T n e Journal of Industrial and Engineering Ghemlstry
Pub l i s he d b y T H E A M E R I C A N C H E M I C A L S O C I E T Y
AT BASTON. PA. B iß ,
/-
V olum e X M A R C H 1, 1918 r£ % N o. 3
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Editor: C H A R L E S H. H E R T Y
A ssistant Editor: Gr a c e Ma cLe o d Advertising M a n a g e? > irf*W. No t t A D V IS O R Y B O A R D
H . E . Ba r n a r d, H . K . Be n s o n, P . K . Ca m e r o n, B . C . He s s e, A . D . Li t t l e, A . V . H. Mo r y, M . C . Wh i t a k e r
P u b lish e d m o n th ly . S u b sc rip tio n p rice to n o n -m em b ers of th e A m erican C hem ical S o ciety , $6.00 y e a rly ; single copy, 60 c en ts P rice p e r single copy to A m erican C hem ical Society m em b ers, 50 cen ts. F o reig n p o stag e , sev en ty -fiv e cen ts, C an a d a , C u b a a n d M exico excepted
E n te re d as Second-class M a tt e r D ecem b er 19, 1908, a t th e Post-O ffice a t E a s to n , P a ., u n d e r th e A ct of M a rc h 3, 1879
A ll c o m m u n ic a tio n s s h o u ld b e s e n t to T h e J o u r n a l o l In d u str ia l a n d E n g in e e r in g C h em istry .
T e le p h o n e : V a n d erb ilt 1 9 3 0 35 E ast 4 1 st S tr e e t, N e w Y ork City
S u b sc r ip t io n s a n d c la im s tor lo s t c o p ie s s h o u ld b e r eferred to C h a rles L. P a r so n s, B o x 5 0 5 , W a sh in g to n , D. C.
Es c h b n b a c h Pr j n t i n o Co m p a n y, Ea s t o n, Pa.
T A B L E OF Ed i t o r i a l s:
Where Are the Leaders?... 172
A Long Step in the R ight D irection... 172
F acts for the Tariff Commission... 173
A Patent A buse... 173
W asting W aters... 174
Spruce Turpentine to the F o re... 174
Sugar and Soap... 175
T he N aval Consulting B oard ... 175
Or i g i n a l Pa p e r s: American Sources of Supply for the Various Sugars. C. S. H udson... 176
T he Deterioration of R aw Cane Sugar: A Problem in Food Conservation. C . A. B row ne... 178
Theory and Practice in the Design of M ultiple E va p orators for Sugar Factories. A . L. W ebre... 191
Notes on the Analysis of Molasses. Herbert S. W alker. 198 Relation between Efficiency of Refrigerating Plants and the Purity of Their Ammonia Charge. F . W . Frerichs... 202
Testing N atural G as for Gasoline. G. G . O berfell 211 The Valuation of Lim e for Various Purposes. Richard K . M ead e ... 214
A Study of the DeRoode M ethod for the Determination of Potash in Fertilizer M aterials. T . E . K e itt and H. E . Shiver... 219
La b o r a t o r y a n d Pl a n t: B lue and Brown Print Paper: Characteristics, Tests and Specifications. F . P. Veitch, C. Frank Sammet and E . O. R e e d ... 222
A Hydrogen Sulfide Generator. Louis S a ttle r... 226
Distinguishing M anila from A ll Other "H ard ” Tope Fibers. Charles E . S w ett... 227
Cu r r e n t In d u s t r i a l Ne w s: Diesel Engine Blast Pressure Control; Hides and Skins from Venezuela; Germ any’s Commercial M ethods; Coal-M ining M achinery for Argentina; Utilization of N itre Cake; Electro-Technical Industry in Japan; Tannin and Tim ber; Aluminum Goods for Brazil; Wiring Supplies; Pure Bism uth; Chromium Steel for M agnets; An Autom atic Controller for Electrical Heating Apparatus; M achinery for Korea; A u to claves and H igh Pressure Problems; South African Industrial Developments; Utilization of W aste Boots; Vegetable W ax from Colombia; Zinc Refining in Japan; British Board of T rad e... 228
C O N T E N T S T r a d e A s s o c i a t i o n s : The Chemical Alliance; Dyestuff Convention; American D rug M anufacturers Association... 231
Ch e m i s t s i n Wa r Se r v i c e: Governm ent Recognizes the Importance of Chem istry in the W a r... 234
No t e s a n d Co r r e s p o n d e n c e: Spring M eeting of the American Chemical Society; W ar R isk Insurance for Chemists in M ilitary Serv ice; Ram say Memorial Fund; Chemical Research in the Various Countries before the W ar and in 1917; Licenses Required for Explosives and Their Ingredi ents; T h e Indexes to Chemical Abstracts; The Utilization of N iter Cake; Readjustm ents a t the M assachusetts Institute of Technology to M eet W ar Conditions; Directions for Assistant Editors and Abstractors; Estimation of Phenol in the Pres ence of the Three Cresols— Correction; Electric Furnace Smelting of Phosphate R ock, etc.— Cor rection... 236
W a s h i n g t o n L e t t e r ... 239
Ob i t u a r i e s : Charles Caspari, Jr.; Joseph Price R em ington... 240
P e r s o n a l N o t e s... 241
I n d u s t r i a l N o t e s... 243
G o v e r n m e n t P u b l i c a t i o n s... 245
Bo o k Re v i e w s: T he Distillation of Resins; The Chem istry of Farm Practice; An Introduction to Theoretical and A p plied Colloid Chemistry; T he Chem istry of Colloids; Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis; Standard M ethods of Chemical Analysis. A M anual of A nalytical M ethods and General Reference for the A nalytical Chemist and the Advanced Student; Laboratory Guide of Industrial Chem istry... 249
N e w P u b l i c a t i o n s... 251 M a r k e t R e p o r t ... 2 5 2
172 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y V ol. 10, N o. 3
EDITORIALS
W H E R E A R E T H E L E A D E R S ?
T o b a c k th e m an pow er of our m ilita ry forces th e enorm ous in d u stria l resources of th e c o u n try are being assem bled. C h e m istry p erm eates e v e r y fiber o f our n atio n a l econ om ic b o d y. I t is b u t lo g ica l, th e re fore, th a t inten se ch em ical a c t iv it y sh o u ld p r e v a il in W ash in g to n a t th e present m om ent. C h em ists from e v e r y q u arter h a ve b een called to th is cen ter of w ar p rep aratio n s. T h ese m en are g iv in g all of th e ir ta le n t a n d en ergy in lo y a l d e v o tio n to th e in terests of A m erica.
W ith ch a ra cte ristic fo resigh ted n ess th e D ire cto r of th e B u re au of M ines e a rly b egan th e d evelo p m e n t of a great o rga n iza tio n o f research ch em ists to in v e s
tig a te th e v a rio u s problem s co n n ected w ith gas w a r
fare— offensive and d efen sive. T h e W ar D e p a rtm e n t, p a rticu la rly th e O rdn ance B u re au , h as ad d ed la rg e ly to its sta ff of ch em ists for te st, in sp ectio n an d s u p p ly o f m aterial v it a l to th e su ccessfu l prosecu tio n of th e w ar. T h e N a v y D e p a rtm e n t, a lw a y s “ on th e jo b ,”
is re lyin g u p o n th e ap p licatio n s of ch em ical p rin ci
ples. T h e W ar In d u stries B o ard is co n fro n ted con s ta n tly w ith ch em ical q u estion s o f th e first m agn i
tu d e. T h e C h em ical S ervice S ectio n of th e N atio n a l A rm y , a tta c h e d d ire ctly to G en eral P ersh in g ’ s S taff, fu n ctio n s as a field service, and is p rep ared to ad vise him d ire ctly on pressing problem s arisin g fro m d a y to d a y in th e m anifold a c tiv itie s of a c o n tin u a lly grow in g a rm y on F ren ch soil. T h e S a n ita ry C o rp s depen ds upon its ch em ical exp erts fo r safe gu id an ce in m easures to p ro te ct th e p h ysica l w ell-being of th e m en in cam p and in field. T h e go ve rn m en t ch em ical b u reau s h a v e e xp an d ed th e ir norm al a ctiv itie s. C h e m istry e v e r y w here! So it sh ould be, if th e b est resu lts are to be ob tain ed .
T h e greate r p a rt .of th e w o rk up to th e present tim e h as been research. T h is h as beeri w ell done, and carried o u t w ith th e u tm o st d esp atch . N o w we are en terin g upon— indeed, are a lre a d y g e ttin g w ell into— a new phase, n am ely , th e p ro d u ctio n of m aterials on an im m ense scale. L a b o r a to ry resu lts m u st be tran slated q u ic k ly in to te rm s of p la n t op eratio n . T h e requisites now are rap id p la n t co n stru ctio n and a never- failin g y ield of a b u n d an t finished p ro d u ct.
A s w e vie w fa irly and h o n estly th e in a u g u ra tio n of th is phase of th e w o rk, can d o r com pels th e sta te m e n t th a t th e feeling of pride in th e acco m p lish m en ts of th e in itial stage has g iv en w a y to g ra v e apprehension o v er th e u ltim ate ou tco m e of th is a ll-im p o rta n t sec
on d sta g e , for m istakes here w ill be m easured in th e b lo o d of y o u n g A m erican s now b ein g tra in e d fo r th e h eart-ren d in g d a ys th a t are ju s t before us.
A g rea t chem ical in d u stry m ust b e d evelo p ed im m e d iate ly . T h ro u gh som e stra n g e c o n c a te n a tio n of circu m stan ces men are now ch arge d w ith th e resp o n sib ility o f v a s t chem ical d ev elo p m e n ts w ho, in tim es of peace and b y th o se best q u alified to ju d ge, w o u ld n ever h a v e been th o u gh t o f; o th ers are d a ily called upon to d ecid e g ravest q u estion s o f sup plies
of ch em icals w ho, it is co m m o n ly rep o rte d , know n o t ev en th e nam es o f these su b sta n ces s a v e as th e y h a v e becom e fa m ilia r in th e ro u tin e of th e new d u ties;
m uch less is th e re fu ll u n d e rstan d in g of th e in te rd e pendence of th ese p ro d u cts and th e ir re la tiv e valu es.
I t is a serious situ a tio n and one w hich calls fo r wise an d cou rageou s tre a tm e n t. W h ere are th e lead ers, the m en w ho in p eace tim es h a v e m ade th is co u n try w h a t it is, so fa r as c h e m istry has affected its fa sh io n ing? T h e y are n ot in W ash in gto n . T h ere th e y sh o u ld be, giv in g o f th e ir v e r y b est in ta le n t, in e x p e rience, and in e x e cu tiv e a b ility . F u rth erm o re , n o w is th e tim e for th e a p p o in tm e n t of a m an p ree m in en t am ong th ese leaders to a ct as a co o rd in a tin g a g en t fo r th e m u ltifario u s ch em ical a c tiv itie s ; to h a v e a t his com m an d th e h igh est sp ecialized ta le n t in th e lan d fo r p ro je ctin g in to b eing th e p la n ts w hose o u tp u t bears so d ire ctly on th e fu tu re w elfare of th e w orld; and to a d ju st th e req u irem e n ts o f th e va rio u s D e p artm e n ts as s u p p ly s te a d ily increases:
a m an w ith chem ical exp erience, w ith k n o w le d g e of ch em ical personnel, w ith e x e c u tiv e a b ility o f th e h ig h est order, and blessed w ith visio n. S u ch a m an can b e fou n d . A sure ro ad to his d is c o v e ry w o u ld lie in th e requ est from P resid e n t W ilson fo r a jo in t reco m m en d atio n from th e D ire cto rs of th e A m e rican C h em ical S o c ie ty , th e C h em ical A llian ce , th e A m e r
ican I n s titu te of C h em ical E n g in ee rs and th e A m e r- ica l E le ctro ch e m ica l S o ciety.
G iv e su ch a m an th e p o w er to do th in g s, an d hold h im responsible to th e nation for th e use of t h a t pow er.
T h e d a y s for p rep aratio n are passin g I
A L O N G S T E P IK T H E R IG H T D IR E C T IO N T h e la s t n u m ber of Th i s Jo u r n a l co n tain ed an ed ito ria l e n title d “ S o m eb o d y P lease C u t th e T a p e .”
I t d ev elo p s th a t on J a n u a ry 26, a fte r w e h a d gone to press, th e A d ju ta n t G en eral issued an order cor
re c tin g rad ical d efects in th e m eth od o f secu rin g th e tra n sfe r of ch em ists to p o sition s in w h ich th e ir tr a in ing can b e st be u tilized . On p ag e 234 of th is issue sta te m e n ts fro m th e C h em ical S ervice S ectio n of th e N a tio n a l A r m y are publish ed, o u tlin in g th e m easures in itia te d to p u t th is new order in to effect. T h e se co m m u n icatio n s are follow ed b y im p o rta n t a n n o u n ce m ents fro m S e c re ta ry P arson s. I t is of p a rtic u la r in te r est to n ote th a t th e W a r D e p a rtm e n t is m a k in g no n a r row and s tr ic tly te ch n ica l d efin ition of th e te rm
“ ch em ical en gin eer” in its a ttitu d e to w a rd th e retu rn fo r gra d u atio n of d ra fte d ch em ical en gin eerin g s t u d en ts. T h e red ta p e w h ich b o u n d th o se card s of in fo rm atio n on file in th e office of S e c re ta ry P arso n s h as been cu t, and it is g r a tify in g to lea rn th a t com m on sense is p revailin g . C arefu l read in g o f th e se s t a t e m ents is u rged upon all.
T h ere is one issue, h o w e ver, w h ich s till d ese rves m ost serious con sid eration b y th e a u th o rities, n am ely , th e q u estion of deferred classification of u n iv e r s ity
M a r., 1918 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y 173 in stru cto rs. A m o n g oth ers, S e c re ta ry B a k e r, G en eral
W oo d, and, m ore re c e n tly , M r. H o o ve r h a v e p u b licly u rged all stu d e n ts to rem ain in college unless a c tu a lly d ra fte d . In orders p ro m u lga te d b y th e W a r D e p a r t
m en t, official reco gn itio n h as been g iv en of th e n eces
s ity fo r co n tin u ed p rep ara tio n of stu d e n ts in engin eering an d in m edicine. T h e su ccessfu l tra in in g of b o th of th ese gro u p s of m en in v o lv e s fu n d a m e n ta l in stru ctio n in ch em istry. Y e t it seem s th a t th e L o ca l D ra ft B o ard s th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try are d eclin in g to g iv e a n y d eferred cla ssification to in stru cto rs in ch em istry.
In p r a c tic a lly e v e r y in s titu tio n , m em bers of th e te a ch in g sta ffs h a v e been assign ed b y th e L o ca l B o ard s to C lass i- A . In a few iso la ted cases, an d o n ly as th e resu lt of stren u o u s effo rt on th e p a rt of u n iv e r s ity a d m in istrato rs, D istrict B o ard s h a v e tran sferred th ese m en to C lass 3 -K . Y e t u po n th e in stru cto rs, for th e m ost p a rt of d ra ft age, m u st fa ll a large p a rt of th e b u rd en of in s tru ctio n a l w o rk, fo r a lre a d y th e sta ffs of th ese sam e in s titu tio n s h a v e been serio u sly crip p led b y th e w ith d ra w a l of m a n y professors fo r w ar in v e s ti
ga tio n s in W a sh in g to n , and for th e C h em ical S ervice Section of th e N a tio n a l A r m y , w h ile m a n y im p o rta n t go ve rn m e n t research es are b eing p ro se cu te d w ith in u n iv e r s ity lab o rato rie s. T h e can d le is b ein g b u rn ed at b o th ends.
I f it be considered n ecessary fo r th e c o u n try ’s w el
fa re ■ th a t stu d e n ts sh ould co n tin u e th e ir u n iv e rs ity train in g , su re ly it is lo g ical th a t th e se m en should h a ve co m p e ten t an d a d e q u a te in stru ctio n . O th e r
w ise th e en tire p rogram fa lls th ro u g h .
T h e a ctio n of th e A d ju ta n t G en eral in c la rify in g th e in d u stria l situ a tio n w a rra n ts th e h op e th a t th e P ro v o st M a rsh al G en eral w ill likew ise issue orders to p re v e n t th e d ecim atio n of th e in s tru ctio n a l staffs of th e in stitu tio n s w here, a t th e d irectio n of th e W ar D e p a rtm e n t, y o u n g men are to be tra in e d in order e v e n tu a lly to g iv e to th is co u n try th e g re a te st service of w h ich th e y are cap ab le.
F A C T S F O R T H E TAR IFF C O M M IS S IO N
F ro m th e C h airm an of th e T a riff C om m ission w e h a v e receive d a c o p y of th e le tte r and a cc o m p a n y ing q u estio n n aire as to p ro d u ctio n and con su m p tion re ce n tly sen t o u t to all m a n u fa ctu re rs of in term e d iate s, dyes, m edicináis, p h o to g ra p h ic ch em icals, flavors, s y n th e tic ph eno l resins, an d to th o se p la n ts oth er th a n coke p la n ts and gas houses, m a n u fa ctu rin g crudes.
In co n d u ctin g th is census th e C om m ission is a c cu m u la tin g th e e v id en ce b y w h ich th e P resid e n t, under th e la w as it n ow stan d s, w ill e v e n tu a lly be g u id ed in th e m a tte r o f th e po ssible rep eal of th e sp ecial duties.
W e are confid ent t h a t m an u factu re rs, regardless of th e tim e and la b o r in v o lv e d , w ill p ro m p tly an d in fu llest d eta il fu rn ish th e C o m m ission th e in fo rm atio n desired. A n d it is d ire ctly to th e m a n u fa ctu re r’s ow n in terest to do so. T h e pu b lish ed su m m a ry of th is census w ill furnish fa c ts w h ich w ill p ro v e th e v in d ica tio n and g lo ry of th e A m e rican m a n u fa ctu re r and co n stitu te th e certain basis u p o n w h ich a rep e al of th e s ix ty per cen t clause can be recom m en ded an d urged.
F u rth erm o re , th is p u b lica tio n sh o u ld serve as an a c cu ra te and illu m in a tin g gu d e for th e fu tu r e co o rd in a
tio n and in tellig en t d ive rsificatio n of th e d y estu ff in d u stry .
W e h a v e been e sp e cially in tereste d in rea d in g one p o rtio n of th e qu estion n aire and q u o te h e re w ith fro m th e secon d fo o tn o te on p ag e 7:
"T h e term ‘indigoids’ has not y e t been defined b y the courts.
It is, therefore, urged th at special care be taken to explain the chemical nature of all dyes which m ight be regarded as indigoids.
Such explanation will enable the Commission to m ake classi
fications in accordance with future judicial interpretation of this word.”
C on gress can relieve th e co u rts of th e n ecessity of m a k in g a n y such “ ju d icial in t e r p r e ta tio n ’ b y strik in g o u t th e w ord.
It is a lto g e th e r p le asa n t and assu rin g as w e a p p ro ach th e d a y o f fu rth e r leg isla tio n co n cern in g ta riffs and e sp e cially ta riffs on d yestu ffs to sense a n ew sta n d a rd of a ctio n . T h e log-rolling sp irit of p re v io u s y e a rs has been p u t in th e b ack gro u n d and in its p lace ap p ears a desire for fa cts as a gu id e for a ctio n . F o r th is ch an ge w e are la rg e ly in d e b te d to th e able and com p reh en sive m anner in w h ich th e T a riff C o m m ission has b egu n its labors. T h e n , to o , th e sp irit of th e tim es precludes excessive p a rtisan sh ip ; m ore and m ore, selfish and pu rely lo cal co n sid eratio n s are y ie ld in g to w h ole-h earted d e v o tio n to n atio n a l in terests. Such an atm osp h ere ju stifies th e u tm o st confidence as to th e ch ara cte r of fu tu re leg isla tio n .
A P A T E N T A BUSE
T h e exigencies of th e w ar period h a v e led to fev erish a c t iv it y in m a n y lab o rato rie s in a tte m p ts to c a r ry o u t processes described in th e lite ra tu re and in p a te n t sp ecification s, ch iefly in th e field of o rgan ic ch em istry . W ith in th e p a st y e a r w e h a ve fre q u e n tly b een ap p rised b y ch em ists of th e la ck of success in th e p re p ara tio n of com p o u nd s b y follow in g d irectio ns, e v e n b y m ost c a re fu l a tte n tio n to th e m in u test d e ta ils, in th e official records. M en w ho h a ve exp erien ced th is d ifficu lty sta n d so h igh th a t no qu estion o f la c k o f skill a n d te ch n iq u e can be in v o lv e d , an d we are fo rced to th e conclu sion th a t d eliberate m isrep resen tatio n h as been m ade, esp ecially in th e case of certain foreign p a te n ts . If th is is tru e it is e x tre m e ly re g re tta b le t h a t th e lite r a tu re of ch em istry is clo gged w ith su ch d e ce it; in th e case of p a te n t sp ecification s, it is reprehensible, in t h a t a m a tte r of p e rju ry is in v o lv e d . T h e d em o n stratio n of such fa ls ity w ou ld im m e d ia te ly in v a lid a te th e p a te n t, b u t th is is a te d io u s process, n ecessita tin g a g rea t am o u n t of la b o ra to ry w o rk an d expense and loss of tim e in litiga tio n .
Our p a te n t syste m sh o u ld b e p ro te cte d a g a in st im p osition s. T h is m igh t be accom p lish ed in one of a t least th ree w ays: F irst, th e P a te n t Office m igh t te s t th e good fa ith of all a p p lican ts fo r ch em ical p a te n ts b y m akin g greate r use o f e x istin g go ve rn m en t la b o r a to ries. I t is d o u b tfu l, h o w e ver, in vie w of th e w o rk a lre a d y en gagin g th e a tte n tio n o f th ese fed eral la b o r a to ries, w h eth er a fu rth er ta x u po n their c o u rte s y w ou ld
174 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y V ol. xo, No. 3 be ju stifia b le. Second, th e P a te n t Office m igh t be
p ro vid e d w ith a co n tro l la b o ra to ry of its ow n. T h e va ried ch ara cte r o f th e ap p licatio n s for p a te n ts c o v ering all fields of ch em istry w ou ld n ecessitate a large, efficien tly m ann ed la b o ra to ry . T h is w ou ld en ta il consid erable expense, n everth eless it w ou ld be an e x p end itu re o p eratin g for th e benefit of th e en tire co u n try . T hird, th e P a te n t Office m igh t require of th e a p p lica n t a la b o ra to ry d em o n stratio n of th e correctness o f th e sp ecification s. T h is w ou ld p lace th e b u rd en of th e proof u p o n th e in v e n to r, b u t w o u ld w o rk no h a rd ship upon o rgan izatio n s h a v in g ex te n siv e lab o rato rie s, th o u g h it m igh t a ffect th e m an of sm all m eans.
P erh ap s th e re are oth er p ra ctic a b le rem edies. C e r tain it is th a t th e abuse sh ould be e lim in a te d , and th e first step to w a rd th is end is th e d em o n stratio n of th e correctn ess of th e o rigin al prem ise, n a m e ly , th a t th e P a te n t Office files h a v e been b e fo u led w ith false d eclaration s. If evid en ce can be b ro u g h t to geth er, w e are fo rtu n a te ly in position to p lace it w here it w ill do m ost good, an d we th e re fo re urge all ch em ists who h a v e been led up a b lin d a lle y b y fo llo w in g th e d ire c
tion s o u tlin ed in p a te n ts, to co m m u n icate t h a t fa c t to th is office, d esig n atin g b y n um ber and s u b je c t th e m is
lead in g p a te n t, and su p p lem en tin g th is b y a b rief exposition of th e difficulties en cou ntered . T h is is m ore th an an in v ita tio n , it is an ap peal, for n o th in g can be m ore v ita l to th e fu tu re of th e ch em ical in d u s
tries th a n th e estab lish m en t upon a firm basis of th e p a te n t sy ste m , w hose raison d'être is th e s tim u la tio n of th e in v e n tiv e genius of th e N a tio n b y afford in g fu ll p ro te ctio n of th e law to th o se w ho record w ith it th e tr u th con cern in g th e ir d iscoveries.
W A ST IN G W A T E R S
A n anom alou s situ a tio n p resents itse lf a t W a sh in g to n and a t N ia g a ra F alls. A t W a sh in g to n , u n der th e a u th o rity of th e P resid e n t, th e po w er p ro d u ced b y th e several A m e rican com panies a t N ia g a ra F alls, to g eth er w ith th a t im p o rte d fro m th e C a n a d ia n side, h as been requisitio ned. T h e W a r In d u stries B o ard is now en gaged in th e ta s k of red istrib u tin g th is p o w er in a m anner
“ to assure th e a d e q u a te s u p p ly of e le ctric p o w er for th e estab lish m en ts en gaged in w ar w o rk a t N ia g a ra F a lls and B u ffa lo .” T h e re can be no difference of opinion as to th e w isdom of th is step , regardless of th e fa c t th a t a b o u t one h u n d red and te n p la n ts a t B u ffalo , h ith erto d ep en d en t so le ly u p o n th is pow er, m a y n ow use it o n ly w hen it is n o t n eeded fo r w ar w o rk , or else m ust resort to ste am p lan ts requ iring th a t fo rm of carbon w h ich a t present is, if a n y th in g , m ore d ifficu lt to o b ta in th a n th e cry sta llin e v a r ie ty .
A lso a t W ash in gto n legislatio n has b een en a cte d for th e exp ress purpose of relievin g th e po w er sh o rta ge a t N ia g a ra F a lls b y au th o rizin g th e d ive rsio n of th e fu ll a m o u n t of w ater p erm itted u n d er t r e a ty s tip u la tion s. A ll th is sounds hopeful and h elp fu l. S u ch is th e sta te of affairs a t th e W ash in gto n end.
O n th e oth er h an d , a t N iag ara F a lls w a te r sufficien t fo r gen eratin g 65,000 horse pow er, th e d iversio n of w h ich has been d u ly auth orized b y A c t o f C on gress, is
to -d a y flow ing o v er th e falls, servin g n o oth er purpose, w hile th e N a tio n ’s life is a t sta k e , th a n th e d e le c ta tio n of b rid al couples h a v in g th e te m e rity to jo u rn e y in su ch un season able w eath e r to th is classic reso rt of n ew ly-w eds. Of th e 80,000 horse p o w er cap ab le of b ein g p ro d u ced u n der th e le g a lly increased tak e-o ff of w'ater o n ly 15,000 has been d eveloped .
T h e ex p la n a tio n is sim ple: th e term s of th e A c t are so re strictiv e th a t p riv a te c a p ita l w ill n ot risk th e n ecessary increased in v estm en t. T o m ake th is clear, we- q u o te from th e jo in t resolu tion a p p ro v ed J a n u a ry 19, 19 17 , w hich resolu tion on- June 30, 19 17 , w as “ co n tin u ed and in fu ll fo rce and e ffe ct, an d u nder th e sam e cond itio ns, restrictio n s and lim itatio n s u n til J u ly 1st, n in eteen h u n d red and eig h te e n .”
"R esolved b y the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, T h a t the Secretary of W ar be, and he is hereby, authorized to issue per
mits, revocable at will, for the diversion of water in the United States from the N iagara R iver above the Falls for the creation of power to individuals, companies, or corporations which arc now actually producing power from the waters of said river, in additional quantities which, with present diversions, shall in no case exceed the capacity of the generating machinery of the permittee and tenant companies now installed and ready for operation, nor an amount sufficient to enable the permittee to supply the now existing hydroelectric demands of the individuals, companies, or corporations which said permittee and tenant companies are now supplying, but not in excess of the capacity of power-using appliances of said consumers now installed and ready for operation* * *” (Italics are ours.)
W e hold no b rief for th e pow er com panies a t N ia g a ra F alls, nor on th e oth er h and can th e y be b lam ed for fa ilu re to d evelo p th is pow er, u n der th e restrictio n s th e law n ow im poses. W e do, h o w ever, feel th e sam e im p a tie n t in terest as w ould b e aroused b y th e sig h t of tra in lo a d s o f coal controlled b y th e G o v e rn m e n t b u rn in g on th e railro ad tra ck s, w h ile th e fire d e p a rt
m en t sa t k n ittin g sw eaters for th e b o y s a t th e front.
S ixteen and a h a lf pages of th e Congressional Record d e v o te d to th e d eb ate in the H ouse of R e p re se n ta tiv e s on th e rein tro d u ced G arab e d reso lu tio n w h ich offers to pro d u ce som eth in g from n oth in g, w hile w a ter su ffi
cie n t for 65,000 horse pow er glides u n in te rru p te d ly o ver th e F a lls 1 I t m a y b e th a t th e b ill of R e p re s e n ta tiv e W a ld o w , re ce n tly in tro d u ced (H . R . 8491), “ em p o w er
ing, th e P resid e n t to ta k e possession and assum e co n tro l of p ro je cts for th e generation of h y d ro e le c tric p o w er fro m th e w a ters of N ia g a ra R iv e r, e tc .,” will p ro v e th e s a lv a tio n of th is situ a tio n , b u t it is to o o ften a lo n g tim e b etw e en th e in tro d u ctio n o f a b ill in C o n gress and its u ltim a te sig n atu re b y the P resid en t.
D iv e r t th o se w astin g w aters in to ch an n els w here, to th e u tte rm o st drop, th e ir e n e rgy w ill tu rn th e w heels of th e m u n itio ns p la n ts of th e N atio n !
SPR U C E T U R PE N T IN E T O T H E F O R E
T h e scene^ sh ifts ra p id ly n o w ad a ys. T w o m onths ago w e p o in te d o u t to sulfite pu lp m an u fa ctu re rs th e n ecessity of reco ve rin g sp ru ce tu rp e n tin e for th e p u r
pose of in creasin g th e to lu o l su p p ly of th e A rm y . On
M ar., 1918 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y 175 F e b ru a ry 6 w e w ere show n a le tte r fro m th e p resi
d en t of one of th e la rg e st p ap er concerns, w a v in g aside th e w hole m a tte r of sp ru ce tu rp e n tin e as b ein g n ot w o rth con sid eration . In sp ite of th e ju d g m e n t of this h ig h official we had th e b oldness on the sam e e ven in g to u rge th e m em bers of the T ech n ica l A ss o ciatio n of th e P u lp and P ap er In d u s try to d e v o te th e fu ll energies of their research lab o rato rie s and e n gi
neering d ep artm en ts to th is s u b je c t, on th e ground th a t in tim es like th e presen t m a n u fa ctu rin g problem s in v o lv in g th e su p p ly of m aterial needed for our a rm y in F ra n ce pass b e y o n d th e realm of th e cold -blood ed calcu latio n s of p eace tim es— th a t b u si
ness m ust be co n d u cte d , w here w ar m aterial is co n cerned, on a h igh er basis th a n one of m ere profits.
A n in terestin g confirm ation of th e soundness of th a t co n ten tio n w as fu rn ish ed 'on th e fo llo w in g d a y , w hen, a t a con feren ce of rep rese n ta tiv es of th e W a r D e p a r t
m ent and of th e A sso ciatio n , a stro n g c o m m ittee w as app o in ted to ascertain w h at su p p lies of sp ru ce tu rp e n tin e m a y be a va ila b le ; and to co o p era te w ith th e W ar D e p a rtm e n t in pro cu rin g th e in s ta lla tio n a t m ills of su ita b le a p p a ra tu s for its re co v e ry . T h e co m m ittee fro m th e A sso cia tio n consists of H e n ry E . F le tch e r, A lp en a , M ich ., ch airm an ; F . M . W illiam s, W a te rto w n , N . Y . ; W . E . B yro n B a k e r, Y o r k H a ve n , P a .; P. A . P a u l
son, K im b e rly , W is.; H e n ry F . O berm an ns, E rie, P a .;
M o rris W . H edden, 736 P itto c k B lo ck , P o rtla n d , O re.; G eo rge K . Spence, Joh n son bu rg, P a .; E . R . B a rk e r, 79 M ilk S t., B o sto n , M a ss.; A . W . N ick erso n , 501 F ifth A v e ., N ew Y o rk .
I t is n o t a h ard ta x upon th e im ag in ation to b elieve th a t w hen peace h as co m e again th e a v a ila b ility of, so large a q u a n tity of pure cym e n e w ill, th ro u g h th e w ork of research lab o rato rie s, open a new c h a p te r in ch em ical in d u stry.
SU G A R A N D SO A P
W e are fo rtu n a te in p resen tin g in th is issue fou r d istin ct and im p o rta n t c o n trib u tio n s b earin g upon vario u s a sp e cts of th e su gar in d u stry . I t m a y be well in th is co n n ectio n to call a tte n tio n to the use of su gar in th e m a n u fa ctu re of soap, to p ro d u ce tran sp a re n cy . F or th is purpose fro m five to te n per cen t o f su g ar is added. I ts fu n ctio n is p u rely an a esth e tic one; a tra n sp a re n t soap d eligh ts th e ey e, b u t h ow pleasing to th e p a la te w o u ld h a v e been th a t e x tra lu m p of sugar, w ith o u t w hich w e h a v e gone for m onths. T h is is a d a y of d em a rca tio n of essen tials and non-essentials, and su rely th e tra n sp a re n t q u a lity of soap is n o t es
sen tial in a tta in in g th a t cleanliness w h ich , accord in g to th e p ro verb , is n ex t to godliness.
T H E NAVAL C O N SU LT IN G BO AR D
T h e first of th e m a n y w ar b oard s organ ized for th e p urpose of c iv ilia n co o p eratio n w ith th e re g u la rly co n s titu te d a u th o rities w as th e N a v a l C o n su ltin g B oard . I t is u n iq u e in th a t its m em bers w ere n o m i
n ate d b y th e ch em ical and en gin eering societies upon in v ita tio n of th e S e c re ta ry of th e N a v y . F o r th is reason ch em ists w ill be p a rticu la rly in te re ste d in th a t
p o rtio n of th e concise and im p ressive rep o rt of S ecre
t a r y D an iels referrin g to th e w o rk o f th is B oard .
"D uring the year the work of the N aval Consulting Board, organized and approved b y Congress in 1915, has increased very m aterially in importance and volume, its meetings have been frequent and the work of the individual members has been such in some cases as to occupy almost their entire time in the service of the Government.
“ Some time before the active entry of this country into war the Board called a special meeting to which were invited some 50 of the leading scientists and industrial managers, whose special study fitted them to advise on the methods of meeting the submarine problem.
“ Plans were immediately made to investigate every field to develop a means of preventing destruction of vessels and of de
feating the U-boat. The investigation was divided according to the experience of the different members and associated scientists and with the cooperation and valuable assistance of the various manufacturing companies interested a highly developed system of team work has been attained and results accomplished not dreamed of a t the beginning of the war.
“ The services of the Board were offered to the Council of National Defense and accepted b y th at body for the investiga
tion of all inventions submitted. Its services were also accepted b y the W ar Departm ent in an advisory capacity.
“ Valuable assistance has been rendered m erchant shipping by the Board’s activities. * * * In this field the B oard’s work has resulted in materially reducing the shipping risk, with a consequent lowering of marine insurance rates.
" N o t the least result of its work has been the stimulation of interest, in the problems brought up b y the war, throughout the country b y the general invitation to submit ideas for investiga
tion. E arly in the calendar year 1917 this interest manifested itself in the receipt of thousands of ideas weekly, and to care for this the departm ent’s connecting office has been greatly enlarged, the office of the Board in New Y o rk has been organized on a working basis with a large force, and the whole movement has received the approval and hearty assistance of the great national engineering societies. The president of the Board, M r. Thom as A. Edison, has been giving his entire time to the work of the Board in the service of his country, and has called to his assistance a capable staff who are working diligently upon naval problems.
"W ith w ar conditions increasing the need for labor and build
ing materials, it was believed to be a wise policy to defer for a time the building of the new experimental and research labora
tory. Such experiments as have been warranted have been made in private laboratories generously offered and at the Bureau of Standards. The need for this establishment, however, is more clearly shown than ever, and its support is urgently advised.
"T h e valuable results obtained b y the work of this Board are of too confidential a nature to make them the subject of a public document. The members have given freely of their time and scientific ability to the service of the N ation and have earned the gratitude of all who know their unselfish and patriotic service.
I wish to express m y sense of obligation for the cheerful coopera
tion, wise counsel, loyal devotion, and personal sacrifice which have characterized the membership of the Board of distinguished civilians who responded, long before war was declared, to the selective draft with all the enthusiasm and efficiency of youthful volunteers.”
D rs. L. H. B ae k e la n d and W . R . W h itn e y , th e rep re
se n ta tiv e s of th e A m e rican C h em ical S o c ie ty , h a ve g iv e n generously of th e ir tim e , en ergy an d ta le n ts to th is service, and it w ill be g r a tify in g to all to read these w ords of ap p reciatio n of th e ir a b ility an d p a trio tic spirit.
176
T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y V ol. xo, N o. 3ORIGINAL PAPERS
A M E R IC A N SO U R C E S O F S U P P L Y F O R T H E VA R IO U S SU G A R S
B y C . S. H u d s o n 1 R eceived J a n u a ry 16, 1918
T h e annual consum ption of sugar in th e U n ited S ta tes is ap p ro x im ately 4,300,000 short to n s or n ea rly 86 lbs. per cap ita. T h e sources of this su gar are:
C ane S u g a r from C u b a ... 49 p e r c en t D om estic B eet S u g a r .. . ... 21 p e r c e n t C an e S u g a r from H a w a ii... 13 p e r c e n t C an e S u g a r fro m P o rto R i c o ... 8 p e r c e n t C an e S u g a r fro m L o u isia n a ... 6 p e r c e n t C an e S u g a r from th e P h ilip p in e s... 3 p e r c en t
I t will be n o ticed th a t 73 per cen t of th e su gar com es from o ver th e sea. T h e dom estic b eet sugar is p ro duced p rin cip a lly in th e sta te s of C o lorad o, C alifornia, U ta h , M ich igan , Id ah o and O hio, w ith sm aller q u an ti
ties from several oth ers.2 T h e gro w th of b eet su gar p rod u ction in th e U n ited S ta te s has been phenom enal, th e o u tp u t h a vin g increased from 2,000 to n s in 1888 to 430,000 to n s in 1908 and 800,000 to n s in 1915. T h e fu rth er extension of su gar p rod u ction in th e continen tal U n ited S ta te s w ill p ro b ab ly com e from increased p lan tin gs of su gar beets, and p o ssibly also from th e grow th o f su gar cane in th e drained lan ds of southern F lorid a, th o u gh it m ust be added th a t th e com m ercial p rod u ction of cane su gar in th a t lo c a lity is n ot y e t d em on strated and m ay n o t p ro ve possible. I t will be borne in m ind b y those in v estig a to rs w ho m a y be seeking new sources for su gar th a t m an y p lan ts y ield sw eet sirups w hich m ight be used for sw eeten ing p u r
poses if th e n atu ra l acco m p an yin g colors and flavors could be rem oved. In recent yea rs th is rem o val has becom e a p o ssib ility th rou gh th e use of a c tiv e decolor
izing carbons th a t m ay be prep ared from w ood in a v a rie ty of w a ys.3
C rystallin e dextrose (corn sugar) is prod u ced in th e U n ited S tates in v e ry large qu an tities b y th e acid h yd ro lysis of corn starch , and is used in com m ercial b aking, in tan n in g, in th e p ro d u ctio n of w ines in th e M iddle W est, and to som e exte n t in th e m anu factu re of a ty p e of vin egar. C om m ercial corn su gar is som e
w h at yello w in color, a fa c t w hich w ill be read ily u n derstood b y chem ists w h en it is recalled th a t dextrose form s sm all crystals th a t are in consequence d ifficult to free from adhering m other liqu ors.4
T h e th ird sugar of com m ercial im p o rtan ce is milk- sugar, w hich was produced in th e U n ited S ta te s from m ilk to th e exte n t of abou t 3,500,000 pounds in 1914, a t 16 factories, th e su p p ly being increased b y th e im p o rta tio n of n early 600,000 pounds.
C ry sta llin e levulose w as im ported fro m G erm an y
1 P resid e n tia l A ddress delivered before th e W ash in g to n Section of th e A m erican C hem ical Society, J a n u a ry 10, 1918.
* S u g a r s ta tistic s are av ailab le from th e a n n u a l Yearbooks o f the U . S.
D epartm ent o f Agriculture an d from W illett & G ra y ’s W eekly Statistical S u g a r Trade Reports.
* F o r a su m m a ry of w ork on decolorizing c arb o n , see S chneller, L o u isia n a Planter, 59 (1917), 154. *
4 D irectio n s for th e la b o ra to ry p re p a ra tio n of C. P . d ex tro se h av e been p u b lish ed b y H u d so n a n d D ale, J . A m . Chem. Soc., 39 (1917), 320.
b efore th e present w ar for use b y diabetics as a sw ee ten in g agen t, b u t it does not appear to h a v e been m an u fa ctu red a t an y tim e in th e U n ited States. I t is n o t d ifficult to prepare levu lo se, eith er as a sirup or in c ry s tals, b y form ing from in v erted cane sugar and lim e th e crystallin e calcium levu lo sate th a t D u b ru n fa u t d is
covered ea rly in th e last cen tu ry and b re ak in g up th is com pound into levulose and calcium carbo n ate b y th e use of carbon dioxide. In deed th is v e r y old process is q u ite w o rth y of consideration as a possible m ethod of p rep arin g a sw eet sirup from p lants th a t y ie ld inulin, since th e la tte r is rea d ily h y d ro ly ze d b y d ilu te acids to levulose. L evu lose is th e sw eetest of all th e sugars.
C h ico ry , th e Jerusalem artich oke ( H elianthus tuberosus), and th e sotol p la n t,1 a species of A g a v e ( D asy lirion) th a t grow s a b u n d an tly in th e w ild s ta te in T exas, contain m uch inulin or inulin-like substance.
T h e lactone of a-glucoheptonic acid, w hich m a y be p rep ared from dextrose b y th e c ya n h yd rin syn th esis, is rath er sw eet and ap p aren tly h as been m an u factu red to som e exte n t in G erm an y for use b y d iab etics.1
M a n y sugars th a t are of m uch in terest to scien tists, p a rticu la rly chem ists and bacteriologists, are alm o st w h olly un kn ow n to th e general public, ev en th o u gh som e of th e m are consum ed in large qu an tities as n atu ra l com ponents of foods for m an and dom estic anim als.
T h u s raffinose is contain ed in cottonseed m eal to th e exte n t of n early 8 per cent; th is portion of th e w eigh t of th e cottonseed cake th a t is produced a n n u ally in th e U n ited S tates am ounts to a b o u t 100,000 tons.
C o tto n se ed m eal offers th e b est source for th e p rep ara
tio n of crysta llin e raffinose,3 w hich is used in b acterio lo g y to som e exten t. F ro m raffinose th e d isacch arid e melibiose m a y be prep ared in good y ie ld ;4 th e la tte r has n ever been upon th e chem ical m arket and th e raffinose th a t has b een used b y scientists w as im p o rted fro m G erm an y, where it w as m ade from cotto nseed m eal th a t cam e from th e U nited States.
M a n y in d u strial chem ists h a ve so u g h t to prep are from starch b y th e action of m alt th e v e ry p a latab le sugar maltose, and th e field of possible uses of th is sugar, eith er in crystallin e form or as a sirup, is a large o n e.1 M o st m altose sirups carry a flavor of th e m a lt and do n ot q u ite represent th e pleasing sw eetness of a so lu tio n of pure m altose; possibly th is o b jection could be o v e r
com e b y th e use of decolorizing carbon since it re a d ily rem oves m an y flavors as well as coloring m atters.
M alto se form s sm all crystals th a t are difficult to w ash b y com m ercial processes, b u t th ere has a lw a y s been a sm all m arket for C . P. m altose am ong ch em ists and b acteriologists. T h e w hole su p p ly for such scien tific uses has a lw a y s been im ported.
1 H u d so n , T h i s J o u r n a l , 2 (1910), 145.
* See A b d e rh a ld en 's Biochemisches H andlexikon, F ir s t S u p p le m e n ta ry V olum e t o Vol. 8 (1914), 253.
* H u d so n an d H a rd in g , J . A m . Chem. Soc., 36 (1914), 2110.
« Ib id ., 37 (1915), 2734.
1 F o r a d escrip tio n of th e p rin cip al step s in m ak in g a m alto se s iru p , see a n e arly a rticle b y C uisinier, S uer, in d ., 20, N o. 14; G e rm a n tra n s la tio n in Z . Ver. Zuckerind., 19 (1882), 908.
M a r ., 1918 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y 177 M annose, a su gar of m uch in terest to scien tists on
a ccou n t of its close kinship to dextrose and levulose, has u su a lly been prep ared from th e h y d ro ly sis of v e g e ta b le iv o ry , th e seed of a palm ( Phytelephas macro- carpa) th a t is n a tiv e to South A m erica. A large in d u stry in th e U n ited S ta te s has been b u ilt upon th e m anu factu re of b u tto n s from ve ge tab le iv o ry ; th e w aste from these b u tto n factories, am ou ntin g to tw e n ty - five or m ore to n s a d a y, offers a v e ry ch eap source for th e p rod u ction of m annose. Since th e su gar c ry s ta l
lizes o n ly w ith d ifficu lty it has been cu sto m a ry to p re
pare th a t sm all q u a n tity of it w hich w as used in r e search b y chem ists and b acterio lo gists b y sep aratin g from th e solution of th e h y d ro ly ze d ve g e ta b le iv o ry w aste a crystallin e p h en ylh yd razo n e of m annose, re
generating th e sugar from th is com pound, and c ry s ta l
lizing it. G erm an y has been th e source of th e m arketed pro d u ct, and little has b een im ported b y th e U nited States, p a rtly because th e cost of n ea rly $200 per lb.
has restricted its use even in research. B u t w e now kn ow a process for cry sta llizin g m annose d irectly from th e h y d ro ly ze d ve g e ta b le iv o ry w ith a large y ie ld ,1 and th is interestin g su gar should com e into m ore ex
tend ed use in research ch em istry and b acterio lo g y at a re la tiv e ly low cost. In deed th e possible com m ercial prod u ction of d eriva tive s from m annose, such as mannite (b y its reduction) or th e crystallin e dilac
tone of mannosaccharic acid (b y its oxidation) should not be lost sigh t of b y chem ists. I t is v e ry surprising th a t p e rfe ctly pure m annose has a s lig h tly sw eet ta ste th a t is follow ed b y a d istin ctly b itte r one. Its v e ry close relativ es b y stru ctu re, dextrose and levu lo se, are b o th of a pure sw eetness, th e la tte r being th e sw ee test sugar know n.
T h e d isacch arid e trehalose, w h ich is com posed of tw o m olecules of dextrose, h as a lw a y s been a v e ry rare sugar. I t is of v e r y c ry sta llin e h a b it, resem bling cane sugar su p erficially. I t m igh t be useful to h a ve a su p p ly of trehalose a v a ila b le for b acterio lo gical and ch em ical research. T h e older sources of it, such as ergot, m ushroom s, or tre h a la m anna, h a ve been su p p lan ted b y A nselm ino and G ilg ’s2 d isco ve ry th a t th e resurrec
tion p lan t (Selaginella lepidophylla), a n a tiv e of our own arid So u th w est, o b tain able in large q u an tities, contains 2 per cen t of trehalose w h ich m a y re a d ily be crystallized.
Galactose m a y of course be prep ared from th e h yd ro l
ysis of m ilk su gar and th is is a good source for th e p ro duction of such supplies of it as are needed b y scientists.
It has re ce n tly been show n b y Sch orger and S m ith 3 th a t a n a tiv e species o f larch ( L a rix occidentalis), a lum ber tree of our N o rth w est, contain s a considerable q u an tity of a gu m th a t is easily h y d ro ly ze d b y acids to yield galactose. T h is source seem s to offer a w a y for th e econom ical p rod u ction on a com m ercial scale of useful d e riva tive s of galacto se such as its o x id atio n product, crysta llin e mucic acid, and p o ssib ly dulcite from its reduction. T h e last su b stance is v e ry use
ful in b acteriological w o rk, and its price has h eretofore
1 H u d so n a n d Saw yer, J . A m . Chem. Soc., 39 (1917), 470.
: Bcr. pharm . G 'S., 23 (1913), 326.
» T h i s J o u r n a l , 8 (1916), 495.
been a b o u t $400 per lb . T h e su p p ly of dulcite for scientific research has com e from G erm an y.
Arabinose m ay be prepared rea d ily b y th e h yd ro lysis of b eet pulp, th e insoluble residue from th e tech n ical e x tractio n of sugar beets w ith w ater. I t has been used b y b acteriologists on ly to a sligh t exte n t on accou n t of its cost, b u t th e expense of its p rod u ction from beet pu lp is sm all. Its red u ction p ro d u ct, arabite, is also needed in th e sam e field of science. B eet pulp is a m uch b ette r source for arabinose th a n th e ch erry gu m th a t is u su ally recom m ended b y th e textbo o ks.
A n excellent source for th e m eth yl pentose sugar, rhamnose, is th e b ark of th e A m erican b la c k oak tree (Quercus tinctoria) w hich is e x te n siv ely used in dyeing.
Its aqueous infusion is know n as quercitron e x tra ct.
Since th e ea rly p a rt of th e last cen tu ry, w hen C h ev re u l iso lated from it th e glucoside quercitrin (a com pound of rham nose w ith quercetin), it has been th e n atu ral source of th e com m ercial glucoside. T h ere is n eeded a t th e present tim e, how ever, a description of a d ep en d able process for preparing rham nose from b la ck oak bark.
T h e o cta ce ta te of cellose is read ily o b tain able from th e actio n of acetic anh ydride and sulfuric acid upon cotto n , and th e sugar cellose, a disaccharide com posed of tw o m olecules of dextrose, m ay be prep ared w ith o u t difficu lty b y th e saponification of th e o cta ce ta te.
D u rin g th e last ye a r tw o new sugars h a ve been added to th e group b y th e w ork of L a F o rg e .1 B o th o f these are m em bers of th e seven carbon series o f sugars, and th e ir occurrence in n atu ral prod u cts in d icates th a t th e heptoses are b y no means restricted to th e fields of s y n th e tic sugars from th e ch em ist’s la b o ra to ry , b u t are im p o rta n t n atu ral substances. Manno-keto-heptose w as found to occur free in th e avocado ( Persea gratissim a), a n a tiv e A m erican fru it th a t is used e x te n siv e ly as hum an food. T h e nam e avo cado is th e S p a n ia rd ’s eq u iva len t for th e A ztec ah u acatl. Sedoheptose w as found in th e free sta te in th e stonecrop (Sedum specta- bile), an ornam ental E urop ean p la n t th a t is n ow d o m es
tic a te d th rou gh ou t th e world.
T h e pentose sugar xylose, isom eric w ith arabinose, w as first found b y K o ch in th e g u m m y p o rtio n of variou s wopds, b u t its isolation from such sources is rath er d ifficult and th e yield low . T w o m uch b e tte r sources of A m erican origin h a ve re ce n tly com e into notice, n am ely, cottonseed hulls1 and corn cobs. In u n p u b lished experim ents b y M r. T . S. H ardin g and m yself, yield s of abou t 10 per cen t of crysta llin e xylo se were obtained from th e acid h yd ro lysis of corn cobs. W h ile it has long been know n th a t xylo se occu rs in corn cobs, th e yield s of crystallin e x ylo se th a t h a ve b e e n repo rted h a ve n ever been as high as one per cent. T h e yield from corn cobs is m uch larger th a n from cottonseed hulls. If industrial uses could be fou n d for x y lo se, eith er in th e pure sta te , th ro u g h d eriva tive s, or in th e form of th e sirup th a t results from th e h y d ro ly sis of
i J . Biol. Chem., 28 (1917), 511; L a F o rg e a n d H u d so n , Ib id ., 30 (1917), 61.
* E u ler, Grundlagert und Ergebrtisse der P Jlanunchem ie, 1 (1908), 44;
H u d so n a n d H a rd in g , J . A m . Chem. Soc., 39 (1917), 1038.
i?8 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y V ol. 10, No. 3 corn cobs, a w a y w ould be open for th e use of a v e ry
cheap and ab u n d an t w aste product.
W hen one realizes th a t th e best sources for n early all th e sugars are to be found am ong raw prod u cts and p lan ts th a t occur a b u n d a n tly in A m erica, m ost of th em being of d istin ctly Am erican origin, th e p o et’s lines,
" M y Country ’tis of Thee Sweet land of liberty,”
seem peculiarly appropriate in a novel sense.
De p a r t m e n to f Ag r i c u l t u r e Bu r e a u o f Ch e m i s t r y
Wa s h i n g t o n, D . C .
T H E D E T E R IO R A T IO N OF R A W CANE SU GAR : A P R O B L E M IN FO O D CO N SE R V A TIO N
B y C. A . B r o w n e R eceived J a n u a r y 4 , 1918
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T h e ch an ges in com p o sition of foo d p ro d u cts b e tw e e n m a n u fa ctu re and con su m p tion in v o lv e som e of th e m ost in terestin g p rob lem s of agricu ltu ral-ch em ical research . T h e problem s are also of g re a t econom ic im p o rtan ce, th e finan cial losses, w h ich resu lt from d e te rio ratio n of foo d m aterials d u rin g tra n sp o rta tio n or sto ra g e , a m o u n tin g each ye a r to m a n y m illions of d o l
lars. In th e case of can e su gar, of w hich th e re is a t p resent so serious a sh o rtage, calcu latio n s based upon carefu l a n a ly tic a l and sta tis tic a l d a ta show th a t th e losses fro m th e d ete rio ratio n of C u b a n su gars alone p ro b a b ly exceed one m illion dollars per y ea r.
T h e ch ief in gred ien t responsible for th e d eterio ratio n of sugars is m oisture. A s far b a c k as th ree cen turies ago, w hen su gars b egan to be sh ip ped fro m th e W est In d ies to E u ro p e, it w as ob served th a t m oist sugars reach ed th e ir d estin atio n in a m uch d am aged cond itio n.
T h e need of exclu d in g m oisture w as q u ic k ly recogn ized.
L ig o n ,1 one of th e earliest w riters u po n th e su b je ct, in 1673 p o in te d o u t th e n ecessity o f k eep in g su gar
“ dric in good casks, th a t no w et or m oist aire com e to i t .”
B u t w hile e a rly ob servers w ere agreed th a t m oisture p la y e d an im p o rta n t p a rt in d eterio ratio n , th e a ctu a l cause of th e p h enom enon w as for cen tu ries u n kn ow n . I t w as b elieved b y som e th a t th e tro u b le w as d u e to a deliquescence p rod u ced b y th e actio n of ch lorid es and o th er saline im p u rities u po n th e su g ar; as la te as 1848 W r a y 2 sta te d th a t in his b elief it w as possible for “ th is d eliquescence to continu e, u n til th e w hole m ass of su g ar is decom posed” and su ggested as a possible rem ed y for d eterioration th e p re cip ita tio n of chlorides from cane ju ices b y m eans of silver n itra te. A m ore com m on belief w as th a t d ete rio ra tio n resu lted fro m th e a ctio n of a glutin ous fecu la or ferm en t w h ich occu rred n a tu ra lly in th e cane and, if clarificatio n w as im p e rfect, passed into th e sugar. T h e tru e e x p la n a tio n w as not fo rth co m in g u n til after th e w o rk o f P a ste u r, when
1 " H is to ry of th e Isla n d of B arbadoes,” L o n d o n , 1673, 111.
* “ T h e P rac tic a l S u g a r P la n te r,” L ondon, 1848, 342-343. I t is in te r
e stin g to n o te t h a t P e k a lh a rin g (International S ugar Jo u rn a l, 3, 434) as la te as 1900 found it necessary to co m b at th e idea t h a t d e te rio ra tio n w as d u e to th e sa lts co n tain ed in sugars.
D u b r u n fa u t1 a b o u t 1869 d iscovered in a d ete rio ra tin g su gar m icroorganism s sim ilar to th e alco h o l and la c tic a cid p ro d u cin g organism s of P asteu r. A fte r th is th e d ete rio ra tio n of su gars b egan to be stu d ie d w ith in creasin g in terest from th e sta n d p o in t of in fe ctio n b y germ s, u n til th e su b je c t h as n o w becom e one of th e m ost im p o rta n t fields of research in in d u stria l m y co lo g y .
A fte r th e in ven tio n of th e p olariscope, som e th ree- q u arters o f a ce n tu ry ago, it b ecam e possible to d e
term ine th e k eep in g p o w er of sugars w ith an exactn ess un dream ed of b y earlier observers. T h e refiners of sugar, w ho w ere th e first to p u t th e po larisco pe to p ra ctica l use, em p lo yed th is in stru m e n t n ot o n ly for d eterm in in g th e va lu e of p u rch ases an d for co n tro llin g fa c t o r y op eratio n s, b u t th e y also used it for fo llo w in g th e k eep in g pow er of sto red sugars. W ith th e a ccu m u latio n of a n a ly tic a l d a ta, w h ich all such estab lish m en ts acq u ire, it w as soon o b served th a t oth er fa cto rs beside m oisture p la y e d an im p o rta n t rôle in th e k eep in g of sugars. I t w as n oticed th a t im p u re m olasses su gars of high m oistu re co n ten t m igh t k eep p e rfe ctly w hen high- grad e w h ite sugars of m uch lo w er m oisture co n ten t w ou ld r a p id ly d eteriorate. In o th er w ords, it becam e e v id e n t th a t th e im p u rities or n on-sucrose c o n stitu e n ts of raw su gars m ust be considered in co n n ectio n w ith th e m oistu re co n ten t before a reliab le fo re cast could be fo rm ed as to k eep in g pow er. V ario u s ta b le s and rules w ere d evised , in fa ct; to w a rd s th is en d , alth o u g h b u t little of th e va lu a b le in fo rm a tio n th u s ga th e re d w as p u b lish ed . T h e b est k n o w n of th ese rules is th e so-called “ fa cto r-o f-s a fe ty ” of th e C o lo n ial Su gar R e finin g C o m p a n y of A u stra lia, a cco rd in g to w h ich th e m oisture o f a su gar m ust n ot be m ore th a n h a lf th e n o n su g ar if th e p ro d u ct is to keep. In o th er w ords, if
W is th e pe rcen ta ge of w a te r and S th e p e rcen ta ge of sucrose, th e q u a n tity W m u st n ot exceed
100
—
0— w
0.5; or sim plified, th e q u a n tity --- W m ust not 100 — - b
exceed 0.333.
E X P E R IM E N T A L P A R T A C H E M IC A L O B S E R V A T IO N S
In a rep o rt pu blish ed tw o y e a rs ago th e a u th o r2 called a tte n tio n to th e v a lu e of th e “ fa c to r-o f-s a fe ty ” of th e C o lo n ial Su gar R efin in g C o m p a n y , an d his m ore recen t in v e stig a tio n s show t h a t th e rule is one w hich can be relied upon in th e g rea t m a jo rity of cases. T h e
1 Compl. rend., 68 (1869), 663. T h e classic o b serv atio n of D u b ru n fa u t up o n th e d e te rio ra tio n of su g ars is w o rth tra n s la tin g . I n co m m en tin g upon th e fa c t n o te d so m an y tim es since, t h a t raw b e e t su g ars, w hich were u o t m ade b y a n alkaline clarification, failed to keep, D u b ru n fa u t w ro te as fol
low s:
“ B y m eans of th e m icroscope we were able to d e te c t in im p u re b e e t su g ars th e presence of th o se low er organism s, so a cc u ra te ly d escribed by M . P a ste u r, a n d w hich a re th e living causes of th e alcoholic a n d lactic fe r
m en ta tio n s. N o th in g can be more sim ple, th erefo re, th a n to a rriv e a t an im m ed iate u n d e rstan d in g of th e fo rm atio n of th e glucoses a n d of th e acid re a ctio n in su g ars w hich were n o t m ade b y th e old tra d itio n a l su g ar-h o u se process know n u n d e r th e nam e of th e alk alin e process.”
D u b ru n fa u t a ttrib u te d th e d e te rio ra tio n of refined su g ars to th e im p u rities, ferm en ts, e tc., in tro d u ce d in to th e fa c to ry b y th e ra w su g ar.
I t is re m a rk a b le how here, as in so m an y o th e r in stan ces, th e opinions of th is g re a t F ren c h in v e stig ato r (to w hom th e su g ar in d u s try is in d eb ted for m ore discoveries th a n to an y o th e r ch em ist) h av e b een confirm ed b y s u b seq u e n t w orkers.
s " T h e D e terio ra tio n of R aw S u g ar S a m p le s ,” Lou isia n a Planter, 54 (1915), 281-2.
