spotted flint was exported outside its own territory, to areas in which it had to compete with other varieties (omp 2, fig. 2). It was found in the easternmost colonies of the Funnel Beaker culture on the Bug near Hrubieszów44, at a distance of about 150 kms east
of -its natural deposits. This was the area in which the excellent black Volhynian flint was dominant. Further south, it was found in a series of sub-Carpaithian barrow-graves, mainly in those of the earlier stage, being later almost entirely replaced by the black Volhynian variety35
(map 2, fig. 2). There, however, also another variety of grey-white-spotted flint appeared, slightly translucent and brilliant, which, according to Dr. J. Polyanskii originated from the environment of Halicz on the Dniester.36
Westwards, it was carried to the area north-west of Cracow in which local flinit of good quality was available (area III, map 4, fig. 4). This is well indicated by a depot consisting of flint blades of the grey-white--spotted flint found at Klucze in the district of Olkusz37, about 175 kms
west of its original deposits. It also penetrated, across the territory of the „chocolate" flint, to Kuyavia and further west in the region of Poznań where it was found with remains of both the Funnel Beaker38
and the Corded Ware39 cultures (map 2, fig. 2).
The wide distribution of axes made of the grey-white-spotted flint implies that special workshops must have been in existence for their manufacture, although no such workshops have been found, so far. They must be sought somewhere in the vicinity of the natural deposits of the flint in question. These workshops must have started their work
3 4 K. J a ż d ż e w s k i , Kultura pucharów lejkowatych, p. 290. J. K o w a l -c z y k , Osada kultury pu-charów lejkowaty-ch w miejs-c. Gródek Nadbużny, рою. Hrubieszów, w świetle badań 1954 r. (The Settlement of the Funnel Beaker Cul-ture at Gródek Nadbużny, the Hrubieszów District, in the Light of 1954 Exca-vations), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. XXIII, 1956, p. 44 f. See also the subsequent reports on excavation of the same site by the same author in: „Wia-domości Archeologiczne", vol XXIV, 1957, pp. 37 ff., 300 ff.
3ε These barrow-graves were excavated by me before the last war.
36 Axes, but also other implements, made of this variety of flint were found in several Sub-Carpathian barrow-graves of the Neolithic as far as Sambor to the north-west.
37 M. P i a s z y k ó w a, 1. c., p. 162.
3 8 K. J a ż d ż e w s k i , Kultura pucharów lejkowatych, p. 290. I d e m , Bada-nia archeologiczne w Brześciu Kujawskim w roku 1936, „Z otchłani wieków", vol. XI, 1936, p. 118.
39 К. J a ż d ż e w s k i , Slady kultury pucharów dzwonowatych na Kujawach, „Z otchłani wieków", vol. XII, 1937, p. 91. J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu..., p. 170.
290 T A D E U S Z S U L I M I R S K I
at a relatively early date. This is shown by the fact, that axes made of this variety of flint were found in the settlement of the Linear Pottery culture in South Poland. They (were also excavated in early sub-Carpathian barrow-graves.
THE „BANDED" FLINT
Another important Central Polish variety was the „banded" flint, this name being given on account of its surface covered with Ithin parallel bands of various shades of grey, yellowish, brownish and some other colours. G. W i I k e4 0 and G. K o s s i n n a4 1 wrongly sought
the origin of (this flint somewhere in the region of Lwów and in West Podolia; they also confound this variety with another one, the very different black, or black-and-grey, south-eastern flint with which we shall deal later. The „banded" flinit was extracted from the lower Astratian (dołno-asrtrackie) layers, the primary deposits of which extend-ed along the north-eastern extend-edge of the Świętokrzyskie (Łysogóry) Mountains in Central Poland (map 3, fig. 3). It was partly extracted from its natural outcrops, but the best quality material was obtained in a number of mines, eg. at Krzemionki, Borownia, etc., in the district of Opatów42.
The mine at Krzemionki and its neighbouring village of Magonie, which was discovered by S. S a m s o n o w i c z , aroused the greatest interest. This was one of the largest prehistoric flint mines in Europe, extending over a parabolic-shaped area, 4 kms long, about 250 ms wide. Well over 700 pits and shafts were recorded, from a few metres to over 15 ms deep, the deeper ones being interconnected by subterranean galleries. The mine was investigated and partly excavated by several scholars43. It dated from the late Neolithic, and was exploited by the
Funnel Beaker people of the Little Polish (southern) group.
4 0 G. W i l k e , Herkunft der Kelten, Germanen und Illyrer. „Mannus", vol.
IX, 1917, p. 39, map VI : 12.
41 G. K o s s i n i n a , Meine Reise nach West- und Ostpreussen und meine Berufung zu Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg in August 1915 „Mannus", vol. IX, 1917, p. 143. I d e m , Erläuterungen zur Karte der Funde gebänderter Feuer-steingeräte, „Mannus", vol. X, 1918, p. 202 ff, pl. IV.
4 2 J. S a m s o n o w i c z , 1. е., „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VIII, p. 17 ff.
L. S a w i c k i , I. е., „Sprawozdania PMA", vol. I, p. 121 ff.
4 3 Excavated in 1926—1927 by J. Ż u r o w s k i , then by Z. S z m i t and
S. K r u k o w s k i . See: Wl. A n t o n i e w i c z , Archeologia Polski, p. 61 f. J. Ż u r o w s k i , Sprawozdania z działalności konserwatora zabytków przedhisto-rycznych okręgu zachodniomałopolskiego i śląskiego za lata 1924—1926, „Wiado-mości Archeologiczne", vol. X, 1929, pp 201, 220. St K r u k o w s k i , Pierwsza charakterystyka stanowiska kopalnianego Krzemionki na podstavné jego
pozosta-T H E D I S pozosta-T R I B U pozosta-T I O N OF S O M E V A R I E pozosta-T I E S OF F L I N pozosta-T IN P O L A N D 291
The „banded" flint was not well suitable for the smaller imple-ments and was seldom used for this purpose. It was extracted mainly for the manufacture on a larger scale of attractive, medium and small size, axes well polished all over their surface. One of ithe centres of
Fig. 3. Map showing the distributions of axes made of the „bandel" flint, after J. Kostrzewski with some additions by T. Sulimirski and A. Kunysz.
łości naziemnych. (Première caractéristique de la station minière de Krzemioki au point de vue des restes qui se trouvent à sa surface), „Wiadomości Archeolo-giczne", vol. XI, 1982, pp. 53 if., 60. I d e m , Krzemionki Opatowskie, Warszawa 1939. — The history of investigations and the present state of the mine have been described by T. Ż u r o w s k i , Konserwacja neolitycznych kopalni krzemienia w Krzemionkach Opatowskich. (The preservation of the Neolithic Flint Mines ait Krzemionki Opatowskie), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. X X , 1954, pp. 280—293.
292 TADEUSZ SULIMIRSKI
their manufacture was at Ćmielów in the district of Opatów. This was a settlement of the Little-Polish group of the Funnel Beaker culture, situated at a distance of a few miles from the mines at Krzemionki and Borownia. It was investigated by Ζ. Ρ o d к o w i ή s к а44.
The fine axes made of the „banded" flint were evidently a sought-after luxury product and were exported to distant countries. Their geographical distribution (map 3, fig. 3) shows, that they were sent mostly westwards, and quite a few found their way to the regions east of the middle Vistula. A great many were recorded in Kuyavia and Elast Pomerania, within the territory enclosed by the bend of the Vistula. Several were found stray in Silesia, Moravia and westwards as far as Saxony, Thuringia45 and West Brandenburg4 ß. In the north, they reached the Baltic coast, and the westernmost of these were found in the region of Greifswald in North-Eastern Germany (map 3, fig. 3). The „banded" flint has been used at a relatively late date. No palaeolithic or mesolithic implements made of it were found, and the earliest tool seems to be a carelessly made axe excavated in a grave of the Bell Beaker culture at Zlota, in the district of Sandomierz47 — if this was really a grave of that culture.
Smaller implements, axes usually made carelessly, and above all small flakes, were found in a number of settlements of the Little Polish group of the Funnel Beaker culture in the region of Sando-mierz48, and sometimes further wt4t40. Exceptionally, they have been
44 Z. P o d k o w i ń s k a , Osada neolityczna na Górze Gawroniec w Ćmielowie. pow. Opatów. (The Neolithic Settlement on Gaiwroniec Hill at Ćmielów, Opatów District). „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. XVII, 1950, pp. 95—146. I d e m , Prace wykopaliskowe na stanowisku „Gawroniec-Pałyga" w Ćmielowie w pow. opatowskim 1950 r. (The Excavations at Gawroniec-Pałyga by Ćmielów, Opatów District). „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. XVIII, 1952, pp. 201—242. I d e m , Sprawozdanie z prac wykopaliskowych na Górze Gawroniec (Pałyga) w Ćmielowie, pow. opatowski w 1954 r. (Report on the Excavation-Works on Góra Gawroniec -Pałyga in Ćmielów, distr. Opatów in the Year 1954), „Sprawozdania Archeolo-giczne", vol. I, 1955, pp. 11—28.
45 A t the Institut für prähistorische Archäologie der Friedrich Schmer Universität, Jena.
40 G. К о s s i η η a, 1. е., „Maimus", vol. X, p. 202 ff.
47 J. Ż u r o w s k i , 1. е., „Wiadomcścd Archeologiczne", vol. XII, p. 132 ff. 48 J. F i t z k e , Materiały prehistoryczne z Sandomierskiego. (Matériaux pré-historiques provenant de la région de Sandomierz), „Materiały Prehistoryczne", vol. I, 1934, p. Θ1.
49 J. G u r b a , 1. c., p. 157. K. R a d w a ń s k i , Osada neolityczna w miejsco-wości Prandocin, pow. Miechów, „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. XXIV, 1957, p. 144.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME VARIETIES OF F L I N T I N P O L A N D 293
found by excavation with the remains of that culture east of the Vistula, in the Nałęczów group50, and once in a settlement on the Middle Bug51. On the other hand, no artifacts, or flakes, of „banded" flint were met, either with the remains of the Funnel Beaker culture in northern and western Poland, or in the Kuyavian megalithic graves, which preceded the cist-graves of the Globular Amphora culture in the
same area52. ι
The production of the „banded' axes had developed late and was typical of the final Polish Neolithic, which corresponded with the evolved Unetice (A/2) period in Bohemia. The „banded" axes of the region of Sandomierz belonged chiefly to the Zlota culture53, within the reach of which lay both the mines and special workshops mentioned previously. The Złota culture was closely connected with the Globular Amphora culture which so greatly contributed to its development54. Ait the same time, within this territory at least partial contemporaneity of the Globular Amphorae with the Funnel Beakers has been esta-blished by several authors55 on the evidence of the results of their excavations. In the mine of Krzemionki, potsherds of the Globular Amphorae were found together with those of the Funnel Beakers56.
In the northern part of Poland, the „banded" axes were attached to the Globular Amphora culture, and J. K o s t r z e w s k i5 7 considers them to be the most characteristic implement, or weapon, of this cul-ture in Poland. In fact, they were found in a series of graves of the
50 L. G a j e w s k i , L c., pp. 16, 127 f, 137, 139, il52.
51 J. K o w a l c z y k , 1. е., „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. XXIII, p. 44 f. Here also probably belongs an unfinished (half-product) „banded" axe found stray at Skomorochy in the same district; see S. N o s e k , 1. е., „Annales UMCS", vol. VI F, p. 192.
52 W. C h m i e l e w s k i , 1. е., p. 39.
83 Z. S z m i t , Badania epoki kamiennej na Podlasiu. (Recherches de colo-nisations· de l'époque de pierre en Podlasie), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. IX, 1929, p. 73. J. K o s t r z e w s k d , Od mezolitu..., p. 178.
54 Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , 1. е., „Wiadomości Archeologiczne" vol. IX, p. 230 ff. I d e m , Archeologia Polski, p. 65. J. Ż u r o w s k i , Dwa groby kultury złockiej. (Deux tombeaux de la culture de Złota). „Księga Pamiątkowa Prof. W. D e r n e -t r y k i e w i c л a", Poenań 1930, p. il 71.
85 Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , 1. е., „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. IX, p. 236 f. J. Ż u r o w s k i , Neue Ergebnisse der neolithischen Forschung im südwestpol-nischen Lössgebiet. „Prähistorische ZFT", vol. XXI, 1930, p. 14 ff (off-print).
68 К. J a ż d ż e w s k i , Neolityczne groby zwierzęce z Kujaw. „Z otchłani wie-ków", vol. XI, 1936, p. 50.
87 J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu..., p. 148. I d e m , Wielkopolska w pra-dziejach, p. 45.
294 T A D E U S Z StTLIMIRSKI
Puławy group58, and in a few slab-cist burials further north and
north-west59. „Banded" flint flakes were excavated in one of its
settle-ments in Greater Poland60.
Different was the position in the eastern groups of the Globular Amphora culture: only once was an axe of this type found in a slab-cist
grave of the Middle Bug group61, and none has been found in those
of the Volhynian and Podolian groups further east. Only two axes found stray within the area of the Middle Bug group can be allocated
to this culture: one from Majdanek in the district of Tomaszów62, and
the other one from Narajów in the district of Dubno in Volhynia, the
easternmost of all63. I should also mention, that a fragment oï a
„ban-ded" axe was found in a secondary burial of a sub-Carpathian
barrow--grave at Kołokolin in the district of Rohatyn64.
OTHER CENTRAL POLISH FLINT VARIETIES
A number of other local varieties of flint were utilized in Central Poland, besides those described above. They were extracted from the limestone deposits of the Polish Jura extending around the
Święto-krzyskie (Łysogóry) Mountains, and also from the Jurassic layers of the Cracow—Wieluń Hills situated west of the former, north-west of Cracow. Further west, a flint mine, operating supposedly since the Mesolithic, was found at Maków in the district of Racibórz in Upper
Silesia65. Flint was mined there in funnel-shaped pits, 4—5 ms deep,
or in small trenches a few metres long.
68 S. N o s e k , 1. е., Annales UMCS, vol. VI F, pp. 235 ff. (Rębków-Parcele,
Klementowice, Las Stocki, Nałęczów, Okalew).
69 Narty: Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , Z dziedziny archeologii ziem Polski. (Notizen
aus dem Gebiete der Archäologie Polens). „Swiatowit", vol. XVII, 1938, p. 341 ff; Kuczyna: M. & W. C h m i e l e w s c y , Grób kultury amfor kulistych w Kuczynie, w pow. włocławskim. (Une tombe des amphores sphêriques à Kuczyna, distr. de Włocławek), „Przegląd Archeologiczny", vol. IX, 1953, p. 326, fig. 7; Rzeszynek, Mszanowo, Zyglądy, Lisnowo, Hartowiec, Trelkowo (Schöndamerau): W. L a Baume, Die jung steinzeitliche Kugelamphorenkultur in Ost und Westpreussen,
„Prussia", vol. 35, 1943, pp. 37, 44, 34, 42, 58, pl. 11 : a, b.
6 0 J. D ą b r o w s k a , Osada kultury amfor kulistych w Biskupinie, pow. Żnin, „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", val. XXIV, 1957, p. 247 f.
βι Stołpie, district of Chełm. S. N o s e k , „Annales UMCS", vol. VI F, p. 234. 6 2 S. N o s e k , as above, p. 213.
β3 Before the last war in the Archaeological Museum in Warsaw (Państwowe
Muzeum Archeologiczne).
64 Barrow-grave IV, excavated by Dr. M. S m i s z к о in 1935. Unpublished. 85 L. R o t h e r t , Die mittlere Steinzeit in Schlesien. „Mamnus Bücherei" 55,
T H E D I S T R I B U T I O N OF S O M E V A R I E T I E S OF F L I N T I N P O L A N D 295 The best known of the above varieties was the light-brown flint,
commonly called the „Jurassic" (jurajski)06 or
„Oxfordian-Kimmerid-gian" (oksfordzko-kimeryjstki) flint67. It originated from the Cracow—
Wieluń Hills (map 4, fig. 4), and was extracted either from the natural
Fig. 4. Map showing: a — The proper areas of the different varieties of flint in Poland; I — the north-western, „milky" flint: II — the „chocolate" flint; III — the „Jurrassic" flint; IV — the grey-white-spotted flint; V — the black flint; VI — the „Baltic", north-eastern flint, b — The distribution of artifacts made of the black Volhynian flint, also its hoards and workshops, and workshops and mines of the
„Baltic", north-eastern, flint.
64 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", voL V, p. 188. J. S a m
-s o n o w i c z , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VIII, p. 17 ff.
βτ J. Z a b ł o c k i & J. Ż u r o w s k i , Znalezienie zapasów Lithospermum w dwu stanowiskach kultury małopolskiej, (Les provisions de Lithospermum trou-vées dans deux fonds de cabane de l'époque de la culture petite-polonaise), „Ma-teriały Prehistoryczne", vol. I, 1934, p. 8, footnote.
296 TADEUSZ StTLIMIRSKI
outcrops, eg. in the Ojców valley north-west of Cracow, or often from secondary, glacial deposits extending over a wider area to the north and west.
Implements made of - the „Jurassic" flint were already present on the palaeolithic and mesolithic sites in the region of Cracow and further north-west68. This was almost the only flint used by the neolithic settlers within the same area63. It was found in Danubian I settlements as far as Kuyavia™, and also in the settlements of the subsequent Theiss, Radial Pottery and Fuinnel Beaker cultures in the country around Cracow71. The same applies to the remains of the Corded Ware culture, including those in Upper Silesia.
According to S. K r u k o w s k i7 2, by the end of the Neolithic, axes quadrangular in cross-section and large blades were manufactured of this flint on a larger scale in special workshops73. The raw material was mined in a few primitive mines nearby. The products were destined for export to a wider area.
A different variety was the „Turonian" (turoński) flint which was extracted in a number of small mines in the district of Opatów74. It was flaxen in colour. Only a few sites with implements made of this flint, all situated in the same district, were mentioned in the literature concerned75.
68 Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , Archeologia Polski, pp. 12 if., 30.
β9 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VII, p. 44. L. K o
-złowski, Epoka kamienna na wydmach wschodniej części Wyżyny Małopolskiej. (Die Steinzeit dn Duenengebiet der kleinpolnáschen Hoehe), Lwów—Warszawa 1923, p. 63.
70 S. K r u k o w s k i „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VII, p. 53.
71 S. K r u k o w s k i 1. е., p. 51 ff. J. Z u r o w s к i, Problem kultury ceramiki promienistej. (Le problème de la culture de la céramique à ornement radié), ,,Wia-domości Archeologiczne", vol. XII, 1933, p. 139 ff. J. К o s t r z e w s к i, Od mezolitu..., p. 134. T. R e y m a η, Dokumentaryczne wartości odkryć w kopcu wschodnim w Rosiejowie. (Valeur documentaire des découvertes dans le tertre oriental de Rosiejów), „Slavia Antiqua", vol. I, 1948, p. 74, fig. 46. S. N o s e k , Przyczynki do znajomości kultur z cyklu wstęgowych w Polsce południowej. (Contribution à la connaissance des civilisations de céramique à bandes en Pologne du sud), ,.Prze-gląd Archeologiczny", vol. VII, 1947, p. 182, fig. 30. I d e m , Sprawozdania Arche-ologiczne,, vol. I, p. 31. К. R a d w a ń s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. XXIV, p. 143.
72 J. Z a b ł o c k i & J. Ż u r o w s k i , 1. е., p. 8, footnote.
73 E.g. ait Bonowice in the disrtrict of Włoszczowa. See: W. C h m i e l e w s k i , Badania terenowe łódzkiego ośrodka prehistorycznego w roku 1949, „Z otchłani wieków", vol. XIX, 1950, p. 97.
74 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. X, p. 251.
75 Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , Eneolityczne groby szkieletowe we wsi Złota, „Wia-domości Archeologiczne", vol. IX, 1924—25, p. 221.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME VARIETIES OF F L I N T I N P O L A N D 297 THE „ M I L K Y " OR L I G H T - G R E Y F L I N T
In the noi th-western part of Poland up to the region of Poznań, a light-grey, or „milky", flint was commonly used, the natural
depo-sits of which lay outside Poland, in the Isle of Rügen and probably also in the adjoining part of the Mecklenburg province of Germany76. However, no sufficient data have been published in the archaeological literature for drawing a detailed map of the distribution in Poland of the artifacts made of it. Map 4 (fig. 4) shows the approximate extent of these (area I), and in map 2 (fig. 2) the sites of a number of actual finds are marked.
Weapons made of the whitish, north-western flint were also found in Poland outside their proper area, and some of them penetrated even across Poland into the Ukraine. Their distribution is of great interest: to a great extent it had nothing to do with trade in flint, but evidently some events of political character lay behind it.
North-western imported flint daggers were found, outside their proper area, in Middle Silesia77 and in Greater Poland78; they belong to the late stage of the Corded Ware culture. Of particular interest is a dagger representing a pure „nordic" type, made of the „north-wes-tern" flint, found in a grave at Orlovka near Berdyansk on the Sea of Azov79, at a distance of about 1800 kms (about 1100 miles from Rügen).
Axes were another characteristic weaipon, or tool, made of the north-western, „milky" flint. They were extremely well polished all over their surface, with all traces of trimming smoothed. They were flat, thin, quadrangular in cross-section, usually rhomboid in shape with the upper end narrow and the edge slightly curved. They evidently imitate flat copper or bronze axes.
Axes of the above type were characteristic of the Globular Am-phora culture. They were found in slab-cist graves of that culture
7 βΚ . J a ż d ż e w s k i , Kultura pucharów lejkowatych, p. 290.
77 O. M e г t i η s, Steinzeitliche Werkzeuge und Waffen in Schlesien, „Schle-siens Vorzeit in Bild und Schrift", NF, vol. III, 1904, p. 8 ff. I d e m , Wegweiser durch die Urgeschichte Schlesiens, Wrocław (Breslau) 1906, p. 30 ff. E. P e t e r s e n , Der Einfluss der jütländischen Einzelgrabkultur auf die jüngere Steinzeit Schlesiens, .Altschlesien", vol. 5, 1934, p. 58.
78 J. K o s t ř z e w s k i , Wielkopolska...., p. 52, fig. 107.
79 О. N. B a d e r , Ocherk rabot Azovo-chernomorskoy ekspedytsii, KSIIMK, vol. X X X I , 1950, p. 180, fig. 68.
298 TADEUSZ SULIMIRSKI
in Greater Poland80, East Prussia81, and in the graves of the Masovian group on the Vistula82 (map 2, fig. 2). Their south-eastern expansion is marked by three axes found along the Middle Bug83, as well as those excavated in the Volhynian81 and Podolian85 slab-cist graves of the Globular Amphora culture. The most remote of these were found at a distance of about 1100 kms from their original country.
The existence at that time of a kind of regular trade in flint in North-West Poland is suggested by a hoard consisting of three such axes, found at Marcinkowo Górne in the district of Żnin8", marked on map 2 (fig. 2). However, axes of the same kind found further east were evidently not traded, but were brought ithere by their users. Jointly with the slab-cist graves and amber ornaments, they mark the south-eastern expansion of the Globular Amphora people.
A closer study of grave-goods found in association with the eastern „milky" axes suggests, that the graves in question belong rather to an earlier stage in the development of the local groups of the eastern Globular Amphorae. It seems that at a later date, the north-western axes were no longer available in the countries east of Kuyavia, and were, therefore, replaced by axes made locally of other varieties of
80 Skoczka, Brześć Kujawski; J. K o s t r z e w s k i, Neolityczny grób skrzyn-kowy ze Skoczki w pow. szubińskim. (Un tombeau néolithique à caisse de Skoczka arrondi Szubin), Księga Pamiątkowa Prof. W . D e m e t r y k i e w i c z a , Poznań 1930, p. 97, pl. V: 1, 2. К. J a ż d ż e w s k i , Ciekawe odkrycia archeologiczne w pow. włocławskim i nieszawskim. „Z otchłani wieków", vol. VIII, 1933, p. 50, fig. 4.
81 Rańsk (Rheinswein), Szczepankowo (Szazepamken), Szczytno (Ortelsburg). W. L a B a u m e , Die jungsteinzeitliche Kugelamphorenkultur in Ost- und West-preussen, „Prussia", vod. 35, 1943, p. 63, ff.
82 Biała near Płock. W. L а В a u m e, 1. е., p. 77.
83 Chojewo, Kodeń, Pomiatówka, Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , „Swiatowit" vol. XVII, pp. 355, 371, fig. 28. S. N o s e k , „Annales UMCS", vol. V I F, p. 184.
84 Międzyrzec district of Ostróg: before the last war the Archaeological Museum in Warsaw (Państwowe Muzeum Archeologiczne). Aneta, Suyemtsi, Vysoké: I. L e -v i с' к у i, Pamjatky megalitychnoy kultury na Wołyni. (Sepultures néolithiques dolméniques en Volhynie), „Archeołogija", vol. II, Kiev 1929, p. 192 ff. See also: Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , „Swiatowit", vol. XVII, p. 387 ff.
85 Zarwanica near Podhajce (before the war in the Dzieduszycki Museum Lwów); Chorostków (before the war in the Lubomirski Museum Lwów); Bratyszów near Tłumacz (Archeological Museum Cracow); Rakówkąt near Kopyczyńce. G. O s s o w s k i , Zbiór wiadomości do antropologii krajowej, voL XV, 1891, p. 28, pl. II : 2. Velyka Muksha near Kamenetz Podolski (Ε. S i t z i η s к y, Materiały do archeologii zachidnogo Podilja. (Matériaux pour l'archéologie de la Podolie de l'ouest). „Zapysky Wseukrainskogo Archeologicznoho Komitetu", vol· I, 1930, p. 35 ff.
8e Z. A. R a j e w s k i , Skarb krzemienny z Marcinkowa Górnego w pow. żniń-skim (woj. poznańskie). „Z otchłami wieków", vol. VI, 1Э31, p. 78 f.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME VARIETIES OF F L I N T I N P O L A N D 299
flint. In the western groups, Kuyavian, Masovian, East Prussian, and also in the Puławy group on the Middle Vistula, their place was taken by axes made of the „banded" flint discussed in the preceding section. Some authors are of the opinion that the bearers of the Globular Amphorae seized the mining district of the „banded" flint in order to secure its supply.
Almost no axes of the „banded" flint were found further east. In the Volhynian87 and Podolian groups88, the „milky" flint was replaced by the local black and black-and-grey variety with which we shall deal in the succeeding section. The local makers tried to imitate the north-western prototypes by selecting special pieces of raw material, which were almost entirely grey with the smallest possibly black spots. However, these imitations had never attained the thinness and the pro-portions of -the original axes and can be always recognized. In several slab-cist graves in Podolia, axes of the local type were deposited instead of the north-western ones80.
THE B L A C K , OR B L A C K - A N D - G R E Y , S O U T H - E A S T E R N F L I N T The most commonly used variety in south-eastern Poland was the black, or black-and-grey flint, called the ,.south-eastern'' (południowo-wschodni), the „Bug" (nadbużański), or the „Volhynian" (wołyński) variety90. It was extracted from natural outcrops in the country exten-ding along the Upper Bug and along the northern edge of «the Podolian plateau91. It was also available further south, in the deep river valleys (yar) of Podolia where, however, the grey colour usually prevailed over the black on the cores.
The Volhynian, or south-eastern, flint was of excellent quality, probably the best in Central Europe, suitable for the manufacture
87 Korytna near Luck (Archaeological Museum Cracow, nr 6915); Kolodiazhne-Voytsikhivka on the Sluch (I. F. L e v i t s к i j, Domovina kintsa neolitychnoy doby na poberezhzhi serednoy techii reki Słuchi, „Zapysky Vseukrainskoho Archeologich-noho Komitetu", vol. I, 1930, p. 159 ff); see also: Wh A n t o n i e w i c z , „Swia-towit", vol. XVII, p. 390, fig. 50 : 10;
88 Zastawie near Tarnopol (Wh A n t o n i e w i c z , „Swiatowit", vol. VII, p. 396): Czarnowody in Podolia (L. K o z ł o w s k i , Młodsza epoka kamienna w Polsce (Neolit), L w ó w 1924, p. 182, pl. X X V : 7).
89 Beremiany near Zaleszczyki (Archaeological Museum, Cracow, nr 3182), Ulaszkowce near Cz»rtków (Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , „Swiatowit", vol. XVII, p. 394 f, and also p. 390, fig. 50 :12—14).
90 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. V, p. 197. 91 L. K o z ł o w s k i , Młndsza epoka kamienna, p. 139.
300 T A D E U S Z S U L M I R S K I
of both small implements and larger weapons. It was used by the pa-leolithic hunters; the various neolithic cultures of Volhynia and Podolia, including the Tripolye culture, availed themselves of this flint.
During the earlier part of ithe Neolithic, the „Volhynian" flint was used mainly by the local population, and only exceptionally was carried westwards or north-westwards92. The circumstances were different in
the late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age. At thait time, the „Vol-hynian" flint became very popular in the whole country east of the Middle Vistula and penetrated even west of thait river inito the close vicinity of the natural deposits of other varieties described in the pre-ceding sections (map 4, fig. 4). This applies not only to the products of specialized workshops which were distributed over wider areas, but also to blades and small implements which were found in several sites in Central and North-Western Poland93.
Such blades and small implements, made of the black flint, were excavated in the sites of the Nałęczów group of the Funnel Beaker culture east of the Vistula, along with those of the grey-white-spotted flint. According to J. K o s t r z e w s k i9 4, both the Funnel Beaker
people of the Cracow—Sandomierz region (the Little Polish group) and the bearers of the Corded Ware in that territory had sometimes used the Vodhynian variety for making their smaller implements. A hoard, consisting of a number of fine „Volhynian" flint blades, 16 cms long, found at Balice near Stopnica north-west of Cracow95, implies that
a more or less regular itrade in this commodity must have existed. Implements made of the black flint were also found in sites of the Corded Ware culture in Greater Poland90 and reached even the Baltic
coast where they were excavated in the settlement of Rzucewo97.
It seems, however, that not all smaller implements and flakes of the „black" flint found in Central Poland, eg. in the workshops of the
92 Eg. at Targowiska near Bochnia in the settlement of the Linear Pottery
(Danubian I) culture.
93 L. K o z ł o w s k i , Młodsza epoka kamienna, p. 86 ff. I d e m, Stan i zadania
badań nad epoką kamienną w Polsce. (L'état et les but des recherches sur l'âge de la pierre en Pologne), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VI, 1921, p. 41.
94 J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu..., pp. 144 175.
95 J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Neolithische Depotfunde aus Polen und Lithauen,
„Prä-historische ZFT", vol. X, 1918, p. 158 ff.
98 L. K o z ł o w s k i , Młodsza epoka kamienna, p. 88. J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu..., p. 170. I d e m . Wielkopolska, 3 rd ed., p. 54, fig. 103.
97 J. Ż u r e k , Osada z młodszej epoki kamiennej w Rzucewie, pow. xaejhe-rowski i kultura rzucewska. (Le village neolithique de Rzucewo, distr. de Wejhe-rowo et civilisation de Rzucewo), „Fontes Archaeologice Posnanienses", vol. IV,
T H E D I S T R I B U T I O N OF S O M E V A R I E T I E S OF F L I N T IN P O L A N D 301
„banded" flint at Ćmielów, mentioned previously, were of „Volhynian" origin; they might have been rather of local origin, or brought from a less distant region: a black variety of flint occurs in the upper Turonian layers near Rachów98, known for its deposits of the
grey--white-spotted flint, and also in some other sites nearby on the western side of the Vistula. The same was probably true with implements, blades and flakes in particular, of the „black" flint found further north and north-west in Poland, which might have originated from a series of smaller mines in Polesia", in the neighbourhood of Wolkowysk100
(map 4, fig. 4), or several others in the same region101.
The position was different with regard to the large, fine weapons and implements made of the „black" flint, such as daggers, spear-heads,
„sickles", „saws", etc. The shape of these and in particular the tech-nique in which they were worked, along with the flint itself, are a clear indication of their origin. All these artifacts were products of special workshops, some of which were partly investigated102. The workshops
specialized in the manufacture of a single type of weapon or implement and came very near perfection in their execution. The making of these objects required a very high skill from the part of the workers. They were a much sought-after commodity as indicated by their wide di-stribution (map 4, fig. 4).
The artifacts in question were executed in the special technique of the „Bug" flint industry (przemysł nadbużański). This technique and its origin have been often described and discussed103. According
to L. K o z ł o w s k i1 0 4, who devoted special attention to it and gave 98 J. S a m s o n o w i c z , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. IX, p. 100. 89 Eg. at Pokwla near Samy (J. F i t z к e, „Z otchłani "wieków", vol. XII, 1937,
pp. 81, 166).
100 Eg. at Krasncwieś on the Roś (J. К o s t r z e w s к i, Od mezolitu..., p. 189). 101 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. V, p. 188.
102 Przewodów near Sokal, Niesłuchów & Żelechów near Kamionka Strumiłowa,
Lisznia, Sapanów, Gage Lewiatyńskie near Krzemieniec (Kremenetz), environment of Złoczów, etc. See: J. B r y k , Osady epoki kamiennej na wydmach zachodniej części południowego Wołynia. (les stations néolithiques sur les dunes des bords du Boug), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. IX, 1924—1925, p. 50 ff. I d e m , Kultury epoki kamiennej na wydmach zachodniej części południowego Wołynia, Lwów 1928, p. 48 ff. Also a note in „Z otchłani wieków", vol. XI, 1936, p. 93.
103 Wł. A n t o n i e w i c z , Archeologia Polski, p. 54 ff. S. K r u k o w s k i ,
„Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VII, p. 55 f. Z. S z m i t , „Wiadomości Arche-ologiczne", vol. IX, p. 71 ff.
302 T A D E U S Z S U L I M I R S K I
it its name, this technique had developed locally under the influence of the „Baltic", or „Lithuanian", neolithic flint industry which was proper to the country further north105. This does not seem right and
one would rather expect a reverse relationship. The „Baltic" products have never attained the exquisite shapes of the products of the „Bug" industry106. M. R u d y η s к у i 107 pointed out that western,
Scandi-navian influence must have contributed !to the splendid development of the „Bug" industry, which is indicated by its similarity to, and correlation with, the Scandinavian flint industry of the final Neolithic. However, the absence of genuine Scandinavian, or north-west European flint weapons does not support this theory, although the single Scan-dinavian dagger found on the Sea of Azov, mentioned in the preceding section, and above all the „milky" axes, may point to the existence of some north-western cultural stream reaching Podolia and Volhynia. The point is, that the above artifacts were connected with the Globular Amphora culture, whereas the „Bug" flint industry was evidently in the hands of the Corded Ware people.
Several elements might have contributed to the evolution of the „Bug" technique, but the main driving force was undoubtedly the de-sire to copy and imitate in flint the expensive and hardly obtainable metal daggers and similar weapons. All scholars agree also that one of the most important, factors which secured the success of the „Bug" industry was the excellent raw material, the black Volhynian flint.
The main workshops of the fine artifacts lay close to the deposits of raw material of good quality. They were found in the neighbourhood of Krzemieniec (Kremenetz) and further west, along the Upper Bug, as far as the country west of that river in the region of Sokal. Accord-ing to L. K o z ł o w s k i1 0 8, the northern boundary of the genuine
province of the „Bug" industry ran along the northern border of the Volhynian loess soils. Further north extended another province called by L. K o z ł o w s k i the „Baltic" flint industry, with which we shall deal in the following section.
105 L. K o z ł o w s k i , Młodsza epoka kamienna, p. 70 ff.
106 Eg.: T. S u l i m i r s k d , O poleskiej praojczyźnie Słowian. „Z otchłani
wie-ków", vol. XIV, 1939, p. 35, fig. 2. I d e m , Polska przedhistoryczna, Part II, London 1957—1958, p. 242, fig. 61.
107 M. R u d y ń s k y i , Deyaki pidsumky ta blyshchi zavdannya palentołogichnykh vyvchen u mezhakh USRR, „Antropologia", vol. IV, 1930, p. 176 f.
108 L. K o z ł o w s k i , Stan badań..., „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VI,
T H E D I S T R I B U T I O N OF S O M E VARIETIES OF F L I N T I N P O L A N D 303
A number of workshops, which may also be regarded as belonging to the „Bug" industry, were found in East Volhynia and East Polesia. However, their products have never attained the high standard οι the West Volhynian artisans. This is well illustrated by the flint implements found in the settlements of the Horodsk (Gorodsk) cultu-re109. One of the workshops of this type which, according to V. D
a-n y l e v y c h1 1 0, specialized in the production of axes, daggers,
„sickl-es" and „saws", was found at Zbranki on the Uzh, a tributary of the Pripet, near Narodichi.
The „Bug" industry was closely connected with the Corded Ware complex, and its products were found almost exclusively with the remains of various groups of this complex. They were typical of the Strzyżów group in the region of Hrubieszów west of the Middle Bug111,
and east of that river in West Volhynia112. Flints of the Horodsk
culture, mentioned above, which was also a branch of the Corded Ware complex, were of the same type. They were exported further east, but M. R u d y n s k y i1 1 3 points out that Volhynian weapons and
imple-ments do not appear east of the Dnieper. That river had probably formed the eastern boundary of the „Bug" flint industry and of the spread of its products. Objects made of the black „Volhynian" flint were seldom found further east, the remains of the Sofiivka culture114
in the vicinity of Kiev, east of the Dnieper, being an exception.
Map 4 (fig. 4) shows how widely the products of the „Bug" industry were exported westwards. Their expansion took place during the latest stage of the Polish Neolithic, which was identical with the Early Bronze Age. They were found in several late sub-Carpathian115 and
north-west Podolian116 barrow-graves dating from the Early Bronze
109 у ρ p i et r o v , Poselennya v Horodsku. Trypilska Kultura, vol. I, Kiev 1940, p. 348 ff.
no y D a η y 1 e v i с h, Arkheologichna mynuvshchyna Kyivshchyny, Kiev 1925, p. 21 ff.
111 A. G a r d a w s k i i Z. R a j e w s k i , Znaleziska archeologiczne w Hrubie-szowie i okolicy, „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. XXIII, 1956, p. 104 ff.
112 T. S u l i m i r s ki, Polska przedhistoryczna. Part II, p. 233 fig. 59. 1 1 8 M. R u d y η s к у i, 1. е., р. 177.
1 1 4 U. Μ. Z а к h а г u к, Sofiivskyi tiłopalnyi mohylnyk. „Archeologiczni
Pa-myatky URSR", vol. IV, 1952, p. 112 ff. I d e m , Poselennya sofiivskoho typu v oko-lytsyakh Kyieva, „Archeologiczni Pamyatki URSP", vol. VI, 1956, p. Ill ff. V. I. К a-n i ν e s, Mohylnyk epokhy midii bilya s. Chernyna na Kiivshchyni, „Archeologiczni Pamyatky URSR, vol. VIII, 1956, p. 99 ff.
ив Unpublished.
110 J. B r y k , Kurhany w Rusiłowie i Krásnem (Les tumulus de Rusiłów et de
304 T A D E U S Z S U L I M I R S K I
Age; they were not found there in the graves of the earlier stage. The same applies to the Złota culture, as pointed out by Z. S z m i t 117.
Within that territory, they appear mostly in graves of the late stage of that culture, called the „Mierzanowice" culture118, dating from the
Early Bronze Age. The „Bug" industry was also of a late daite in the Ukraine. M. V. D a η y 1 e η к о 1 1 9 emphasizes that in the vi-cinity of
Kiev, a marked change in the flint technique has been observed at the beginning of the Bronze Age; at that time products of the „Bug" flint industry appeared there.
The fine „Bug", or Volhynian weapons were seldom met with the remains of other cultures. Exceptionally, they were found in a few of the latest slab-cist graves of the Globular Amphora culture in Volhynia120, and also in a few late Tripolyan settlements121.
The „Bug" flint industry broke down at the very end of the Early Bronze Age, when more ample supplies of bronze began to reach the country. Buł in spite of that, implements made of the Volhynian flint in the „Bug" technique were still in use in more remote parts of the country. Such implements were found with the remains of the Wysooko culture of the final Bronze Age and Early Iron Age1212, and
a typical flint axe was among the grave-goods of a Scythian barrow-grave excavated by me at Bratyszów on the Dniester123.
The Late Neolithic Gold Ornament from Bennekom. „Paleołustoria", vol. V, 1956, p. 67, pi. X.
117 Z. S z m i t , Badania osadnictwa epoki kamiennej na Podlasiu. (Recherches
de colonisations de l'époque de pierre en Podlasie), „Wiadomości Archeologiczne",
1 , 8 K. S a l e w i c z , Tymczasowe wyniki badań prehistorycznych w Mierza-nowicach, pow. opatowski, woj. kieleckie, „Z otchłani wieków", vol. XII, 1937, pp. 39—59. J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu..., p. 202 ff. S. N o s e к, Zagadnienie prasłowiańszczyzny w świetle prehistorii (Le problème de l'origine des Slaves à la lumière de préhistoire), „Swiatowit", vol. XIX, 1948, p. 105 ff. S u l i m i r ski, Polska przedhistoryczna, Part II, p. 263.
119 V. M. D a η y 1 e η к о, Doslidzhennya neolitychnykh pamyateк ν rayoni Ky-ieva, „Archeologichni Pamyatky URSR", vol. VI, 1956, p. 173.
120 Młynów near Dubno, Dublany near Lwów.
121 Buczacz (J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu..., p. 165), Semenów—Zieleńcze
(S. A. S u d а к o ν, Poselennya trypilskoy kultury bilya sela Semeniv—Zelenche, „Archeologichni pamyatky URSR", vol. IV, 1952, p. 104 ff, pl. I: 1, 2).
122 T. S u l i m i r s ki, Kultura Wysocka (Wysooko Kultur), Kraków 1931, p. HI. 123 T. S u l i m i r s k i , Scytowie na zachodniem Podolu. (Die Skythen in
T H E D I S T R I B U T I O N OF SOME VARIETIES OF F L I N T IN P O L A N D 305
THE „BALTIC" FLINT
North of the „Völhynian", or „Bug", province another one exten-ded which was called the „Baltic" Neolithic" by L. K o z ł o w s k i1 2 4.
A particular flint technique had developed there which.was very similar to that of the „Bug" industry, and was regarded by L. K o z ł o w -s k i a-s ance-stral to the latter, which doe-s not -seem correct. It wa-s inferior to the „Bug" technique, and had rather developed either independently but parallel to the „Bug" industry, or under its influence.
A number of flint workshops have been recorded within this pro-vince125. They were established close to the natural deposits of flint,
and the raw material was usually supplied by small primitive mines nearby. The flint was not entirely of the same type within the whole territory in question; unfortunately, no detailed descriptions of its local varieties were published. The flint is frequently brownish or „honey--ooloured", but mostly dark-brown or black; often it can hardly be distinguished from the Volhynian flint.
DISCUSSION
The small flint implements found in various prehistoric deposits were made mostly of the locally available raw material. In areas in which no local flint was at hand, or the local variety was of a poor kind, flint of good quality must have been brought from outside for making special and better tools. During the Palaeolithic, the nomad hunters might have provided themselves with the desired raw material in their wandering over large distances. But later such distant journeys by single men or tribes seem unlikely, and we have to suppose that some sort of primitive trade in flint had developed then. In Poland, as pointed out by S. K r u k o w s k i1 2 6, the beginnings of such a trade,
combined witth the development of the earliest flint mines, can be traced back to the Mesolithic.
During the Neolithic, the trade in flint must have been already well organized and even remote parts of the country were provided with raw material of good quality, although nothing can be said about
124 L. K o z ł o w s k i , Młodsza epoka kamienna, p. 70 ff., pl. XVII—XIX. Se«
also: Z. S z m i t , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. IX, ρ, 66 ff.
128 Połowią near Sarny (J. F i t z к e, „Z otchłani wieków", vol. XII, 1937, pp. 18,
166), Krasnawieś near Wolkowysk (J. K o s t r z e w s k i , Od mezolitu..., p. 189). 126 S. K r u k o w s k i , „Wiadomości Archeologiczne", vol. VII, p. 41. 20 Swiatowit t. XXIII
306 TADEUSZ SULIMIRSKI
the organisation and working of this trade. At that time also special workshops were set up, which specialized in the production of a par-ticular type of weapon or implement; axes, daggers, spear-heads and other larger weapons and tools were the main tyipes produced there for distribution over wider areas.
The distribution of "the various tyipes of flint in neolithic Poland, discussed in the preceding sections, implies that same competition must have existed at that time between the various producing centres. This is well indicated by the overlapping of the areas of distribution of the various kinds of flint, in particular of the „chocolate" and the „grey--white-spotted" flint.
Another observation of interest is that in some parts of the country different varieties of flint were preferred in different periods. It seems that the „chocolate" flint, which was the most common variety in the Central Polish plain during the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and the early Neolithic, was later in retreat there under the competition of the grey-white-spotted flint. On the other hand, the latter variety was the loser in the sub-Carpathian area: it was the most common variety in the early barrow-graves of that region, whereas during the later stage, it was replaced almost entirely by the black Volhynian flint.
During the final Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, the distribution of implements, and weapons in particular, made of different varieties of flint was evidently influenced by some circumstances, or events, of political character. The extremely wide eastern spread of the axes made of the north-western „milky" flint, was undoubtedly connected with the expansion of the Globular Amphora people, and the same probably applies to the spear-heads made of the north-western flint.
The distribution of the „banded" axes was с1оэе1у connected with the activities of the Globular Amphora people. G. K o s s i n n a1 2 7 was of the opinion, that the bearers of the Globular Amphorae expan-ded eastwards in order to seize the mines of the banexpan-ded flint. The actual distribution of these axes (map 3, fig. 3) shows, that they tended evidently northwards and north-westwards, towards the territory under the influence — or perhaps the domination — of the west Polish branches of the Globular Amphora culture. On the other hand, they were not exported eastwards, into the area in which the „Bug" flint industry, working on the excellent Volhynian flint, began its splendid development.
