The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 6, No. 3

The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry

F u b l i she d b y T H E A M E R I C A N C H E M I C A L S O C I E T Y

AT BASTON, PA .

Volume VI M A R C H , 1914 No. 3

BOARD OF EDITORS E d it o r : M . C . W h i t a k e r

A s s i s t a n t E d i t o r : Le o l a E . Ma r r s

Associa te E ditors: G . P . A d a m s o n , E . G . B a ile y , H . E . B a r n a r d , G . E . B a r t o n , A . V . B le in in g e r , W m . B r a d y , C . A . B r o w n e , F . K . C a m e r o n , P . B . C a r p e n t e r , C . E . C a s p a r i, V . C o b le n t z , W . C . G e e r , W . P . H ille b r a n d , W . D . H orne, T . K a m o i, A . D . L it t le , C . E . L u c k e , P . C . M c l l h i n e y , J . M . M a t t h e w s , T . J . P a r k e r , J . D . P e n n o c k , W. D . R ic h a r d s o n , G . C . S to n e , E . T w i t c h e ll, R . W a h l, W . H . W a lk e r , W . R . W h it n e y , A . M . W r ig h t .

P u b lish e d m o n th ly . S u b sc rip tio n price to no n -m em b ers of th e A m erican C h em ical S o ciety , $6.00 y e arly . F o reig n p o stag e, sev en ty -fiv e c en ts, C an a d a . C u b a a n d M exico ex cep ted .

E n te re d as S econd-class M a tt e r D ecem b er 19, 1908, a t th e Post-O ffice a t E a s to n , P a ., u n d e r th e A c t of M a rc h 3, 1879.

C ontributions sh ou ld be ad d ressed to M. C. W hitaker, Columbia U n iv e r sity , N ew York City

C om m unications c o n c e r n in g a d v e r tise m e n ts should be se n t to T h e A m erican C h em ical S o c ie ty ,

42

Es c h e n b a c h Pr i n t i n g Co m p a n y, Ea s t o n, Pa.

T A B L E OF

Editorials:

Factors Involved in Opening Up the Field of Unused

Elements... 182

Original Pape r s: Paint Films as Protective Coatings for Concrete. B y E- E. Ware and S. M . Schott... 184

The Comparative Value of a Calcium Lime and a Magnesium-Calcium Lime for Water Softening. By Edward Bartow and Clarence Scholl... 189

Lower Limits of Combustible and Explosive Mixtures of Gases and Air. B y E. E. Somermeier... 191

A New Method for Determining the Value of Disin­ fectants. C. A. Duyser and W. K. Lewis... 198

The Lead Contents in Sublimed White Lead— a Cal­ culation. B y John A. Schaeffer... 200

The Constitution of White Lead. B y Edwin Euston. 202 On the Determination of Titanium as Phosphate. By George S. Jamieson and Richard Wrenshall... 203

The Determination of Phenol in the Presence of Hexa- methylenetetramine and Formaldehyde. B y L. V. Redman, A. J. Weith and F. P. Brock... 205

Ultimate Analyses of Coal Tar Pitches. B y C. R. Downs 206 Note on the Detection of Nickel in Fats. B y Robert H. Kerr... 207

Recent Analyses of the Saratoga Mineral Waters. IV. By Leslie Russell Milford... 207

The Determination of Hardness in Natural Waters. B y Clarence Bahlmann... 209

The Quantitative Estimation of the Salt-soluble Pro­ teins in Wheat Flour. B y Geo. A. Olson... 211

An Investigation of the Presence of Furfural in Cider Vinegar. B y Agnes A. Anderson... 214

Some Abnormal Factors of So-called Farmers’ Cider Vinegars. B y John C. Diggs... 215

The Analysis of Maple Products. III. The Range of Variation of Analytical Values in Genuine Maple Syrups. B y J. F. Snell and J. M . Scott... 216

The Effects of the Ensilage Process on the Solubility of Floats. B y E. B. Forbes and Chas. M. F r itz .. . 222

The Effect of Heat upon the Solubility of the Mineral Constituents of the Soil. B y William McGcorge. 223 The Use of Sodium Citrate for the Determination of Reverted Phosphoric Acid. B y Alfred W. Bos- worth... 227

Laboratoryand Pl a n t: Applications of Ozone. B y A. Vosmaer... 229

A New Viscometer for General Scientific and Tech­ nical Purposes. B y Eugene C. Bingham... 233

Modified Hempel Pipettes. B y R. P. Anderson. . . . 237

An Efficient Method for Cutting Glass. B y J. I. Hardy 238 C O N T E N T S A p p a r a t u s fo r T a k i n g D u s t a n d B a c t c r ia S a m p le s o f A ir . B y C h a r le s B a s k e r v i l l e ... 238

Ad d r e s s e s: R e c e n t D e v e lo p m e n ts in C o m m e r c ia l E x p lo s iv e s . E . A . L e S u e u r ... 239

E x p e r im e n ts w it h S m a ll A n im a ls a n d C a r b o n M o n ­ o x id e . B y G e o r g e A . B u r r e ll a n d F r a n k M . S e ib e r t.. 241

C h e m ic a l I n d u s tr ie s a n d S c h o o ls . B y D a n ie l M . G r o s h . 244 Ve n t i l a t i o n Sy m p o s i u m: P h y s io lo g ic a l P r o b le m s o n V e n t ila t io n . B y F r e d e r ic S . L e e ... 245

M e c h a n ic a lP r o b le m s o f V e n tila tio n . B y D . D . K i m b a ll 248 I n v e s t ig a t io n o f S c h o o l A ir in N e w Y o r k C i t y . B y C h a r le s B a s k e r v i lle ... 250

T h e N e w Y o r k S t a t e C o m m is s io n o f V e n t ila t io n a n d I t s P r o b le m s . B y C . - E . A . W in s lo w ... 255

Cu r r e n t In d u s t r i a l Ne w s: T h e M o to r S h ip " F i o n i a ” ... 2 59 B o ile r E x p lo s io n s in C h e m ic a l I n d u s tr ie s in G e r m a n y in 1 9 1 2 ... 259

B e n z o l in G e r m a n y ... 259

D o u b le S c is s o r s C r o s s in g in R o lle d M a n g a n e s e S t e e l . 260 R u b b e r S t a t i s t i c s ... 2 6 0 A n c ie n t N o r s e I r o n N a i l s ... 260

T h e C h e m is t in B r a z i l ... 260

I n d u s tr ia l A c c id e n t s in 1 9 1 3 ... 261

P r o c e s s e s fo r F ire p r o o fin g W o o d ... 261

G e r m a n U t ili z a t io n o f I r o ii- F u r n a c e S l a g ... 261

I m p o r t a n t P r o c e s s fo r P u r if y in g G a s fr o m S u g a r C o m ­ p o u n d s ... 262

No t e sa n d Co r r e s p o n d e n c e: S y n t h e t ic R e s i n s ... 263

V a lu a t io n o f F lu o r s p a r ... 265

N o t e o n t h e E le c t r o ly t ic D e te r m in a tio n o f C o p p e r . . . . 265

R e m a r k s o n W h i t e L e a d P a in t P u b lis h e d in 1 8 1 0 . . . . 266

O n th e D e c o m p o s itio n o f W h i t e L e a d P a i n t ... 266

F o r t y - N i n t h M e e t in g o f t h e A m e r ic a n C h e m ic a l S o ­ c ie t y , C in c in n a ti, A p r il 7 - 1 0 , 1 9 1 4 ... 26fr N o t e o n C e r ta in U n p u b lis h e d W o r k o n E le c t r o ly s is U s in g S u p p o r te d M e r c u r y K a t h o d e — A C o r r e c tio n . 267 Pe r s o n a l No t e s... 2 6 7 Bo o k Re v i e w s: T r e a t is e o n G e n e r a l a n d I n d u s tr ia l O rg a n ic C h e m i s t r y ; P r e s e r v a t iv e C o a t in g s fo r S t r u c t u r a l M a t e r ia ls ; D ie G e r b s to ffe -B o ta n is c h e - c h e m is c h e M o n o g r a p h ie d er T a n n i d e ... 268

Ne w Pu b l i c a t i o n s... '270 Re c e n t In v e n t i o n s... 2 7 1 M a r k e t R e p o r t ... 2 7 2

1 8 2 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y V o l. 6, N o . 3

EDITORIALS

FA CTO R S INVOLVED IN OPENING UP TH E FIELD OF UNUSED E L E M E N T S 1

In a t t e m p t in g t o c la s s if y t h e a c c e p t e d e le m e n ts so t h a t o n e g r o u p , o r p s e u d o - g r o u p ,c o n ta in s th o s e e le m e n ts d e s ig n a t e d “ u n u s e d ,” o r “ l i t t le u s e d ,” o n e is c o n ­ fr o n te d w ith m a n y d iffic u ltie s . T h e p rim e d iffic u ltie s i n v o lv e t h e p u rp o s e o f t h e c la s s ific a tio n a n d t h e e x ­ t e n t o f t h e u se.

O v e r o n e - th ir d o f t h e a c c e p t e d c h e m ic a l e le m e n ts h a v e n o s e rio u s c o m m e r c ia l u ses a t p r e s e n t a s e le m e n ts o r c o m p o u n d s . T h e s e a re g iv e n b e lo w , c la ss ifie d a c c o r d ­ in g t o th e p e r io d ic s y s t e m fo r c o n v e n ie n c e :

E l e m e n t s o r C o m p o u n d s U n u s e d o r L i t t l e U s e d

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 U nclas.

H e R b Be Sc C.e Cb Se R u P r

N e C s S r Y Y b T e R h N d

A L a Os Sm

K r G a E u

X e I n Gd

N t E r D y

T I T m

L u T b A b o u t o n e -h a lf o f th e s e h a v e b e en d is c o v e r e d w ith in t h e l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s . T h o s e so r e c e n t ly m a d e k n o w n a r e u s u a lly c la s s ifie d u n d e r th e t w o g r o u p s o f “ ra re g a s e s ” a n d “ ra re e a r t h s .”

A t t e n t i o n is d ir e c te d to t h e m e ltin g p o in ts a n d s p e ­ c ific g r a v it ie s o f fo u r o f th e r a r e - e a r th s .

Me l t i n g Po i n t s Sp e c i f i c Gr a v i t i e s

Ce - 623° C. L a = 6.15

L a - 810° C. P r » 6.48

N d - 8 4 0 ° C. N d = 6.96

P r = 940° C. , Ce - 7.04

A1 = 660» C . l .

\p. “ 96 0 Q C J ^ lven *o r com parison

C e r iu m h a s a b o u t t h e s a m e d e n s it y a s t in (7 .3 ), b u t a ll fo u r r e a d ily o x id iz e o n e x p o s u r e t o a ir. C e r iu m is b e tw e e n le a d a n d t in in it s p h y s ic a l a p p e a r a n c e , b u t h a r d e r t h a n t in ; la n t h a n u m a c ts m u c h lik e m e ta llic c a lc iu m , it s o x id e c o m b in in g r e a d ily w ith w a t e r to fo r m th e h y d r o x id e , b e in g a ir s la k e d , a s is lim e .

T h e w o rd “ r a r e ” so a p p lie d a b o v e — a s is t h e c a s e w ith m a n y w o r d s o f q u a lific a tio n — h a s c h a n g e d its m e a n in g in th e lig h t o f v e r y r e c e n t in v e s t ig a t io n s , a lth o u g h th e “ ra re g a s e s ” a re fo u n d in th e a tm o s p h e r e in th e fo llo w in g p r o p o r tio n s :

n a m e At o m ic Wt. I Vo l. i n

H e liu m ... 4 . 0 2 ,4 5 0 vols. air N e o n ... 2 0 . 0 808 vols. a ir A rg o n ... 3 9 . 9 105 vols. air K r y p to n ... 8 1 .8 7 4 6 ,0 0 0 vols. air X e n o n ... 1 2 8 .0 3 ,8 4 6 ,0 0 0 vols. air S o m e o f t h e e le m e n ts m e n tio n e d a b o v e a re b y no m e a n s so u n c o m m o n n o w a n d m a y b e h a d in c o m m e r ­ c ia l q u a n t it ie s . B e lo w is a t a b le c o n ta in in g th e s e a n d s o m e o th e r e le m e n ts . M a n y o f t h e s e h a v e b e e n k n o w n fo r a lo n g tim e ; t h e y a re n o t n o w u se d e x t e n ­ s i v e ly , b u t i n v it e a p p lic a tio n .

1 A u th o r’s a b s tr a c t of a n ad d ress before th e J o in t M e e tin g of th e N ew Y c rk S ections of th e A m erican E lectro ch em ical S o ciety , th e A m erican C h em ical S o ciety a n d th e Society of C hem ical In d u s try , a t T h e C h em ists' C lu b , N ew Y o rk , F e b ru a ry 6, 1914.

El e m e n t s No w Av a i l a b l e Co m m e r c i a l l y b u t Li t t l e Us k d

Unclas.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A K C a B Si As Se B r Co

S r Y Z r C b T e I P d

B a L a Ce T a

C d T h

N o w t h a t w e h a v e se e n t h e fie ld , le t u s see w h a t are s o m e o f t h e fa c t o r s in v o lv e d in c u l t i v a t i n g it. In so m e c a se s w e l a y t h e la c k o f u se o f t h e e le m e n ts at o n c e t o th e s c a r c i t y o f k n o w n o c c u r r e n c e s . H ab er h a s s h o w n t h a t o s m iu m is t h e b e s t c a t a l y z e r fo r m a k in g a m m o n ia f r o m ’ it s e le m e n ts , b u t v o n W e ls b a c h , who d e v is e d t h e o s m iu m - fila m e n t la m p , h a s c a lc u la t e d th a t th e r e a re o n ly a fe w h u n d r e d p o u n d s o f o s m iu m a v a il­

a b le in t h e p e r ip h e r y o f o u r g lo b e . W h e n , h o w e v e r, w e r e m e m b e r t h a t c a r b o n is b u t 0 .2 1 p e r c e n t w hile s ilic o n is 25.3 p e r c e n t o f t h e c r u s t o f o u r e a r th for a d e p th o f te n m ile s, in c lu d in g t h e w a te r s o n t h e earth a n d it s s u r r o u n d in g a tm o s p h e r e , a c c o r d in g t o C la r k e ’s c a lc u la tio n s , w e k n o w t h a t o u r p r e s e n t u t iliz a t io n of th e e le m e n ts c o m m e r c ia lly b e a r s b u t lit t le r e la t io n to th e ir t o t a l q u a n t it y . W it h so m e s t r ik in g e x c e p tio n s, m a n h a s fo u n d m o re o r le ss a m p le s o u rc e s o f t h e ele­

m e n ts o r th e ir c o m p o u n d s w h e n i t h a s b e e n s h o w n th a t o u r c iv iliz a t io n r e q u ir e d t h e m . T u n g s t e n , th o riu m , v a n a d iu m , a n d r a d iu m o n ly n e e d b e m e n tio n e d in illu s t r a tio n . I t is n o t t h e s m a ll p e r c e n t a g e in w hich t h e s e ele m e n ts' o c c u r , fo r p a lla d iu m e x is ts in n ick e lif- e ro u s p y r r h o t it e s in q u a n t it ie s to o s m a ll to b e d e te c te d b y e v e n re fin e d c h e m ic a l a n a ly s is , b u t i t a c c u m u la te s in t h e s lim e s o f n ic k e l re fin e rie s a n d is th u s o b ta in e d in so m e q u a n t i t y . T h e p r ic e fix e d b y p o ss e s sio n is the d e te r r e n t in t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e u se o f p a lla d iu m , q. f a c t o f no in d iv id u a l im m o r a lit y — q u ite h u m a n p er­

h a p s — b u t c o n t r a r y to t h e la w s o f e c o n o m ic s . Som e te n y e a r s a g o o n e la r g e c o r p o r a t io n p o s s e s s in g a store o f p a lla d iu m w a s a p p r o a c h e d b y s o m e te c h n o lo g is ts , s u p p o r t e d b y g o o d r e p u te , w ith t h e id e a o f w o r k in g out u ses fo r t h a t b y - p r o d u c t . T h e o w n e rs s a id t h e y were n o t in te r e s te d in s p e n d in g a t h o u s a n d d o lla r s on the i n v e s t ig a t io n — t h e y d id n o t m in d s p e n d in g th e m o n ey, b u t t h e y w o u ld n o t b e a p a r t y to lo w e r in g t h e price o f t h e m a te r ia l in th e ir p o ss e s sio n , th e in e v ita b le r e s u lt o f e x t e n d in g it s u se. T h is p r in c ip le is well illu s t r a te d in th e h is t o r y o f m e ta llic a lu m in u m and th o r iu m o x id e w h o s e m a r k e t q u o t a t io n s h a v e fallen to o n e o n e - h u n d r e d th a n d t w o o n e - h u n d r e d th s , respec-.

t i v e l y , w h a t t h e y w e r e o n e g e n e r a tio n a g o .

O n a c c o u n t o f it s g r e a t r e s is ta n c e t o a tm o s p h e ric o x id a t io n a n d m o is tu r e a n d t o t h e e ffe c t o f s u lfu r e tte d g a s e s , p a lla d iu m h a s b e e n e m p lo y e d fo r t h e inner .m e c h a n is n o f c h r o n o m e te r s a n d w a tc h e s , f o r th e co n ­ s t r u c t io n o f fin e b a la n c e - b e a m s , fo r th e d iv is io n scales o f d e lic a t e a p p a r a tu s , a n d fo r s u r g ic a l in str u m e n ts . I t h a s b e e n u se d fo r c o a tin g s ilv e r g o o d s , a n d for e le c t r o p la t in g s e a r c h lig h t m irro rs , fo r s o ld e r in g p la ti­

n u m , a n d in d e n t a l p r e p a r a t io n s . P a lla d in iz e d as­

b e s to s , p a lla d iu m s p o n g e a n d p a lla d iu m b la c k a re m ost e ffic ie n t c a t a l y t i c s u b s ta n c e s fo r r e d u c in g p u rp o ses.

M ar., 19 14 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

T h is w ell k n o w n f a c t m a y b e fla s h e d fr o m t h e h o u s e ­ tops w ith o u t a n y f e a r o f c o a g u la t in g t h e c lo u d s o f litig a tio n h o v e r in g o v e r t h e o il- h a r d e n in g s it u a t io n in this c o u n t r y , a s t h e p a r t ie s r e fe r r e d t o s t ill o w n th e p a lla d iu m .

Som e o f th e s e “ u n u s e d ” e le m e n ts w ill b e u se d , if th e prices a re m a d e m o re re a s o n a b le . A v e r y im p o r t a n t fa c to r in r e d u c in g t h e m a r k e t p r ic e s o f t h e s e s u b s ta n c e s is an im p r o v e m e n t in m e th o d s o f e x t r a c t io n . T h is m a y b e illu s t r a te d in th e c a s e o f t h e r a r e - e a r th s , n o t w ith th e in te n t io n o f le a d in g t h e r e a d e r in to t h a t m a z e , b u t b e c a u s e i t s h o w s h o w m o d e rn to o ls h a v e s e r v e d th e p u rp o s e a n d g iv e s s u g g e s tio n s fo r n e e d e d e x te n s io n w ith o th e r e le m e n ts in t h a t c la s s o f “ m e ta - e le m e n t s ,”

as C r o o k e s t e r m e d th e m .

M o n a z ite s a n d is e s s e n t ia lly a p h o s p h a fe o f t h e ra re ea rth s c o n ta in in g v a r ia b le a m o u n ts o f th o r iu m , u s u a lly 4-6 p er c e n t. T h e p r o b le m o f o b t a in in g t h o r iu m c o m ­ p o u n d s fro m t h a t s o u rc e — 315,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 W e ls b a c h m a n ­ tles w as th e w o r ld ’s o u t p u t in 1 9 1 3 — d e p e n d s u p o n : (x) S o lu tio n , u s u a lly b y b a k in g , w ith c o n c e n t r a te d s u l­

fu ric a c id a n d le a c h in g ( v e r y fin e g r in d in g of t h e s a n d w as an e ss e n tia l p r e lim in a r y ) ; (2) T h e ra r e e a r th s a n d th o riu m w ere th e n th r o w n o u t a s o x a la te s t o r e m o v e th e la s t t r a c e o f p h o s p h o r ic a c id ; (3) T h e m ix e d o x a ­ la te s w ere b r o u g h t in to s o lu tio n w ith t h e d e s tr u c tio n of th e o x a lic a c id a n d t h e t h o r iu m p r e c ip it a t e d ; or, th e o x a la te s w e re t r e a t e d w ith a m m o n iu m o x a la te , w h e r e b y th e n o n a h y d r a t e d - th o r iu m - t e tr a - a m m o n iu m o x a la te w e n t in to s o lu tio n . T h is t h o r iu m s a lt w a s s u b ­ s e q u e n tly c o n v e r t e d in to n itr a t e . W it h a ll th is p r o ­ ced u re, t h e p r ic e o f t h o r iu m s a lt s s t e a d ily d e c lin e d u n til it s e e m e d t o re a c h a lim it.

M u th m a n n a n d W e is s c o n c e iv e d t h e p la n o f d is ­ tillin g off th e p h o s p h o ru s a n d c o n v e r t in g t h e m e ta llic ele m e n ts p r e s e n t in to c a r b id e s . T h e r e s u lt a n t m a ss is h a rd a n d is v e r y e x p e n s iv e t o g r in d in o rd e r s u b s e ­ q u e n tly to d is s o lv e it . T h e w r it e r la t e r p r o d u c e d c a lc iu m c a r b id e w ith in t h e m ix tu r e o f o th e r c a rb id e s , u sin g th e u n g r o u n d m o n a z ite s a n d . T h is m a ss w h e n th ro w n in to w a t e r c r u m b le d a t o n c e t o a p o w d e r fr o m w h ich th e s u s p e n d e d m ilk o f lim e is r e a d ily w a s h e d . T h e r e s id u a l m a ss g o e s in to s o lu tio n in c o m m e r c ia l h y d r o c h lo r ic a c id fr o m w h ic h t h e t h o r iu m m a y b e p r e c ip ita te d a t o n c e in a fo r m r e a d ily s o lu b le in n itr ic a cid . T h e c e riu m m a y b e th r o w n o u t o f t h e s o lu tio n fro m th e t h o r iu m p r e c ip it a t e a n d t o n s o f o x a lic a c id are n o t d e s tr o y e d o r lo c k e d u p in t h e la r g e q u a n t it ie s of ra r e -e a r th s a c c u m u la t e d a w a it in g th e d e v e lo p m e n t of u ses.

M u th m a n n a n d W e is s a n d H ir s c h in t h is c o u n t r y h a v e a p p lie d th e H a ll p ro c e s s fo r t h e is o la t io n o f m e ta l­

lic c e riu m , w h o s e u se is n o w p r a c t ic a lly lim it e d to p y ro p h o ric a llo y s . T h e p r ic e o f m e ta llic c e riu m in G e r m a n y h a s r e c e n t ly f a lle n fr o m $60 to $5 p e r k ilo ­ gram .

V e r y r e c e n t ly i t h a s b e e n p r o v e n t o b e d is t in c t ly p ro fita b le , a c c o r d in g t o s e p a r a te p a t e n t s o f S o d d y a n d H a h n , to s e p a r a te m e s o -th o r iu m c o m p o u n d s in t h e p rocess o f e x t r a c t in g a n d p u r if y in g t h e t h o r ia . M e so - th o riu m r iv a ls r a d iu m in s o m e o f it s a p p lic a tio n s in ra d io -s u r g e ry .

T h e th r e e in s ta n c e s c it e d a b o v e a re g iv e n fo r a n o th e r

re a so n . T h e id e a s w e r e w o r k e d o u t b y t h r e e c o lle g e p ro fe s s o rs . L a b o r e r s m u s t b e p r o v id e d fo r c le a r in g t h e fie ld , w h e th e r t h e t o il b e t h a t o f w o r k in g o u t n e w p ro c e ss e s to so r e d u c e t h e c o s t o f a m a te r ia l a s to a d m it o f it s a p p lic a tio n t o u ses a lr e a d y k n o w n t o e x is t, o r d e v is e u ses n o t n o w k n o w n fo r b y - p r o d u c t s q u o t e d a t f ic t itio u s p ric e s , b u t w h ic h d o n o t a p p e a r a t s u c h s u p p o s ititio u s v a lu e s in t h e a n n u a l fin a n c ia l s t a t e m e n t .

U n d o u b t e d ly t h e b e s t w a y t o w o r k o u t p ro b le m s of t h e u t iliz a t io n o f “ u n d e v e lo p e d e le m e n t s ” is to a t t a c k th e m in s u c h w e ll- e q u ip p e d a n d s p le n d id ly m a n n e d re s e a rc h la b o r a t o r ie s a s a re m a in ta in e d b y t h e G e n e r a l E le c t r ic C o ., t h e G e n e r a l C h e m ic a l C o ., th e E a s t m a n K o d a k C o ., a n d o th e r s , b u t t h e ir u p k e e p in v o lv e s la r g e e x p e n d itu r e s . M a n y c o lle g e a n d u n iv e r s it y p r o ­ fe s s o rs w o u ld w e lc o m e a s u b s id y fo r w o r k o f t h is c h a r ­ a c te r , w h ic h s h o u ld b e s c ie n tific , d ig n ifie d , a n d h e lp

’ k e e p th e w o lf fr o m th e d o o r. W e c o m m e n d fo r y o u r p e r u s a l t h e a m u s in g “ C o n fe s s io n s o f a C o lle g e P r o ­ fe s s o r ’s W if e ,” in a r e c e n t n u m b e r o f T h e S a tu r d a y E v en in g P o s t . W e d o n o t m e a n t h a t t h e c o lle g e p r o ­ fe s s o r is p r e p a r e d t o o r s h o u ld g o in to t h e f a c t o r y , b u t h e c a n w o r k a t a n id e a , w h ic h s h o u ld la t e r b e d e v e lo p e d , if i t h a s m e rit, o n a c o m m e r c ia l s c a le b y t h e te c h n ic a l c h e m is t o r c h e m ic a l e n g in e e r o f t h e w o r k s . E la b o r a ­ t io n o f th is p r o p o s itio n , w h ic h is n o t n o v e l w ith th e s p e a k e r , is n o t n e c e s s a r y h e re . S u ffic e i t to s a y t h a t o n e so s e le c te d w o u ld b r in g to th e p ro b le m a d e g re e o f ig n o r a n c e t h a t m ig h t b e s t im u la t in g a n d a fre e d o m fro m t r a d it io n w h ic h w o u ld a d m it o f a d is p la y o f im a g i­

n a tio n n e c e s s a r y t o u t iliz e m a te r ia l w h ic h is c o m m e r ­ c ia lly a b u n d a n t .

H . B . B a k e r h a s s a id s o m e w h e re , “ N o t h in g c a n b e o f m o re v a lu e t o sc ie n c e t h a n t h e e x h a u s t iv e s t u d y o f o n e p a r t ic u la r a c t io n .”

W e is s a n d N e u m a n n h a v e fo u n d t h a t c o m p re s se d z ir c o n iu m is a c o n d u c t o r , w h e r e a s p r e v io u s s ta t e m e n t s h a v e b e e n t h a t i t w a s n o n - c o n d u c t in g .' T h e r e is n e e d f o r r e v ie w in g m a n y s u c h s t a t e m e n t s t h a t a re h a n d e d d o w n in t h e lit e r a t u r e . A lu m in u m is s o n o r o u s , a c c o r d ­ in g t o so m a n y t e x t b o o k s . V e r y p u re a lu m in u m , s u c h a s t h a t u s e d b y th e la t e P r o fe s s o r M a lle t in th e d e te r m in a tio n o f it s a to m ic w e ig h t, is n o t s o n o ro u s . I f a lu m in u m is s o n o r o u s , i t is n o t p u re .

S t e w a r t in h is c h a r m in g b o o k on “ R e c e n t A d v a n c e s in P h y s ic a l a n d I n o r g a n ic C h e m i s t r y ,” in r e fe r r in g t o 1887 a n d t h e fo llo w in g y e a r s o f fe v e r is h a c t i v i t y in p h y s ic o - c h e m ic a l re s e a r c h , le d b y A r r h e n iu s , v a n ’ t H o ff a n d t h e e ld e r O s t w a ld , s a y s : “ T o so m e e x t e n t t h is w a v e a p p e a r s t o h a v e s p e n t it s fo rc e . A t th e p r e s e n t d a y p h y s ic a l c h e m is t r y , e x c e p t in th e h a n d s o f a fe w e x c e p tio n a l r e s e a rc h e r s , h a s d e g e n e r a te d in to a m e a n s o f a t t a c k i n g th e p r o b le m s o f p u re c h e m is t r y in s t e a d o f o p e n in g u p n e w fie ld s ; a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly t h e r e is a c e r t a in t e n d e n c y t o d e c r y t h e s u b je c t a s a m e re m e a n s to a n e n d , a n d n o t a liv in g b r a n c h o f s c ie n c e . T h is is , p e r h a p s , a n e x a g g e r a t e d v ie w ; b u t i t c a n n o t b e d e n ie d t h a t p h y s ic a l c h e m is ts o f t h e p r e s e n t d a y a re n o t a n im a t e d b y t h e h ig h h o p e s w h ic h se e m t o h a v e in s p ir e d O s t w a ld a n d o th e r s in t h e e a r lie r d a y s o f t h e s u b j e c t .” B a n c r o ft a c k n o w le d g e s t h a t th e r e is s o m e t r u t h in th is c r itic is m , b u t a s s e rts , “ T h e d iffi­

c u l t y is t h a t m o s t p e o p le a re s t ill s t r u g g lin g u n d e r th e

i S 4 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y V o l. 6, N o . 3

lim it a t io n s im p o s e d d e lib e r a t e ly a n d c o n s c io u s ly b y O s t w a ld . O n ce t h e s e a re b r o k e n th r o u g h , n o b o d y w ill h a v e a n y c a u s e t o c o m p la in o f th e w a v e h a v in g s p e n t i t s f o r c e .” S t e w a r t f u r t h e r s a y s :

“ I t is a n e x t r e m e ly f o r t u n a t e c o in c id c n c e t h a t a s th e fir s t m o v e m e n t d e c lin e d , a s e c o n d a n d p e r h a p s m o re p o w e r fu l o n e h a d s u c c e e d e d it . T h is s e c o n d m o v e m e n t ro se w ith e v e n g r e a t e r r a p i d i t y t h a n p u r e p h y s ic a l c h e m is t r y , a n d y e t a t th e p re s e n t d a y w e a p p e a r to h a v e t o u c h e d o n ly t h e fr in g e o f th e s u b je c t o f r a d io ­ a c t i v i t y ; so t h a t w e m a y lo o k fo r w a r d to a lo n g c a re e r o f f r u it f u l in v e s t ig a t io n s t ill b e fo r e u s in t h is d e p a r t m e n t of c h e m is t r y .”

T h e p r o b le m s o f s u b - a t o m ic o r e le c t r o n ic u n iv e r s e h a v e p r e s e n te d t h e m s e lv e s a n d a t o n c e w e b e g in a p p l y ­ in g t h e s e n e w id e a s to u t ilit a r ia n p u rp o s e s . T h e c r y o ­ g e n ic la b o r a to r ie s h a v e a c c u m u la t e d fr a c t io n s fro m t o n s o f liq u e fie d a ir. C o llie fo u n d t h a t t h e n e o n , o b ­ t a in e d t h u s in c id e n t a lly , lu m in e s c e s u n d e r t h e 'in flu e n c e o f t h e H e r t z ia n w a v e s . A t u b e o f n eo n s e r v e s a s a d e te c t o r o f t h e n o d e s a n d lo o p s , g lo w in g b r illia n t ly u n d e r t h e in flu e n c e o f t h e la t t e r , a s if it w e re e x c ite d b y a n in d u c t io n c o il. C la u d e ’s t u b e s o f n e o n th u s e x c ite d , o ffe r a m o s t p le a s in g lig h t a n d p e r h a p s la te r o n w ill p r o v e t o b e a n e c o n o m ic a l s o u rc e o f a r tific ia l illu m in a t io n .

Q u a n t it ie s o f a rg o n a re n o w a v a ila b le fr o m liq u e fie d a ir. T h e r e are in d ic a t io n s t h a t , o n a c c o u n t o f it s in e r tn e s s , w e m a y s h o r t ly see tu n g s t e n in c a n d e s c e n t la m p s , a s W h it n e y p u ts it , w ith “ t h e v a c u u m ja m - fu ll o f a r g o n ” in s t e a d o f n itr o g e n .

T r o o s t a n d O n v r a r d h a v e s t a t e d t h a t t h e y h a d s u c c e e d e d in c a u s in g a rg o n to c o m b in e w ith m a g n e s iu m v a p o r . N e ith e r R a y le ig h , R a m s a y , n o r M o is s a n w ere a b le t o s e c u re a n y e v id e n c e o f t h e f o r m a t io n o f c o m ­ p o u n d s o f a rg o n , h o w e v e r . M a n y r e a c tio n s u n o b ­ s e r v e d o n t h e la b o r a t o r y s c a le a re fo u n d t o o c c u r w h e n d e a lin g w ith l i r g e q u a n t it ie s o f s u b s ta n c e s , th r o u g h lo n g p e r io d s o f tim e . I f th is w e re n o t tr u e w e s h o u ld h a v e e v e n g r e a t e r d iffic u lt y in a c c o u n tin g fo r t h e o c c u r ­ r e n c e o f s u c h in e r t g a s e s as h e liu m in m a la c o m e , clev<5it e a n d t h o r ia n it e . I t is t h u s b a r e ly p o s s ib le t h a t in t im e w e s h a ll fin d c o m p o u n d s o f a rg o n p r o ­ d u c e d in th e la r g e s c a le o p e r a tio n s o f b u r n in g th e n i t r o ­ g e n o f t h e a ir , a s c a r r ie d o n so s u c c e s s fu lly in N o r w a y

a t p r e s e n t. A u se o f c o m p o u n d s o f a rg o n m a y th e n be fo u n d .

T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y h a s p ro je c te d u s in to an u n d r e a m e d o f r e a lm o f t h o u g h t a n d new in te r e s ts . T h e p h e n o m e n a o f r a d io lo g y a re c lo sely a llie d t o th o s e o f r a d i o a c t i v i t y . T h e u se o f R ö n tg e n r a y s in m e d ic in e h a s b e e n a tt e n d e d b y n o t a fe w d iffi­

c u ltie s . A m o n g th e m t h e s o -c a lle d “ h a r d n e s s ” and

“ s o f t n e s s ” o f th e r a y s . T h e fo r m e r a re p e n e tr a tin g a n d a ffe c t tis s u e s f a r b e lo w t h e s u r fa c e , s o m e tim e s f a v o r a b l y a n d s o m e tim e s u n f a v o r a b ly . T h e “ s o f t ” r a y s a ffe c t t h e e p id e rm is . In t h e u se o f “ h a r d ” X - r a y s t u b e s fo r d e ep t r e a t m e n t , i t is n e c e s s a r y t o screen th e s k in w ith v a r io u s t h ic k n e s s e s o f a lu m in u m , o r lead , e tc . F o r t r e a t m e n t o f s k in a ffe c tio n s o n ly , th e r e h a v e b e e n n o s a tis ifa c to ry m e a n s fo r s c re e n in g o u t t h e p e n e ­ t r a t i n g r a y s , c o n s e q u e n t ly a p r o b le m h a s b e e n th e p r o d u c tio n o f “ s o f t ” r a y s w ith a m in im u m o f “ h a r d ” r a y s . X - r a y t u b e g la s s is u s u a lly a p o ta s h o r so d a- lim e s ilic a te . L in d e m a n n fo u n d t h a t b y s u b s t itu tin g lit h iu m fo r p o ta s s iu m t h e r a y s w e re “ s o f t e r .” He th e n s u b s t it u t e d b e r y lliu m fo r c a lc iu m , a n d fin a lly b o r o n fo r s ilic o n . L it h iu m - b e r y lliu m - b o r o n - g la s s sh o w s o v e r t h i r t y p e r c e n t r e d u c tio n in t h e e m p ir ic a l m o le c ­ u la r w e ig h t . W in d o w s o f t h is g la s s le t in to X - r a y t u b e s g iv e th e “ s o f t ” r a y s d e sire d . I t w o u ld b e in te r ­ e s t in g t o see th e e ffe c t w ith a p o ta s s iu m - b a r iu m - z ir c o ­ n iu m -g la s s .

A p p lic a t io n o f t h e n e w e r e le c tr o n ic c o n c e p tio n s of v a le n c e , e s p e c ia lly w h e n a s s o c ia te d w ith re sid u a l a ff in it y w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m e th o d s fo r c h a n g in g v a le n c e a c c o r d in g to o u r w ish e s, w ill u n q u e s t io n a b ly c a u s e m a n y o f t h e s e u n u s e d e le m e n ts a n d m a n y of th o s e n o w m o s t u s e d to a ss u m e n e w p r o p e r tie s . A t ­ t e n t io n m a y b e d ir e c t e d t o o n e q u a li t a t i v e illu s tr a tio n . P u r e le a d d o es n o t p la t e o n iro n . W h e n m o lte n lea d is c a u s e d t o flo w t o a n d fr o a s a c o n d u c t o r o f a low - v o lt a g e h ig h - a m p e r a g e a lte r n a t in g c u r r e n t fo r v a r ia b le p e r io d s o f tim e , u s u a lly s e v e r a l h o u r s , it th e n p la te s iro n , a s m a y b e se e n fr o m s a m p le s v e r y r e c e n t ly so p la t e d u n d e r t h e s u p e r v is io n o f t h e w r it e r . W h ile th e p ro c e s s is n o t p e r fe c t e d , i t p o in ts a w a y w h ic h m a y s e r v e a s a h in t in s e e k in g u se s fo r s u c h e le m e n ts as c a d m iu m , s e le n iu m , a n d te llu r iu m .

Ch a r l e s Ba s k e r v i l l e

ORIGINAL PAPER S

PA IN T FILM S AS P R O TECTIVE CO ATIN G S FO R CO NCRETE.

B y E . E . W a r e a n d S . M . S c i i o t t 1 R eceiv ed D ecem b er 9, 1913

T h e e x t e n s iv e u se o f c o n c r e te a s a b u ild in g m a te r ia l fo r a ll t y p e s o f c o n s t r u c t io n h a s' n a t u r a lly b e e n a c ­ c o m p a n ie d b y n u m e ro u s fa ilu r e s o f g r e a t e r o r less im p o r t a n c e . T h e s e e x a m p le s h a v e b e e n s e iz e d u p o n b y m a n u fa c t u r e r s o f c o m p e t it iv e m a te r ia l a n d h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t t o t h e a tt e n t io n o f t h e p u b lic th r o u g h w id e p u b lic it y , c a u s in g a d o u b t to a ris e in th e m in d s o f so m e a s t o t h e p e r m a n e n c e o f c o n c r e te c o n s tr u c tio n .

‘ H o ld e r of P a in t Fellow ship, A cm e W h ite L ead a n d C olor W orks 1911-1912.

H o w e v e r , w ith t h e b e tt e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e p o ssi­

b ilitie s a n d t h e lim it a t io n s o f th is m a te r ia l, i t h a s been p o s s ib le t o v e r y n e a r ly e lim in a te t h e c a u s e s o f fa ilu re t h a t w e r e m a in ly re s p o n s ib le fo r t h e d iffic u ltie s e x ­ p e r ie n c e d b y t h e p io n e e r s in t h e u se o f c o n c r e te c o n ­ s t r u c t io n .

B u t w e a re c o n fr o n t e d b y a c a u s e o f d is in te g r a tio n s t ill l i t t l e a p p r e c ia te d b y t h e c o n c r e te e n g in e e r— la c k o f c o n s t a n c y o f v o lu m e in c o n c r e te a ft e r s e ttin g . A lt h o u g h t h e t e n d e n c y t o fa ilu r e fr o m t h is c a u s e is m o re a p p a r e n t in s t u c c o a n d o t h e r lig h t c o n s tr u c tio n , w h e r e m ix tu r e s ric h in c e m e n t a re u s e d , m o n o lith ic w o r k is b y n o m e a n s fre e fr o m t h e e ffe c ts o f t h is la c k

M ar., 19 14 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

of c o n s ta n c y o f v o lu m e , a n d w e fin d fa ilu r e c r a c k s whose p re se n c e c a n b e a c c o u n te d fo r o n ly b y th e assu m p tio n o f a d iffe r e n tia l e x p a n s io n in th e d iffe r e n t m em bers o f t h e s tr u c t u r e .

W h ite 1 h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e c h a n g e s in v o lu m e d u e to ch an ges in te m p e r a tu r e a re s m a ll a s c o m p a r e d to th e ch an ges d u e t o t h e a lte r n a t e w e t t in g a n d d r y in g o f th e co n cre te , a n d t h a t th e s e l a t t e r c h a n g e s a re s u ffic ie n t to cause fa ilu r e in m a n y c a s e s . F ig s . 1 a n d 2 s h o w re p re s e n ta tiv e fa ilu r e c r a c k s o f t h is t y p e .

A n o th e r s o u rc e o f t r o u b le in w h ic h w a t e r p la y s a p art, is th e e le c t r o ly t ic e ffe c t o f s t r a y c u r r e n ts o n t h e steel r e in fo r c e m e n t in c o n c r e te . T h is c o rro s io n o f t h e re in fo rc e m e n t c o u ld n o t t a k e p la c e in p e r fe c t ly d r y c o n c re te .2 T h e e lim in a tio n o f t h e s e t w o c a u s e s of d is in te g r a tio n in c o n c r e te is s t r i c t l y a p r o b le m in w a te rp ro o fin g .

W a te r p r o o fin g m a te r ia ls fo r u se w ith c o n c r e te are d iv id ed in to fo u r g e n e ra l c la s s e s : m e m b ra n e , in te g r a l, su rfa ce w a sh e s, a n d o il p a in t film s.

u se of t h e s o m e w h a t less e ffic ie n t b u t m o re s u it a b le p a in t film .

W it h o u t d o u b t p a in t film s c a n b e c o m p o u n d e d t h a t w ill b e p r a c t ic a lly im p e r v io u s t o w a t e r ; b u t t h e y m u s t, in t h e c a s e o f c o n c r e te c o a te r s , b e a lso a b le t o s t a n d th e s a p o n ific a tio n a c tio n o f lim e le a c h e d o u t fr o m t h e c o n ­ c r e te , a s w e ll a s b e in s e n s it iv e t o t h e a t t a c k o f th e w e a th e r .

M a n u fa c t u r e r s h a v e m a d e a t t e m p t s t o s o lv e th e p r o b le m o f p u t t in g o u t a s a t is f a c t o r y c o n c r e te c o a te r ; b u t th e r e h a s b e e n a d e c id e d t e n d e n c y t o lo se s ig h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t fir s t of a ll t h e p a in t m u s t b e o f s u c h a n a tu r e a s n o t t o lo s e it s e la s t i c i t y o r im p e r m e a b ilit y t h r o u g h t h e in flu e n c e o f t h e w e a th e r . T h e p a in t m u s t p o sse ss a ll o f th e w e a th e r - r e s is t in g q u a litie s o f a n y p a in t d e sig n e d fo r o u ts id e w o r k , in a d d it io n t o b e in g a b le to m e e t t h e c o n d itio n s p e c u lia r t o t h is p a r t ic u la r s e r v ic e .

C o n c r e t e c o a te r s m a y b e c la s s ifie d in g e n e r a l: (1 ) c o a te r s c o m p o u n d e d fro m m a te r ia ls in e r t t o t h e a c tio n

Courtesy o f Prof. A . H . W hite F io . 1

W ig a n d B a t e s 3 h a v e m a d e a n e x t e n s iv e s t u d y o f w a te rp ro o fin g m a te r ia ls , a n d th e ir w o r k se e m s t o s h o w th a t n o n e o f t h e in te g r a l o r w a s h w a te r p r o o fin g s are efficient in p r e v e n t in g t h e a b s o r p tio n o f m o is tu re , a lth o u g h t h e y m a y p r e v e n t t h e p e r c o la tio n o f w a t e r th ro u g h th e c o n c r e te .

R e c e n t w o r k 4 se e m s t o h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t vo lu m e c h a n g e s a re c a u s e d b y a d s o r b e d w a t e r , a n d th a t th e p re se n c e o f w a te r p r o o fin g w ith in t h e c o n c r e te has v e r y lit t le e ffe c t u p o n t h e u lt im a t e p e r c e n ta g e ch an ge, a n d t h a t it s o n ly e ffe c t is t o r e t a r d t h e r a t e o f ab so rp tio n .

T h e u se o f a n im p e r m e a b le m e m b r a n e o n t h e e x ­ posed sid e o f th e c o n c r e te w o u ld v e r y e ffic ie n t ly p r e ­ v e n t th e p a s s a g e o f w a t e r t o t h e c o n c r e te , a n d wro u ld , th erefo re, p r e v e n t t h e r e s u lt a n t d is in te g r a tio n d u e to eith er m o is tu re , v o lu m e c h a n g e s o r t o e le c t r o ly s is . H o w ev er, in t h e m a jo r it y o f c a s e s i t is n o t fe a s ib le to use an a s p h a lt f e lt m e m b ra n e , so w e a re lim it e d t o th e

1 Proc. A m . Soc. fo r Test. M a t., 1911.

* R ohland, Wasser w. Abwasscr, 5, 504. O. B e rn d t, B ito n u. E isen , 11, 1st S upplem ent. C. de W y rall, Proc. In t. A ssn . Test. M a t., 2, 20.

1 B ur. S ta n d a rd s, Technologic Paper 3.

1 W hite, P riv a te C o m m u n icatio n . Jesser, T o n in d . Ztg., 37, 535-8.

o f a lk a li; (2) c o a te r s w h o s e v e h ic le s c a r r y c o n s id e r a b le a m o u n ts o f fre e o r g a n ic a c id s ; (3) c o a te r s c o m p o u n d e d w ith t h e id e a o f g e t t in g a h a r d a n d p e r fe c t ly im ­ p e n e t r a b le s u r fa c e ; (4) th o s e c o a te r s w h o s e v ir t u e lie s m a in ly in t h e e la s t ic a n d o n ly s lig h t ly p e r m e a b le film fo r m e d fr o m t h e g o o d d r y in g o il w h ic h c o n ­ s t it u t e s t h e m a jo r p o r tio n o f t h e v e h ic le .

T h e fir s t c la s s m a y c o n ta in n e u t r a l g u m v a r n is h e s , p e tr o le u m p r o d u c ts , m a y b e o f a c a s e in b a se , o r m a y b e m a d e up fr o m a c e m e n tin g p ig m e n t.

E x p e r im e n ta l d a t a a s w e ll a s p r a c t ic a l e x p e r ie n c e w ith p a in t film s fo r g e n e r a l s e r v ic e w o r k h a v e e s t a b ­ lis h e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v e h ic le fo r a n y p a in t s h o u ld b e s e le c te d w ith a v ie w t o g e t t in g t h e m a x im u m o f e la s t ic ­ i t y in t h e d r ie d film , r e c o g n iz in g t h a t a n y a d d it io n s t h a t t e n d t o h a rd e n t h e film w ill, a t t h e s a m e tim e , in c re a s e t h e b r ittle n e s s a n d a c c e le r a t e t h e d is in t e g r a ­ tio n .

P a in t s o f t h e s e c o n d c la s s a re q u ite c o m m o n a n d a p p e a l s t r o n g ly t o t h e a v e r a g e u s e r, in a s m u c h a s th e fre e a c id is s u p p o s e d to s e r v e t h e d o u b le p u r p o s e o f n e u t r a liz in g a n y lim e t h a t m a y b e p r e s e n t a n d a t th e s a m e t im e s e a lin g t h e p o re s o f t h e c o n c r e te w ith th e

T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y V o l. 6, N o . 3

F i g . 3— G r o u p o k 32 P a n e l s 1 8 ' x 1 8 ' i n S u p p o r t i n g F r a m e . R i g h t I Ia l p o p E a c h P a n e l P a i n t e d G r e e n

a p p lie d t o a c o n c r e te o r s tu c c o s u r fa c e , s o m e s a m p le s o f oil w e r e -s u b je c t e d t o p a r a lle l t e s t s . T h e o ils w e r e a s fo llo w s :

N o . i . R a w lin s e e d o il.

1 Concrete and Const. Eng., 7, 380-7.

w h e n t h e y h a v e n o t h in g b e t t e r w ith w h ic h to bond t h a n a s k in o f in s o lu b le s o a p .

T h e im p e n e t r a b le s u r fa c e o f t h e t h ir d t y p e of c o a te r s is g e n e r a lly d e r iv e d fr o m a g u m h a rd e n ed film , t h e v e h ic le o f t h is c o a te r b e in g la r g e ly v a rn is h .

N o . 2. T h e s a m e o il t o w h ic h h a d b e e n a d d e d a s m a ll a m o u n t o f f a t t y a c id .

N o . 3. T h e s a m e o il t o w h ic h h a d b e e n a d d e d 20 p e r c e n t o f ro sin v a r n is h c o n ta in in g a c o n sid e ra b le a m o u n t o f u n n e u t r a liz e d ro s in a c id .

E a c h o f t h e s e s a m p le s o f o il w a s s h a k e n a t in te r v a ls fo r t h r e e w e e k s , w ith t h r e e d iffe r e n t p ig m e n ts , c a lc iu m c a r b o n a t e , c a lc iu m h y d r a t e , a n d P o r t la n d c e m e n t.

T o e a c h o f t h e s e w a s a d d e d a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t o f w a te r, a n d th e w h o le w a s d ilu t e d t o d o u b le it s v o lu m e w ith k e ro s e n e . A fo u r t h s e t w a s s h a k e n w ith d r y P o r t ­ la n d c e m e n t.

T a b le I s h o w s t h a t t h e a c id c o n s t it u e n t s a c t as c o m p le t e ly o n P o r t la n d c e m e n t as t h e y d o o n c a lc iu m h y d r a t e , w h ile t h e y ' a c t v e r y s lo w ly o n c a lc iu m c a r­

b o n a t e a n d u n h y d r a t e d P o r t la n d c e m e n t.

A s s u m in g t h e s a m e c o n d itio n s to h o ld u n d e r a c tu a l c o n d itio n s o f s e r v ic e , th e r e w ill b e a n a c tio n b e tw e e n t h e a c id o f th e c o a te r a n d th e c e m e n t a t t h e s u r fa c e o f t h e c o n c r e te , w h ic h w ill g iv e a film o f lim e soap a t t h e s u r fa c e , to w h ic h t h e p a in t film m u s t clin g . T h is a c tio n is a ll n e a r t h e s u r fa c e , fo r th e r e is p re se n t w ith in o n e - s ix ty - fo u r th in c h o f t h e s u r fa c e o f an o r d in a r y c o n c r e te s u ffic ie n t lim e c o m p o u n d s t o n e u tr a l­

iz e a ll t h e a c id c o n te n t o f t h e c o m m o n c e m e n t c o a t e r .' T h e s e c o a te r s s h o w t h e m s e lv e s to b e in e ffic ie n t as n e u tr a liz e r s , a n d t h e life o f t h e film c a n n o t b e lo n g p r e c ip it a t e d lim e s o a p . T h e fre e a c id o f t h is t y p e o f

p a in t s is s o m e tim e s a n a d d e d f a t t y a c id , a n d s o m e tim e s th e u n n e u t r a liz e d re s in a c id o f a v a r n is h m ix e d w ith th e o il a s a c o n s t it u e n t o f t h e v e h ic le .

C a t h c a r t 1 c la im s t h a t t h e s o a p s u s e d in w a te r -

Courtesy o f P ro f. A . II. W hite Fig. 2

p ro o fin g h a v e a d is in t e g r a t in g in flu e n c e o n lin o x y n . T h is w ill a p p ly a s w e ll to th e in s o lu b le s o a p s fo r m e d in th e n e u t r a liz a t io n o f th e lim e b y . t h e fre e f a t t y a c id o f th e s e c o n d t y p e o f c o a te r .

In a n a t t e m p t t o d e te r m in e t h e e x t e n t to w h ic h th e r e a c tio n s t a k e p la c e w h e n a c o a te r o f t h is t y p e is

M a r., 19 14 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y

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C alcium h y d r a te ... 0 .1 114.1 122 .6 0 .2 104.7 114.5 1 .2 105.5 12 5 .8 D ry c e m e n t... 1 .0 11 5 .6 122.3 4 .7 10 5 .0 111 .6 2 .7 10 9 .4 12 5 .4 W et c e m e n t '. ... 0 .2 114.2 ' 12 2 .6 0 .3 10 5 .0 113.2 0 .4 103.1 12 5 .6 The te sts on iodine a b so rp tio n w ere m ade as a m ore o r less a c c u ra te check on th e e v a p o ra tio n of th e th in n e r d u rin g sh ak in g a n d cen trifu g in g . T h e p a in ts o f th is c la s s r e a lly p o sse ss t h e f a u lt s o f b o t h s h o w c r a c k s , th e n w ith t h e a c c e s s o f w a t e r t o t h e u n d e r- the first a n d t h e s e c o n d c la ss e s , fo r t h e re s in s o f th e l y in g c o n c r e te a n d it s s u b s e q u e n t e v a p o r a t io n fr o m th e va rn ish e s a re a t le a s t in p a r t a c id , w h ile a s a w h o le t h e s u r fa c e , lim e w ill b e b r o u g h t to t h e u n d e r s u r fa c e o f th e h ard .film is s u b je c t t o t h e s a m e a c c e le r a t e d d is in te - film .

g ra tin g in flu e n c e s a s a ff e c t a n y n o n e la s tic film . I n th e s e te s t s , e a c h p a in t w a s a s s ig n e d t o t w o W ith a n id e a o f s t u d y in g th e e ffic ie n c y o f t h e d iffe r e n t p a n e ls : o n e m a d e u p fr o m a m ix o f o n e p a r t c e m e n t ty p e s of c o a te r s , a fe w o f t h e m o re w id e ly a d v e r t is e d t o th r e e p a r t s r iv e r s a n d , a n d o n e p a n e l o f a ric h ones w ere p u r c h a s e d , a n d t o g e t h e r w ith so m e m a d e u p s t u c c o m ix , o n e p a r t lim e , t w o p a r t s c e m e n t a n d fiv e in th e la b o r a t o r y , w e r e a p p lie d t o s u r fa c e s o f c o n c r e te p a r t s r iv e r s a n d . T h e p a n e ls w e r e m a d e u p in d o o r s and s tu c c o , a n d g iv e n a n e x p o s u r e t e s t t h a t h a s e x - a n d a llo w e d t o s e t fo r th r e e w e e k s b e fo r e t h e p a in ts ten d ed o v e r a b o u t t w o y e a r s tim e . w e re a p p lie d . D u r in g t h e firs t t w o w e e k s of t h is tim e

T h e e x p o s u re p a n e ls w e re e a c h e ig h te e n in c h e s t h e p a n e ls w^ere k e p t d a m p ; b u t t h e y w e re a llo w e d t o sq u are a n d t w o in c h e s t h ic k , r e in fo r c e d b y e x p a n d e d d r y a fu ll w e e k in o r d e r t h a t th e r e m ig h t n o t b e p r e s e n t m e ta l, a n d h e ld w ith in a fr a m e b u ilt u p fr o m 1/ i in t h e c o n c r e te , w h e n t h e p a in t w a s a p p lie d , m o is tu r e in ch x 2 in c h s te e l b a n d , t o in s u re th e m a g a in s t t h a t w o u ld p r e v e n t p r o p e r p e n e t r a t io n o f t h e p a in t b re a k a g e . T h e b a c k s o f t h e p a n e ls w e r e c o v e r e d w ith • a n d g iv e a n im p e r f e c t b o n d b e tw e e n t h e p a in t film g a lv a n iz e d iro n in o rd e r t h a t t h e r e s h o u ld b e n o w a t e r a n d t h e c o n c r e te s u r fa c e . T h e s e c o n d c o a t w a s a p - en terin g fr o m t h e b a c k o f th e p a n e l, a n d t h a t t h e c o n d i- p lie d a ft e r t h e firs t c o a t h a d b e c o m e th o r o u g h ly d r y , tions s h o u ld b e a s n e a r ly a s p o s s ib le t h e s a m e a s th o s e th e t im e in te r v e n in g v a r y i n g fro m th r e e to s e v e n d a y s .

Fi g. 4— Pa i r o r Pa n e l s Sh o w i n g Co m p l e t e l y Di s i n t e g r a t e d Pa i n t Fil m

existin g in a n o r d in a r y s t r u c t u r e . T h e p a in t film s were s u b je c t, th e n , t o t h e s a p o n ify in g a c tio n o f o n ly such lim e a s w o u ld le a c h o u t w ith t h e w a t e r t h a t m igh t h a v e p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e film p o re s, o r th r o u g h cracks t h a t h a d d e v e lo p e d in s u c h film s a s w e r e u n a b le to s ta n d th e w e a th e r . I f a p a in t film b e w a t e r - t ig h t it should b e fr e e fro m t h e a c tio n o f lim e j u s t so lo n g as it re m a in s in p e r fe c t c o n d itio n ; b u t w h e n i t b e g in s to

D u r in g t h e t im e of e x p o s u re , t h e p a n e ls w e re c a r r ie d o n a fr a m e in c lin e d a b o u t 20° fr o m t h e v e r t ic a l, w ith t h e p a in t e d s u r fa c e o f t h e p a n e l f a c in g s o u t h . F ig . 3 s h o w s t h e c o m p le te g r o u p o f p a n e ls w ith t h e ir s u p ­ p o r t in g fr a m e . T h e fr a m e o c c u p ie d s u c h a p o s itio n o n t h e ro o f o f t h e la b o r a t o r y a s w o u ld in s u r e t h e te s t s b e in g fre e fr o m t h e in flu e n c e o f la b o r a t o r y fu m e s .

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r e p a in tin g , fo r i t is a w ell r e c o g n iz e d f a c t t h a t n o p a in t c o a t c a n la s t in d e fin ite ly a n y m o re o n c o n c re te t h a n o n w o o d o r m e ta l. L a d d ’s 1 w o r k h a s s h o w n th is to b e a n i m p o r t a n t c o n s id e r a tio n in th e p e r m a n e n t p r o t e c t io n o f w o o d e n s t r u c t u r e s , a n d t h e s a m e c o n d i­

tio n s a p p ly t o t h e p r o t e c t io n o f c o n c re te .

T a b le I g iv e s a s u m m a r y o f t h e c o n d itio n o f th e v a r io u s p a n e ls a t t h e e n d o f twTo y e a r s .

P a n e ls N o s . 3, x r , 4, 12 , 25 a n d 26 w ere p a in te d

■with c o a te r s c a r r y in g c o n s id e r a b le a m o u n ts o f f a t t y a c id o r u n n e u t r a liz e d re s in a c id . T h e d is in te g r a tio n of th e s e film s w a s e a r ly a n d c o m p le te , a n d w a s n o t

1 B u lletins of N o rth D a k o ta A g ric u ltu ral E x p e rim en t S ta tio n .

h e a v y s c a lin g a n d fla k in g , w h ic h in s o m e c a se s left p a r t s o f th e p a n e l e n t ir e ly fre e fr o m p a in t w ith in a s h o r t tim e .

C o a t e r N o . 5, o n p a n e ls N o s . 5 a n d 13 , w a s v e ry h e a v y b o d ie d a n d d id n o t s p re a d a t a ll fr e e ly . T h e s m a ll a m o u n t o f v e h ic le p re s e n t w a s n e u t r a l in c h a r­

a c te r , t h e m a te r ia l a c tin g m o re lik e a c e m e n t th a n a p a in t , th e re b e in g lit t le t e n d e n c y to fo r m a t r u e p ain t film . T h e s e p a n e ls r e ta in e d th e ir c o a ts f a i r l y w ell, a lth o u g h t h e y a t a ll tim e s s h o w e d a h ig h d e g re e of p o r o s ity a s in d ic a t e d b y th e t e n d e n c y t o a b s o r b a n y w a t e r a p p lie d t o t h e s u r fa c e . T h is c o a te r m ig h t serve w e ll a s a d e c o r a tiv e p a in t ; b u t i t is p r o b a b ly o f com-- p e r io d o f o n e y e a r , e a c h p a n e l w a s c o a te d o v e r o n e -h a lf

o f it s s u r fa c e w ith a g r e e n p a in t w h o se p ig m e n t w a s a m ix tu r e o f c h r o m e y e llo w a n d p ru s s ia n b lu e . T h is p a in t s e r v e d a s a v e r y g o o d in d ic a t o r o f th e e x t e n t to w h ic h lim e le a c h e d o u t t o t h e s u r fa c e , t h e p re se n c e o f lim e b e in g in d ic a t e d b y a y e llo w s p o t. In o rd e r n o t to in flu e n c e t h e p o r o s ity o f th e u n d e r ly in g film to o m u c h , o n ly o n e c o a t o f t h e g re e n w a s a p p lie d . In c a s e s w h e re t h e p a in t o n t h e p a n e l w a s d is in t e g r a t e d b a d ly , an a t ­ te m p t w a s m a d e to p re p a re th e s u r fa c e fo r t h e c o a t of g re e n p a in t b y b r u s h in g off th e lo o s e ly a d h e r in g s c a le s.

E v e n th e n , in so m e c a s e s t h e c o n d itio n fo r p a in tin g w a s d e c id e d ly u n s a t is f a c t o r y . T h is e m p h a s iz e s th e im p o r t a n c e o f u s in g in t h e first p la c e , a p a in t w h ic h , u p o n d is in t e g r a t io n , w ill p re s e n t a p ro p e r s u r fa c e fo r

c lo s e ly e n o u g h c h a r a c t e r is tic t o w a r r a n t a cla ssifica ­ tio n a c c o r d in g to th e t y p e o f d is in te g r a tio n . The p a in t s fo r P a n e ls N o s . 3 a n d 11 c a rr ie d , in ad d ition t o th e f a t t y a c id , a sm a ll a m o u n t o f c e m e n t a s a con­

s t it u e n t o f th e p ig m e n t. W h ile th e c o llo id a l silica fo r m e d in t h is w a y m a y h a v e b e en e ffic ie n t in sealing t h e p o re s o f th e c o n c r e te , th e f a t t y a c id e v id e n tly a ffe c te d t h e film , w h o se e a r ly d is in te g r a tio n w o u ld not p e r m it th e s e film s to be c la ss e d a s e ffic ie n t p ro te c tio n fo r c o n c r e te s u r fa c e s.

T h e p a in ts o n p a n e ls N o s . 6, 14 , 17 , 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 3 1 a n d 32 d e p e n d fo r th e ir e ffic ie n c y o n th e presence o f a n e u tr a l g u m v a r n is h . T h e s e p a n e ls a ll e x h ib ite d v e r y e a r ly d is in te g r a tio n o f th e c o a te r . T h is dis­

in te g r a t io n w a s , fo r th e m o s t p a r t , c h a r a c t e r iz e d by