Komisja Nauk Towaroznawczych – Nauk o Jakości
przy Oddziale Polskiej Akademii Nauk w Poznaniu
INDEKS ISSN 1733-747XWYDAWCY:
Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny im. K. Pułaskiego ul. Chrobrego 31, 26-600 Radom
TOWAROZNAWCZE
2(5 1)/20 1 7
2 (51)
2017
PROBLEMY JAKOSCI
POLISH JOURNAL OF COMMODITY SCIENCE
T O W AR OZN A W CZE PR OBLEMY JAK OSCI
NAUKI TECHNICZNE NAUKI PRZYRODNICZE
NAUKI EKONOMICZNE
T T
TOWAROZNAWSTWO
2 [51]
2017
Komitet Naukowy/Scientific Committee:
Prof. dr hab. inż. Jerzy Żuchowski, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu – przewodniczący Komitetu Naukowego
Prof. dr Tom Bramorski, University of Wisconsin, Whitewater, USA
Prof. dr Horst Brezinski, Technische Universität-Bergakademie, Freiberg, Niemcy/Uniwersytet Ekono- miczny w Poznaniu
Prof. dr Pasquale Giungato, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Włochy Prof. dr Marcel Mayor, University of Basel, Szwajcaria
Prof. dr Mitsuharu Mitsui, Okayama University, Okayama, Japonia Prof. dr hab. Marian W. Sułek, Instytut Chemii Przemysłowej, Warszawa Prof. dr hab. inż. Ryszard Zieliński, Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Poznaniu Redaktorzy Naczelni/Editors in Chief:
Dr hab. inż. Tomasz Wasilewski, prof. UTH, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Prof. dr hab. inż. Ryszard Zieliński, Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Poznaniu
Redaktorzy Tematyczni/Subject Editors:
Towaroznawstwo kosmetyków i produktów chemii gospodarczej – dr hab. inż. Tomasz Wasilewski, prof. UTH
Towaroznawstwo opakowań – prof. dr hab. Małgorzata Lisińska-Kuśnierz Towaroznawstwo przemysłowe – prof. dr hab. inż. Ryszard Zieliński Towaroznawstwo żywności – prof. dr hab. Maria Śmiechowska Zarządzanie jakością – prof. dr hab. inż. Jerzy Żuchowski
Towaroznawstwo wyrobów tekstylnych i odzieżowych, bezpieczeństwo produktów nieżywnościowych – dr hab. inż. Renata Salerno-Kochan, prof. nadzw. UE
Redaktor Statystyczny/Statistical Editor:
Dr hab. Andrzej Sokołowski, prof. UEK Komitet Redakcyjny/Editorial Board:
Dr Anita Bocho-Janiszewska, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Prof. dr Pasquale Giungato, Uniwersytet w Bari, “Aldo Moro”
Dr inż. Emilia Klimaszewska, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Dr hab. Małgorzata Lotko, Prof. Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Dr inż. Anna Małysa, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu
Dr inż. Małgorzata Zięba, Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny w Radomiu Adres Komitetu Redakcyjnego
Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny, ul. Chrobrego 27, 26-600 Radom, tel. (48) 361-75-39; e-mail: tpj@uthrad.pl, www.tpj.uniwersytetradom.pl
Redakcja czasopisma „Towaroznawcze Problemy Jakości” informuje, że formą referencyjną czasopisma jest wersja drukowana.
Publikacje można nadsyłać na adres Komitetu Redakcyjnego ISSN 1733-747X
Wydawcy:
Uniwersytet Technologiczno-Humanistyczny im. K. Pułaskiego, ul. Malczewskiego 29, 26-600 Radom
Instytut Technologii Eksploatacji – PIB, ul. K. Pułaskiego 6/10, 26-600 Radom Opracowanie wydawnicze: Joanna Iwanowska, Iwona Nitek
Wydawnictwo
ul. Malczewskiego 20A, 26-600 Radom, tel. centr. (48) 361-70-33, fax (48) 361-70-34 e-mail: przypis@poczta.onet.pl http://www.uniwersytetradom.pl
Wydawnictwo Naukowe Instytutu Technologii Eksploatacji – PIB
ul. K. Pułaskiego 6/10, 26-600 Radom, tel. centr. (48) 364-42-41, fax (48) 364-47-65 e-mail: instytut@itee.radom.pl http://www.itee.radom.pl
TOWAROZNAWCZE PROBLEMY JAKOŚCI 2(51)/2017
Spis treści
Przedmowa ... 7 Wioletta Suszek: Zastosowanie zintegrowanej metody Kano i Servqual
do badania oczekiwań studentów względem jakości usługi edukacyjnej ... 13 Marcin Pigłowski: Źywność niebezpieczna z krajów zachodniej i wschodniej
Unii Europejskiej w Systemie Szybkiego Ostrzegania o Niebezpiecznych
Produktach Żywnościowych ... 22 Bożena Borycka, Jerzy Borycki:Etykietowanie opakowań chemikaliów
jako instrument zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa chemicznego... 33 Aleksandra Heimowska, Joanna Brzeska, Magda Morawska, Martyna Górska:
Degradacja polimerowego materiału protetycznego w modelowych płynach
ustrojowych ... 45 Wojciech Sawicki: Identyfikacja koniny w produktach mięsnych dostępnych
na polskim rynku ... 58 Monika Modzelewska-Kapituła, Ryszard Żywica: Porównanie jakości
sensorycznej wzbogaconych w kwasy omega-3 i konwencjonalnych jaj
i parówek ... 67 Marta Biegańska: Monitorowanie okresu trwałości żywności z wykorzystaniem
wskaźników czasu i temperatury (TTI) do zastosowania w opakowaniach
inteligentnych ... 75 Agnieszka Palka: Preferencje konsumenckie dotyczące lodów impulsowych... 86 Kamila Kotarska, Daria Wieczorek, Katarzyna Wybieralska: Związki fenolowe w ekstraktach owoców jagodowych ... 94 Dorota Derewiaka, Angelika Welenc, Beata Drużyńska, Marta Ciecierska,
Ewa Majewska, Jolanta Kowalska, Rafał Wołosiak: Charakterystyka wybranych bioaktywnych składników występujących w orzechach dostępnych na rynku
polskim ... 103
Paulina Malinowska, Justyna Kiewlicz: Porównanie aktywności
przeciwutleniającej wybranych kosmetycznych ekstraktów z korzeni roślin ... 114 Emilia Klimaszewska, Marta Ogorzałek, Małgorzata Zięba, Anna Małysa,
Sandra Barańska: Wpływ emolientów na właściwości fizykochemiczne i użytkowe oliwek dla dzieci ... 122 Ryszard Zieliński: Obliczanie wartości współczynnika podziału anionowych
i amfoterycznych surfaktantów pomiędzy n-oktanol i wodę ... 132 Małgorzata Kowalska, Magdalena Paździor, Anna Żbikowska: Wpływ
temperatury przechowywania oraz ilości oleju sezamowego na stabilność
emulsji ... 144 Informacje ... 154
Contents
Preface ... 10 Wioletta Suszek: Application of integrated methods of Servqual and Kano
to study the expectations of students to regarding the quality of educational
services ... 13 Marcin Pigłowski: Dangerous food from the Western and Eastern European
Union countries in the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed ... 22 Bożena Borycka, Jerzy Borycki:Labelling of chemicals as an instrument
ensuring chemical safety ... 33 Aleksandra Heimowska, Joanna Brzeska, Magda Morawska, Martyna Górska:
Degradation of the polymer prosthetic material in model body fluids ... 45 Wojciech Sawicki: Identification of horse meat in food products in the Polish
Market ... 58 Monika Modzelewska-Kapituła, Ryszard Żywica: Comparison of sensory quality of omega-3 fatty acids enriched and conventional eggs and frankfurters ... 67 Marta Biegańska: Shelf-life monitoring of food using time-temperature
indicators (TTI) for application in intelligent packaging ... 75 Agnieszka Palka: Consumer preferences on impulse ice cream ... 86 Kamila Kotarska, Daria Wieczorek, Katarzyna Wybieralska: Phenolic compounds in berry extracts ... 94 Dorota Derewiaka, Angelika Welenc, Beata Drużyńska, Marta Ciecierska,
Ewa Majewska, Jolanta Kowalska, Rafał Wołosiak: Characterization of bioactive substances and composition of selected nuts available on Polish market ... 103 Paulina Malinowska, Justyna Kiewlicz: Comparison of antioxidant activity
of selected commercial cosmetic plant roots extracts ... 114
Emilia Klimaszewska, Marta Ogorzałek, Małgorzata Zięba, Anna Małysa, Sandra Barańska: Effect of emollient type on physicochemical and functional
properties of baby oils ... 122 Ryszard Zieliński: Computation of the partition coefficient for anionic
and zwitterionic surfactants between n-octanol and water ... 132 Małgorzata Kowalska, Magdalena Paździor, Anna Żbikowska: Influence of
storage temperature and quantities of sesame oil on the stability of the model
emulsion ... 144 Information ... 154
P r z e d m o w a
Zgodnie z przyjętym przez Kolegium Redakcyjne długoterminowym planem wy- dawniczym w pierwszych dniach kwietnia 2017 roku oddajemy do rąk Państwa – naszych czytelników – pięćdziesiąty pierwszy numer kwartalnika Towaroznawcze Problemy Jakości (Polish Journal of Commodity Science). Kontynuując próby rozszerzenia grona naszych czy- telników, wszystkie artykuły publikujemy w angielskiej wersji językowej. Jednocześnie przy- pominamy, że obecnie redakcja kwartalnika przyjmuje do publikacji artykuły przygotowane wyłącznie w języku angielskim. Tak jak poprzednio, każdy artykuł zawiera obszerne stresz- czenie zarówno w języku polskim, jak i angielskim. Streszczenia wszystkich prac prezento- wanych na łamach kwartalnika w obydwu wersjach językowych dostępne są również na stro- nie internetowej naszego czasopisma pod adresem: http://www.tpj.uniwersytetradom.pl. Po- nadto obecnie na stronie internetowej dostępne są w formule open-access pełne wersje wszystkich artykułów opublikowane na łamach naszego czasopisma przed rokiem 2015.
Serię 14 artykułów obecnego wydania naszego czasopisma otwiera praca Suszek dotyczą- ca poznania oczekiwań studentów odnośnie do jakości usługi kształcenia akademickiego.
Badanie przeprowadzono z zastosowaniem kwestionariusza ankiety, zbudowanego z wyko- rzystaniem zintegrowanej metody Kano oraz Servqual. Stwierdzono, że najbardziej wrażliwą cechą usługi edukacyjnej zarówno odnośnie do satysfakcji, jak i niezadowolenia studentów jest zbieżność oferty kształcenia z aktualnymi potrzebami współczesnego rynku pracy.
W kolejnej pracy Pigłowski przedstawia wyniki badań dotyczących czasowej zależności pomiędzy powiadomieniami alarmowymi w Systemie Szybkiego Ostrzegania o Niebezpiecz- nych Produktach Żywnościowych (RASFF) wobec żywności z różnych krajów zarówno spoza UE, jak i krajów UE leżących w zachodniej i wschodniej części Europy. W pracy badano także korelację pomiędzy kontrolami urzędowymi na rynku i powiadomieniami alarmowymi w systemie RASFF w krajach UE. Stwierdzono, że należy zwracać szczególną uwagę na takie kategorie produktów jak: ryby i produkty rybne, materiały do kontaktu z żywnością, zioła i przyprawy korzenne, naturalna woda mineralna, mięso drobiowe i produkty z mięsa drobio- wego. Wśród istotnych kategorii zagrożeń wymieniono: alergeny, metale ciężkie i mikroorga- nizmy patogenne.
Borycka i Borycki omawiają zagadnienie zasad znakowania opakowań tych wszystkich chemikaliów, które zostały zaklasyfikowane jako stwarzające zagrożenia. Do produktów ta- kich należą między innymi niektóre wyroby chemii gospodarczej. W pracy przedstawiono aspekty prawne bezpieczeństwa chemicznego dotyczące etykietowania chemikaliów. Omó- wiono także zasady etykietowania w kontekście pełnienia przez opakowania funkcji informa- cyjnej dla produktów branży chemicznej, co powinno służyć zapewnieniu bezpieczeństwa ich transportowania i użytkowania.
W kolejnej pracy Heimowska i współautorzy badają podatność polimerowego materiału protetycznego zawierającego polimetakrylan metylu na działanie płynów symulujących śro- dowisko panujące w jamie ustnej człowieka. W pracy wykazano, że polimetakrylan metylu jest podatny na degradacyjne działanie stosowanych modelowych płynów ustrojowych.
Tematem przewodnim badań opisywanych w pracy Sawickiego jest wskazanie możliwości zastosowania nowoczesnych technik bazujących na DNA jako źródle informacji w identyfika- cji autentyczności żywności oraz określenie, czy na rynku krajowym występuje problem z dodawaniem niedeklarowanego mięsa konia do produktów mięsnych. W badaniach tych szuka się odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy techniki molekularne mogą być zastosowane w rutyno- wych badaniach kontrolnych w przypadku analizy żywności pochodzenia zwierzęcego. Autor przedstawia wyniki swoich badań w tym zakresie, stosując je do określania zawartości dodat- ku koniny do innych produktów mięsnych.
Modzelewska-Kapituła i Żywica przedstawiają wyniki badań własnych dotyczących jako- ści sensorycznej dostępnych w obrocie towarowym jaj i parówek wzbogaconych w kwasy omega-3 i produktów konwencjonalnych. Produkty tego typu mają dobrze udokumentowane działanie prozdrowotne. Na podstawie przeprowadzonych badań stwierdzono, że chociaż ich jakość sensoryczna była postrzegana pozytywnie, to produkty wzbogacone w kwasy omega-3 były mniej preferowane niż konwencjonalne prawdopodobnie ze względu na ich specyficzny posmak.
Okres trwałości produktu, jego bezpieczeństwo oraz jakość w dużej mierze uzależnione są od czasu i temperatury przechowywania, zwłaszcza w przypadku świeżej i minimalnie prze- tworzonej żywności. W kolejnej pracy Biegańska porusza kwestie związane z pogorszeniem jakości żywności wynikającej z nieprawidłowości w reżimie temperaturowym w łańcuchu dostaw, a także możliwego ich monitorowania przy wykorzystaniu wskaźników czasu i tem- peratury (TTI) do monitorowania okresu trwałości świeżych i minimalnie przetworzonych produktów przechowywanych w warunkach chłodniczych oraz mroźniczych. Praca przedsta- wia także wyniki badań wizualnych zmian zabarwienia wskaźników Monitor MarkTM (3M) w różnych warunkach temperaturowych dla różnych materiałach opakowaniowych stosowa- nych do pakowania żywności.
Chociaż lody stanowią produkty o dużej sezonowości, to ich producenci podejmują wiele działań marketingowych i organizacyjnych mających na celu ograniczenie sezonowości tego produktu. Jednym z przydatnych w tym zakresie działań mogą stanowić badania preferencji konsumentów lodów impulsowych, co stanowi treść artykułu Palki. Na podstawie przeprowa- dzonych badań ankietowych Autorka sugeruje, że lody impulsowe cieszą się największą po- pularnością w sezonie letnim, a czynnikiem decydującym o ich zakupie jest wciąż pogoda.
Tym niemniej jednak konsumenci coraz częściej wybierają nowe, innowacyjne smaki oraz rodzaje lodów i są otwarte na coraz nowsze propozycje w tym zakresie.
W kolejnej pracy Kotarska i współautorki przedstawiają wyniki badań własnych dotyczą- cych właściwości przeciwutleniających ekstraktów otrzymanych z różnych owoców jagodo- wych takich jak aronia, borówka amerykańska, czarna porzeczka, czerwona porzeczka, jagody Goji, malina i rokitnik. Stwierdzono, że rodzaj zastosowanego rozpuszczalnika oraz czas eks- trakcji w znaczący sposób wpływa na zawartość związków przeciwutleniających w otrzyma- nych ekstraktach.
Derewiaka i współautorzy przedstawiają wyniki badań własnych dotyczących wybranych składników bioaktywnych występujących w orzechach laskowych, ziemnych, włoskich, pista- cjowych i nerkowca. We wszystkich badanych orzechach stwierdzono wysoką zawartość kwasów nienasyconych, głównie jednonienasyconych. Wykazano, że spośród steroli w bada- nych orzechach dominuje β-sitosterol, a orzechy włoskie i laskowe charakteryzują się najwyż- szą zawartością związków polifenolowych.
W kolejnej pracy Malinowska i Kiewlicz przedstawiają wyniki badań własnych dotyczą- cych zawartości związków polifenolowych oraz aktywności przeciwutleniającej trzech han- dlowych kosmetycznych ekstraktów z korzeni takich roślin jak: lukrecja gładka, czarci pazur i ratania. Na podstawie analizy wyników przeprowadzonych badań stwierdzono, że spośród badanych ekstraktów stosowanych w produktach kosmetycznych najwyższą zawartością związków polifenolowych charakteryzują się ekstrakty z lukrecji gładkiej.
Zagadnienie zdolności nawilżających oliwek dla dzieci stanowi przedmiot badań Klima- szewskiej i współautorek. W pracy omówiono wyniki badania wpływu rodzaju emolientów na właściwości fizykochemiczne i użytkowe oliwek dla dzieci. Wykazano, że dodatek emolien- tów w stężeniu 10% wag. do oliwek nie wpływa znacząco na ich lepkość kinematyczną oraz gęstość względem receptury bazowej. W badaniach z zastosowaniem skóry bydlęcej stwier- dzono, że dodatek niektórych emolientów do oliwek dla dzieci poprawia połysk skóry w po- równaniu z olejem parafinowym.
Prognozowanie toksyczności surfaktantów stanowi jedno z wyzwań dotyczących jakości surowców kosmetycznych i farmaceutycznych. Z literatury wiadomo, że toksyczność jest liniową funkcją wartości współczynnika podziału, którego wyznaczanie na drodze doświad- czalnej jest żmudne i bardzo trudne zwłaszcza dla surfaktantów. Zieliński przedstawia możli- wości przewidywania wartości współczynnika podziału dla anionowych i amfoterycznych surfaktantów w modelowym układzie: n-oktanol–woda. Opisano szczegółowo procedurę obliczania tej wielkości opracowaną na podstawie analizy dostępnych danych literaturowych i wyników badań własnych autora. W odróżnieniu od wyników uzyskiwanych za pomocą popularnych programów komputerowych proponowana metoda pozwala na uzyskanie dobrej zgodności z danymi doświadczalnymi.
W ostatniej pracy Kowalska i współautorki przedstawiają wyniki badań wpływa tempera- tury przechowywania oraz ilości oleju sezamowego na stabilność wytworzonych emulsji.
W badaniach zastosowano następujące techniki: określenie średniej wielkości cząstek emulsji w czasie, badanie morfologii emulsji oraz przeprowadzono test stabilności – Turbiscan test.
Zastosowane metody pozwoliły na określenie składu emulsji zawierających olej sezamowy o optymalnej stabilności.
Pięćdziesiąty pierwszy numer naszego kwartalnika zamyka stała rubryka „Informacje TPJ”. Zamieszczono w niej informacje o osobach, które w 2016 roku uzyskały stopień doktora habilitowanego nauk ekonomicznych w zakresie towaroznawstwa.
Życzę Państwu przyjemnej lektury.
Redaktor TPJ
prof. dr hab. inż. Ryszard Zieliński
P r e f a c e
According to the long-term plan accepted by the Editorial Board, in the first days of April 2017 we present to our readers the 51st issue of the Polish Journal of Commodity Science.
Continuing the efforts to widen the group of our readers all the papers are published in English. We would like to remind that now, only papers written in English are accepted by the editors. As before, each paper contains a wide summary in both Polish and English. The summaries in both language versions of all the works published one can find on our web page http://www.tpj.uniwersytetradom.pl. Moreover, at the web page an open-access to all the papers published before 2015 is offered.
A series of 14 papers in the current issue of our journal is opened by Suszek work on understanding students' expectations regarding the quality of academic education services. The study was conducted using a questionnaire, which was built using an integrated method of Kano and Servqual. It was found that the most sensitive feature of educational services, with respect to satisfaction and dissatisfaction of students, was the convergence of the educational offer to the current needs of the labor market.
In the next paper Pigłowski presents the results of research on the differences in the number of emergency notifications to the Rapid Alert System for Food (RASFF) between EU and non-EU countries, as well as between the EU countries lying in the western and eastern parts of Europe. The correlation between the official controls on the market, and alarm notifications in RASFF in EU countries was investigated. It was found that special attention to such product categories as fish and fish products, materials contacting food, herbs and spices, natural mineral water, poultry meat and poultry meat products should be paid. Among the major threats allergens, heavy metals and pathogenic microorganisms were listed.
Borycka and Borycki discuss the issue of rules for marking packages of all these chemicals that are classified as posing threats. Such products include certain household chemicals. The paper presents the legal aspects of labeling chemicals related to chemical safety. Also the rules of labeling in the context of informative function were discussed. They should ensure the safety of the transportation and use of these chemicals.
In the next work Heimowska et al. examine the susceptibility of the polymer prosthetic material containing poly(methyl methacrylate) to liquids simulating the environment prevailing in the human oral cavity. It was proved that poly(methyl methacrylate) was susceptible to degradative effect of the body fluids used.
The subject of the research described in the paper by Sawicki is an indication of the possibility of applying modern DNA – based techniques as a source of information to identify the authenticity of food and to determine if there is a problem with adding non-declared horse meat to meat products. Sawicki looks for answers to the question whether molecular techniques can be used in routine control tests for the analysis of food of animal origin.
Moreover, the author presents the results of the research in this area and applies them to determine the content of horse meat to other meat products.
Modzelewska-Kapituła and Żywica present the results of their research on the sensory quality of eggs and sausages enriched in omega-3 and conventional products available in the market. Products of this type reveal well-documented health-promoting effects. Based on the survey, it was found that even though their sensory quality was seen positively, the products enriched with omega-3 were less preferable than conventional probably due to their specific flavor.
Shelf life, safety and quality of the product largely depend on temperature and time of storage, particularly in the case of fresh and minimally processed food. In the next work Biegańska raises issues related to the deterioration of the quality of food resulting from irregularities in the temperature regime in the supply chain, as well as indicators of time and temperature (TTI) to monitor the shelf life of fresh and minimally processed products stored under refrigeration and freezing. The paper presents the results of visual assessment of the color change of Monitor MarkTM (3M) indicators under different temperature conditions for various packaging materials used for packaging foods.
Although ice cream is a product with high seasonality, their manufacturers take a lot of marketing and organizational measures to reduce its seasonality. Research on consumers preferences of impulse ice creamis the subject of the article by Palka. On the basis of the survey the Author suggests that the impulse ice cream is most popular during summers, a decisive factor in their purchase is still the weather. Nevertheless, consumers are increasingly opting for new, innovative flavors and types of ice cream and are open to more and more proposals.
In the next paper Kotarska et al. present the results of research on the antioxidant properties of extracts from various berries such as aronia, blueberry, black currant, red currant, goji berries, raspberry and sea buckthorn. It was concludedthat the type of solvent used and the time of extraction significantly affected the content of antioxidant compounds in the extracts obtained.
Derewiaka et al. present the results of their research on selected bioactive components present in hazelnuts, walnuts, peanuts, pistachios and cashew nuts. In all the nuts tested a high content of unsaturated fatty acids, mainly monounsaturated was confirmed. It was shown that beta-sitosterol was a dominating sterol, while walnuts and hazelnuts could be characterized by the highest content of polyphenolic compounds.
In the consecutive work Malinowska and Kiewlicz discuss the results of research on the content of polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of three commercial cosmetic extracts from the roots of plants such as liquorice, devil's claw and ratania. It was discovered that the highest content of polyphenolic compounds characterized the extracts of licorice.
The issue of the moisturizing ability of baby oils is the subject of research of Klimaszewska et al. The effect of emollient type on physicochemical and functional properties of baby oils was discussed. It was shown that the addition of emollients at the concentration of 10% wt. did not affect the kinematic viscosity and density of oils significantly, as compared to the base recipe. Additionally, it was found that the introduction of certain emollients to baby oils improved the gloss level of the natural cattle skin, as compared to paraffin oil.
Prediction of surfactants toxicity is a challenge for the quality of cosmetic and pharmaceutical materials. From the literature it is known that toxicity is a linear function of the partition coefficient whose setting is experimentally very tedious and difficult – especially for surfactants. Zielinski presents the possibility of predicting the partition coefficient for the anionic and amphoteric surfactants in a model system: n-octanol – water. The procedure of calculation of the quantity was described on the basis of literature data and Author's own research. In contrast to the results obtained using popular computer programs, the method proposed allows to obtain a good fit to experimental data.
In the last paper Kowalska et al. present the results of testing the impact of storage temperature and quantity of sesame oil on the stability of the emulsion produced. The following techniques were used: determination the average particle size of the emulsion over time, emulsion morphology analysis and emulsion stability test – Turbiscan. The techniques used allowed to determine the composition of emulsions containing sesame oil for optimum stability.
The 51st issue of the quarterly is closed with the regular column TPJ Announcements. It contains information on scientists who received their habilitation degree in the field of commodity science in 2017.
I wish you a nice reading.
PJCS Editor
Prof. dr hab. inż. Ryszard Zieliński
Wioletta SUSZEK Gdynia Maritime University
Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Quality Science Department of Economics Services
Application of integrated methods of Servqual and Kano to study the expectations of students to regarding
the quality of educational services
DOI: 10.19202/j.cs.2017.02.01
Key words: the quality of educational services, expectations of stakeholders of the university, integration of methods of Kano and Servqual.
Słowa kluczowe: jakość usługi edukacyjnej, oczekiwania interesariuszy uczelni wyższej, zintegrowanie metody Kano i Servqual.
1. Introduction
The development of the market of educational services at the academic level augments the interest in their quality in the context of building a competitive advantage of universities. Recognizing the university stakeholders’ expectations is an important factor in improving the quality of educational services, thus building that advantage. It should be noted, however, that despite the great interest in the quality of
educational services on the part of scientists, the problem to unambiguously define this quality still remains. Difficulties in defining the quality of educational services may be due to its specificity. The process of providing the service is a long- term engagement, during which the criteria for assessing the quality change, resulting from the maturity of customers and their experience [1]. However, ”the task of the university should be to meet the needs of students in order to achieve higher than average performance of the Services by the continued development of such services, which provide the purchaser – the student a product of higher quality than the competition” [2].
Adapting to the needs and expectations of students should therefore be continuous and represents a considerable challenge for universities.
Considering all mentioned aspects, the aim of the work has adopted the diagnosis of the analysis of the expectations of specific groups of stakeholders – students, as to the quality of an educational service rendered by the Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Quality Science of Gdynia Maritime University. The re- search problem defined by formulating the question: How to classify the expectations of stakeholders – students of first degree Faculty of Commodities, in terms of the quality of an educational service rendered by the Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Quality Science? The study was conducted using a questionnaire built on the basis of an integrated method of Kano and Servqual.
2. Methodology of research
Both methods of Kano and Servqual are known in the scientific community and used as research of customer satisfaction with the quality of services and expectations of that quality [3, 4]. In the literature you will also find effective attempt to integrate these methods. The basis of the model of Kano is the assumption “that the features of a particular product, including services, have a multidimensional character and to varying degrees affect the level of customer satisfaction. Some of the features of the service, according to the creator of the method, Noriaki Kano, have an impact primarily on the creation of satisfaction, while others contribute to the induction of discontent” [4]. The creator of the method has divided the qualitative characteristics of the products into two groups: basic and extra. A detailed breakdown is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of the qualitative characteristics of products by Kano Tabela 1. Charakterystyka cech jakościowych produktów według Kano
Group Symbol / Name
features Description of requirement
Influence:
S – satisfaction D – dissatisfaction When the
feature is When the feature is not
basic
must be M /
This is a very important feature due to the development of customer satisfaction even though he does not seem to realize this; the occurrence of this characteristic is obvious
to the customer.
No reaction D
more is better O /
This is a group of requirements which the customer expects, desires; the more of
them the better. S D
attractive A /
The demands which the client does not expect, but they impress him when present,
which has a large impact on the growth of satisfaction,
S No reaction
extra
indifferent I /
The demands not relevant to the customer, either their presence or absence does not
affect the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction,
No reaction No reaction
questionable Q /
These features are difficult to define, without being able to unambiguously determine the effect both now and the in
the future.
Undefined Undefined
reverse R /
The lack of features is preferred by the customer, however when this feature is present it does not raise customer satis-
faction,
D S
Source: own study based on: Wiśniewska M., 2009. Rozpoznanie i zaspokojenie wymagań klienta z wykorzystaniem modelu Kano, ”Problemy Jakości” nr 4.[3], and Gupta P., R.K. Srivastava, 2012. Integrating SERVQUAL and Kano Model into QFD for Customer Satisfaction of the Hotel Service Industry, [w:] MIT International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 2, No 1, pp. 45-54 [5].
To get the information about customer expectations regarding the quality of services there should be research carried out on the basis of a specially prepared questionnaire. It allows the respondent to determine their feelings, if a feature is present, or if it is not, according to the following scale:
• I like it that way,
• It must be that way,
• I am neutral,
• I can live with it,
• I dislike it that way.
Integrating the methods of Kano and Servqual enables one to also obtain information about how to classify the customers' requirements in different dimensions of quality of services. The dimensions of the method Servqual are described by the following expressions:
• materiality – understood as office decor, hardware and devices used during the provision of services but also the appearance of the staff and the means of communication
• reliability – the ability to perform the promised services accurately and dependably
• responsiveness – the willingness to help customers and provide them with prompt service
• assurance – understood as knowledge and competence of the staff, kindness and politeness, the ability to create an atmosphere of trust and confidence, professionalism and credibility,
• empathy – understood as customer care, individual approach and the communication skills [6].
The integration of these two methods is important because of the scope of information that can be obtained, and, in particular, the possibility of identifying features affecting the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction in various dimensions of services.
The objective of the pilot research was to find out the expectations of the students of the first degree in commodity regarding the quality of educational services provided by the Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Quality Science in Gdynia Maritime University. The research problem was determined by formulating the question: How to classify the expectations of stakeholders – students of the degree of the commodity, the quality of educational services provided by the Department of Business Administration and Commodity? The study was conducted using a questionnaire built on the basis of an integrated method of Kano and Ser- vqual. Service features defined for the individual dimensions Servqual, ie. materiality, relia- bility / credibility, responsiveness, assurance and empathy with the use of heuristic methods – brainstorming with representatives of various stakeholder groups in December 2015. 26 were selected features of educational services, of which 7 for measuring materiality, 4 for measuring the speed of response, and 5 for dimensions: reliability, assurance and empathy.
Then an analysis of the content of the questionnaire was conducted and confirmed the compatibility of criteria defined in the various dimensions of quality of academic services.
Pilot studies – appropriately conducted in February 2016. The population studied consisted of students of first degree faculty of commodities. The sampling frame is based on data obtained from the e-Dean's Office on 31 January 2016. Sampling was not probabilistic. At this stage, a questionnaire was sent to the students of the last semester. The study included 12%
aforementioned population (37 respondents). Analysis of the results was based on the method of Kano. This allowed to select features of the service a high sensitivity, showing their effect on the overall resolution of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the quality of education services for the academic faculty of commodities.
3. Theory
3.1. The quality of educational services
Quality of services has been the interest of scientists for many years. Researchers’ issues attempt to define the specificities of those services. Quality usually is understood as:
compliance with the requirements of the users, the degree of fulfillment of customer expectations or the general features and characteristics of the product and services with the ability to satisfy, to recognize and estimate needs (ISO 9000), or “dazzle the client” (in the Japanese concepts)” [7]. Transferring this understanding of quality to the area of the quality of
educational services should take into account all the elements (can be use the dimensions applied in the method Servqual: materiality, reliability, ability to respond quickly, certainty and empathy – as was done during of this study.) that create the quality and the needs participating in the provision of services of stakeholders – both internal and external.
Scientists examining the issues of quality in education services notice the difficulty in defining it. [8, 9]. As indicated, however, by E. Wnuk-Lipińska there is a “consensus on the question of that the quality of in higher education means adjustment to the purpose / responding to the purpose”. These objectives usually are determined using criteria relating to the efficiency of financial, academic standards, social utility” [10].
According to the definition of quality contained in ISO 9000: 2000 – the basis for measuring the quality of educational services are the expectations of university clients and the verification of these expectations in the course of the teaching process. Thereby customer satisfaction, understood as the ”the perception of the customer relating to the extent to which their requirements have been fulfilled” or in other words ”a reflection of the extent to which the total product offered by the organization satisfies the set of his requirements” – becomes one of the main sources of information supporting decision-making process in the organization” [11].
As noted by T. Wawak ”educational services and research services provided by the universities, from the perspective of laws of the market, are the same products as banking and insurance” [12]. In the face of undoubtedly competitive market of academic training, the adjustment of the university to the laws of the market seems to be a necessary thing.
Meanwhile, ”observing universities, you may notice the widespread underestimation of the role of university staff and students themselves as potential creators of marketing strategy of higher education.
Managers in universities probably do not know or do not appreciate the basic principles of marketing in service industries, and these are educational services, in accordance with which:
• evaluated by customers are the activities undertaken by employees in the organization service,
• these activities are not possible to monitor and control continuously therefore their usability for purchasers depends largely on the attitude and motivation of employees,
• attitude and motivation of the staff should be consciously shaped by making deliberate efforts in the field of so-called internal marketing,
• most of the university staff is the ”first line” staff contacting the students every day, they have the personal observations on the functioning of the organization, and probably could become a source of many ideas, relating both to the operational activities of the school and its strategy” [1].
In light of the above, identifying the expectations not only of this specific group of stakeholders – students, but also the expectations of the staff – teaching staff and supporting the education process or to potential employers, seems to be important in the design of educational services and improving their quality. For the purposes of this study I will present the results of students' expectations regarding the quality of educational service provided to Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Quality Science of Gdynia Maritime University.
3.2. Students as a specific group of stakeholders university
The stakeholders of the university can be divided in the classic way into internal and external. In the group of internal stakeholders there are: senior management, research and teaching staff, staff supporting the teaching process (technical and engineering and administrative assistance) and the students. The group of external stakeholders includes the candidates, supervising and legislative institutions and employers and graduates. As noted by J. Mazur ”group for whom the services are provided directly, are students of various years,
modes and types of studies” [1]. Identifying the needs of this group of stakeholders is important, especially in the context of building a competitive advantage, but also very difficult. To university are coming candidates with very varied levels of knowledge, skills and competences acquired at a lower stage of education, and differentiated expectations and ambitions. In addition, changed is the teacher – student relationship. As indicated by A. Jonas academic staff ”loses the position of autonomic infallible expert.” Student while ”gaining the right to freely choose services and information needed to make a rational choice” [13]. These relationships are based on market mechanisms and principles.
During the providing of the educational service students' expectations can change considerably as a consequence of their experience and development, which is the result of gaining knowledge and skills. ”Some authors are even of the opinion that the students are not able to determine their own long-term needs, perceived in the context of the skills needed for employment” [1]. It is difficult to agree to such generalization. First of all, it somewhat undermines the meaning of the participation of stakeholders in improving the quality of educational services. In addition, the ability to identify the needs in the context of educational services, the aim of which is to prepare to perform a specific profession, may have a close relationship with individual student's level of consciousness. There will be some for whom to specify expectations about the quality of educational service means to satisfy the current needs arising from a course of study, but also some for whom the opportunity to acquire specific skills will be a key factor in the choice of study and the determinant of satisfaction.
As indicated by Rahimi H ”the concept of student satisfaction has attracted much attention in the recent years and has become one of the major goals of all educational institutions. The students’ satisfaction strongly depends on the efforts regarding the quality of the provided services. Therefore, HEIs should listen to and satisfy their students” [14]. Therefore we should check the expectations of stakeholders and carry out insightful analysis of their requirements in terms of quality of educational services.
4 . The results of the study and discussion
Because of the volume of this study, presented below are selected the most significant results of the audit. Table 2 indicates features of educational services identified by the students of first degree faculty of science of commodities in each category requirements.
Analysis of the results of the study did not give a clear answer to which category requirements assimilated to the following features should belong (they received the same number of indications for both the ”M-basic” and ”O-functional”):
(25) availability of teaching staff during the consultation;
(11) realization of teaching according to the program of education;
(16) timely handling student affairs in the dean's office.
Another feature, which is not classified is (10) the opportunity of a professional practice in reputable companies, also abroad. This feature has obtained the same number of indications from the respondents for both the ”A-attractive” and the ”O-functional”.
The indicator of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, which speaks of the sensitivity features in case of the presence or absence shows that the qualities that cause the greatest degree of dissatisfaction in the absence of are:
• topicality communicated knowledge and its practical dimension;
• educational offer adequate for the needs of the labor market;,
• level of knowledge of the university teachers;
• competences of teaching staff.
Table 2. Characteristics of educational services – identification requirements by category dominant features the M / O / A / I
Tabela 2. Cechy usługi edukacyjnej – identyfikacja wymagań wg kategorii cech dominujących M/O/A/I Category
requirements ID demands (…) and feature of educational services
must be M /
(8) topicality of the passed knowledge and its practical dimension;
(2) modern equipment of teaching rooms;
(19) competences of teaching staff;
(14) a timely realization of teaching activities;;
(1) aesthetic and functional infrastructure of campus, including dormitories;
(20) the responsibility of teaching and administrative staff for the substantive quality of the passed knowledge and information;
(15) willingness to help students by the employees of the Dean's Office
more is better O /
(9) educational offer adequate for the needs of the labor market;
(6) functional website and virtual dean's office;
(17) level of knowledge of the university teachers;
(3) the right amount and the availability of the volumes in the library;
(5) varied menu, palatability of meals, meal prices;
(12) transparent rules and procedures;
(13) willingness to help students by academic teachers;
(22) personalized approach to students.
attractive A /
(4) places of recreation and leisure, eg .: a student club, swimming pool, gym, etc .;
(24) the possibility of an individual course of study
(21) creating an atmosphere of goodwill and trust in the university teacher – student relationship;
(23) kindness during the provision of services by the dean's office, and engineering and technical staff;
(26) the possibility of participation of stakeholders in the development of programs of study.
indifferent I / (18) The scientific activity of academic teachers;
(7) well-kept and tidy-looking staff.
Source: Authors' own results/Źródło: opracowanie własne.
The highest satisfaction rate in the case of acquired characteristics:
• places of recreation and leisure,
• and, what deserves special attention – educational offer adequate for the needs of the labor market;
Thus, the usefulness of learning outcomes achieved in their future careers is, for students, the most sensitive feature of the quality of service conditions in the perception of that quality.
It also shows that students are aware of their expectations also in the long-term dimension.
The analysis of the results obtained for the individual dimensions of service, consistent with Servqual, allowed the emergence of characteristics for which vulnerability of indicators in connection with their failure to meet were the highest. These are:
• measuring materiality – modern equipment of classrooms, functional website and virtual dean's office;
• measuring reliability / reliability – offer adequate training in relation to labor market needs and current knowledge transfer and its practical dimension;
• measuring responsiveness – timely implementation of teaching;
• measuring confidence – the knowledge of the teachers in the area lined object;
• measuring empathy – the availability of teaching staff in the consultation.
As indicated in this paper a clear definition, explanation what is the quality of educational services poses some difficulties. They arise as to the specifics of educational services, such as the fact that students are the clients – the direct recipients of services as well as co-creators of its final effect. Some researchers’ of problems of the quality educational services provided by
Fig. 1. Distribution of the level of satisfaction for individual requirements Source: own study.
Rys. 1. Rozkład poziomu satysfakcji i niezadowolenia dla poszczególnych wymagań Źródło: opracowanie własne.
the universities are of the opinion that students – as this specific group of stakeholders are not able to determine their long-term needs and expectations. It is difficult, however, to agree with that posed generalization, which undermines the idea of improving the quality of educational services based on the needs of customers. The ability to identify the needs in the context of educational services, the aim of which is to prepare to perform a specific profession may have a close relationship with the individual level of consciousness of the student. There will be, therefore, an entity for which to clarify the expectations of the quality of educational services means to meet the current needs arising from a course of study, but also the individuals for whom the opportunity to acquire specific skills will be a key factor in the selection of studies and determinant of satisfaction. The results of this pilot study indicates that students' expectations defined for measuring reliability/robustness are associated with the offer of training, which they believe should be adequate in relation to labor market needs and timeliness of provided knowledge and its practical dimension. So certain requirements can testify to perspective thinking and desire to get an education that guarantees future employment. It is therefore essential to systematically investigate the expectations of stakeholders and carry out in-depth analysis of their requirements of the quality educational services.
5. Conclusions
These results lead to the conclusion that the essential features of the service for respondents academic training, influencing the perception of that quality are related in particular to the quality functional. Service features that determine the achievement of learning outcomes relevant to the expectations of the labor market affect the greatest level of dissatisfaction in their absence. This may indicate a higher than researchers assume issues, the level of awareness of students – especially the higher years of study, regarding the long-term
needs and expectations Thus, whereas building a qualitative competitive advantage in the first place should ensure a high level of satisfaction in the most sensitive areas.
6. References
[1] Mazur J. (2006) Dylematy marketingu szkół wyższych, [w:] Nowaczyk G., Lisiecki P.
(red.) Marketingowe zarządzanie uczelnią wyższą. Wydawnictwo WSB, Poznań, s. 24–
–29.
[2] Lambin J.J. (2001) Strategiczne zarządzanie marketingowe. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, s. 31, [after:] Seredocha I. (2006). Potrzeba planowania strategicznego w usługach edukacyjnych, [in:] Nowaczyk G., Lisiecki P. (red.) Marketingowe zarządzanie uczelnią wyższą. Wydawnictwo WSB, Poznań, s. 61.
[3] Wiśniewska M. (2009) Rozpoznanie i zaspokojenie wymagań klienta z wykorzystaniem modelu Kano. Problemy Jakości, 4, 6–10.
[4] Malinowska E., Wiśniewska M., Grudowski P. (2014) Pomiar jakości usługi edukacyjnej z wykorzystaniem metody Kano, [w:] Pluta-Olearnik M., Wrona S. (red.) Wybrane uwarunkowania rozwoju usług. Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocławiu nr 354, Wrocław, s. 236–238.
[5] Gupta P., Srivastava R.K. (2012) Integrating SERVQUAL and Kano model into QFD for customer satisfaction of the hotel service industry. MIT International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2, (1), 45–54.
[6] Pacana A. (2010) Ocena jakości dydaktyki metodą Servqual. Zeszyty Naukowe Poli- techniki Rzeszowskiej, nr 275, p. 51.
[7] Łunarski J. (2012) Zarządzanie jakością. Standardy i zasady. Wydawnictwo Naukowo- -Techniczne, Warszawa.
[8] Radkowska J., Stefaniak J. (2006) Jakość w usługach edukacyjnych, [w:] Nowaczyk G., Lisiecki P. (red.) Marketingowe zarządzanie uczelnią wyższą. Wydawnictwo WSB, Poznań, pp. 192–193.
[9] Wójcicka M. (1997) Zewnętrzne i wewnętrzne systemy zapewniania jakości kształcenia [in:] Wójcicka M. (red.) Zapewnianie jakości kształcenia. Wprowadzenie do samooceny.
Wydawnictwo Instytutu Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa.
[10] Wnuk-Lipińska E. (1999) Innowacyjność a konserwatyzm, Uczelnie polskie w obliczu zmian społecznych. Centrum Badań Polityki Naukowej i Szkolnictwa Wyższego Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Warszawa.
[11] Hill N., Alexander J. (2003) Pomiar satysfakcji i lojalności klientów. Oficyna Ekono- miczna, Kraków.
[12] Wawak T. (2012) Jakość zarządzania w szkołach wyższych. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego w Krakowie, Kraków.
[13] Jonas A. (2006) Kryteria oceny przez studentów jakości usług edukacyjnych szkół wyższych. Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Ekonomicznej w Krakowie, nr 729, s. 143.
[14] Rahimi H., Kavosi Z., Qanbari P., Heidary L. (2015) Determinants of educational service quality in Shiraz University of Medical Sciences using Servqual and Kano models.
Journal of Health Management & Informatics, 2 (3) 74–81.
Summary
The increase of competitiveness in the market of educational services causes the increase of activity in the area of improving the quality of both public universities and private.
Recognizing the University stakeholders' expectations is an important factor in improving the quality of educational services, thus building a qualitative competitive advantage. The aim of the pilot studies was to identify the expectations of students of the first degree regarding the
quality of services of academic training provided by the Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Quality Science at Maritime Academy in Gdynia. The study was conducted using a questionnaire, which was built on the basis of an integrated method of Kano and Servqual.
The study involved 12% of the student population at aforementioned field of study.
Analysis of the results is based on the method of Kano. The results of the study indicate that the most sensitive feature of the service, both in terms of satisfaction and dissatisfaction is the adequacyof education services to the needs of the labour market. Thus, the usefulness of learning outcomes in their future careers is a determining feature for students in the perception of that particular quality. It also shows that students are aware of their expectations also in the long-term dimension.
Wioletta SUSZEK
Akademia Morska w Gdyni, Wydział Przedsiębiorczości i Towaroznawstwa, Katedra Ekonomiki Usług
ZASTOSOWANIE ZINTEGROWANEJ METODY KANO I SERVQUAL DO BADANIA OCZEKIWAŃ STUDENTÓW WZGLĘDEM JAKOŚCI USŁUGI
EDUKACYJNEJ Streszczenie
Wzrost konkurencyjności na rynku usług edukacyjnych skłania do zwiększenia aktywności w obszarze doskonalenia jakości zarówno uczelnie publiczne, jak i niepubliczne. Rozpoznanie oczekiwań interesariuszy uczelni wyższej to jeden z istotnych czynników doskonalenia jako- ści usług edukacyjnych, a tym samym budowania jakościowej przewagi konkurencyjnej. Ce- lem, podjętych w tym obszarze badań pilotażowych było poznanie oczekiwań studentów pierwszego stopnia na kierunku towaroznawstwo odnośnie do jakości usługi kształcenia aka- demickiego świadczonej przez Wydział Przedsiębiorczości i Towaroznawstwa Akademii Morskiej w Gdyni. Badanie przeprowadzono z zastosowaniem kwestionariusza ankiety, zbu- dowanego na podstawie zintegrowanej metody Kano oraz Servqual.
W badaniu uczestniczyło 12% populacji studentów ww. kierunku studiów. Analizę wyni- ków oparto o metodykę Kano. Wyniki uzyskane w badaniu wskazują, iż najbardziej wrażliwą cechą usługi zarówno w kontekście satysfakcji, jak i niezadowolenia jest: oferta kształcenia adekwatna w stosunku do potrzeb rynku pracy. Zatem przydatność uzyskanych efektów kształcenia w przyszłej pracy zawodowej jest dla studentów cechą warunkującą postrzeganie tejże jakości. Wskazuje to również, iż studenci są świadomi swoich oczekiwań także w wy- miarze długofalowym.
M.Sc. Wioletta SUSZEK Gdynia Maritime University
Faculty of Entrepreneurship and Quality Science Department of Economics Services
ul. Morska 81-85, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland e-mail: w.suszek@wpit.am.gdynia.pl
Marcin PIGŁOWSKI Gdynia Maritime University
Faculty of Business Administration and Commodity Sciences Department of Commodity and Quality Science
Dangerous food from the Western and Eastern European
Union countries in the Rapid Alert
System for Food and Feed
DOI: 10.19202/j.cs.2017.02.02
Key words: food safety, RASFF, alert notifications, correlation analysis.
Słowa kluczowe: bezpieczeństwo żywności, RASFF, powiadomie- nia alarmowe, analiza korelacji.
1. Introduction
The Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) was established in the 80s’, yet, the present legal basis of the RASFF was accepted in the Regulation EC/178/2002 [12] and in the Regulation EU/16/2011 [9]. The RASFF is a tool, which allows exchanging information between the RASFF members (mainly the European Union (EU) countries) about the measures taken in response to a serious risk detected in food or feed [11]. As Hirschauer and Zwoll [17] stated the RASFF aims at effective communication and after- the-fact responsiveness. Salmon [27] and Marvin et al.
[23] also pointed out to the RASFF as a useful tool of communication and consumer protection.
In the studies of the RASFF particular attention was paid to several products categories and hazards
categories which are most often notified. The large number of alert notifications in the RASFF to seafood was pointed out by Broughton and Walker [3], Schröder [28] (aquaculture from China), D’Amico et al. [7]
(labeling on seafood from China), Petróczi and Naughton [24]
(heavy metals) and Torres- Escribano et al. [29] (mercury).
Andrée et al. [1] drew attention to alert notifications within the RASFF to meat. Many authors pointed also out to alert notifica- tions to fruits and vegetables, e.
g.: aflatoxins in figs [2], pesticide residues [18], pesticide residues and bacterial pathogens [31].
Hara-Kudo et al. [16] noted that the RASFF can be used to monitor food-born pathogens.
On the other hand, within hazards categories chemical contaminations notified in the RASFF were mentioned by Krska and Nielen [20]. Marvin et al. [22] pointed out to a possibility of migration of heavy metals from utensils. Companyó et al. [5] mentioned alert notifications referring to residues of veterinary medicinal products.
However, within hazards categories most authors mentioned alert notifications related to mycotoxins, e. g.: Cheli et al. [4], Duarte et al. [8], García-Cela et al. [15], Marin et al. [21] and Marvin et al. [22], Van der Fels-Klerx et al. [32] and Van Egmond et al. [33].
However, taking into consideration the products origin, alert notifications to food in the RASFF can be divided in two basic groups: to food from the non-EU and EU countries (and then dividing also the EU countries to the Western and
Eastern EU countries, i.e. countries which accessed the EU in 2004 and in the next years). The majority of alert notifications in the period 1979-2014 was notified to food from the EU countries (about 68%) compared with food from the non-EU countries (about 32%). It can also be noticed that the majority of alert notifications were made to food from the Western EU countries (about 85%) rather than to food from the Eastern EU countries (about 15%). The number of alert notifications in the RASFF to food from the Western EU countries was therefore almost six times higher than to food from the Eastern EU countries (see [11]) with the population four times higher (see [10]). Meanwhile, according to the data available for 2011 and 2012, turnover of food (and drinks) was approximately 9 times higher in the Western than the Eastern EU countries (see [13, 14]).
The trends in alert notifications for food from the non-EU, EU, Western and Eastern EU countries were presented in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. The trends of alert notifications in the RASFF to food from the non-EU, EU, Western EU and Eastern EU countries
Rys. 1. Trendy ilości powiadomień alarmowych w systemie RASFF wobec żywności z krajów spoza UE, UE, zachodniej UE i wschodniej UE
The courses of all trends were similar (see also [26]). The increase of alert notifications up to 2008 (and especially from 2004 when ten Eastern European countries accessed the EU and also from 2003/2004 when official controls on the market were implemented) was slight and the decrease after 2008 was sharp. It allows concluding that imported food (rather than raw materials) was, to a large degree, used to produce food in the EU (a similar problem was also noticed in the USA [24]). These two significant changes (the increase from 2004 and the decrease from 2008) in the number of alert notifications allows assuming that there was a relationship between the number of alert notifications in the RASFF in time, because the steady growth trend stopped (and then stabilized).
The changes in the number of alert notifications in the RASFF in similar time allow supposing that alert notifications to food from different countries groups were interdependent.
So, the purpose of the article was to examine whether there was a relationship in time (and within products categories and hazards categories) between the number of alert notifications in the RASFF to food from the non-EU and EU countries and also the Western and Eastern EU countries. An additional purpose was to examine what was the correlation between the official
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
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non-EU EU Western EU Eastern EU
controls on the market and alert notifications in RASFF in EU countries and the Western and Eastern EU countries.
2. Data and methods
The data on alert notifications came from the RASFF database and covered the period 1979-2014. However, it was necessary to adopt certain simplification within the food origin. If the source of food origin was more than one country (about ¼ of alert notifications), only the first mentioned was adopted. Thus, the data adopted for the research may differ from the data provided in the annual reports of the RASFF, but such an approach allowed avoiding autocorrelation. The data on official controls on the market came also from the RASFF database and covered the period 2003/2004-2014 [11].
To examine the correlation of the number of alert notifications in the RASFF in time (and within products categories and hazards categories) to food from the non-EU, EU, Western EU and Eastern UE countries, so used secondary data from the RASFF database using correlation analysis (within the interdependence analysis). Pearson’s rcorrelation coefficients were calculated and statistical hypothesis based on t-test (see [6]) using Microsoft Excel were verified. Next, the statistical inference (generalization of the results of partial studies to the entire population) was used.
3. Results and discussion
The values of Pearson’s r coefficients and t statistics for correlation of alert notifications in the RASFF in time were presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Pearson’s r coefficients and t statistics values for a correlation of alert notifications in the RASFF in time
Tabela 1. Wartości współczynników Pearsona r i statystyki t dla korelacji powiadomień alarmowych w systemie RASFF w czasie
Relation r |t| (for r)
Non-EU – EU 0.96 20.02
Non-EU – Western EU 0.97 21.85
Non-EU – Eastern EU 0.87 10.19
Western EU – Eastern EU 0.92 13.43
Notes: number of years was 36, so t0.05; 34 was 2.03 (in 2-tailed t distribution).
In the studied period (1979-2014) in each of the relations, the calculated value t exceeded the critical value, so there was a correlation between the number of alert notifications in the RASFF to food from the non-EU and EU countries, the non-EU and Western EU countries, the non-EU and Eastern EU countries and the Western EU and Eastern EU countries within time.
For the relations: non-EU – EU, Western EU and Eastern EU countries one could speak about the influence; but for the relation: Western EU – Eastern EU countries one could speak about the interdependence (due to the common market). The values of Pearson’s r coefficients were varied – if they exceeded 0.9 this correlation was very high, in the range from 0.7 to 0.9 it was high (see [6]).
Considering the distinct change in the number of alert notifications (the decrease from 2008), it can be concluded that the introduction of border rejections of the EU significantly contributed to a reduction of hazards from imported food. Moreover, the values of the correlation coefficients in the case of the relation non-EU – Western EU countries were higher than in the case of non-EU – Eastern EU countries. This allowed claiming that imported food
