THE ADOPTION OF AGRICULTURE IN THE AREA OF PRESENT-DAY LATVIA (THE LAKE LUBANA BASIN)

Pavel M. Dolukhanov

Lu yna Doma«ska

Ali e Marie Haeussler

LeiuHeapost Ken Ja obs Valeriy I. Khartanovi h PhilipL.Kohl Nadezhda S. Kotova Ri hard W. Lindstrom Ilze Loze Dmitriy Nuzhnyi Inna D. Potekhina Dmitriy Telegin Vladimir I. Timofeev Aleksander A. Yanevi h LeonidZaliznyak 1 V O L U M E 5

•

1998

61-809Pozna«(Poland)

‘w.Mar in78

Tel.(061)8536709ext. 147,Fax(061)8533373

EDITOR AleksanderKo±ko EDITOROFVOLUME Lu ynaDoma«ska KenJa obs EDITORIALCOMMITEE

SophiaS.Berezanskaya (Kiev),AleksandraCofta-Broniewska

(Pozna«), Mikhail Charniauski (Minsk), Lu yna Doma«ska

(Šód¹), ViktorI. Klo hko (Kiev), Valentin V. Otrosh henko

(Kiev),PetroTolo hko (Kiev)

SECRETARY

MarzenaSzmyt

SECRETARYOFVOLUME

Andrzej Rozwadowski

ADAMMICKIEWICZUNIVERSITY

EASTERNINSTITUTE

INSTITUTEOFPREHISTORY

Pozna«1998

ISBN83-86094-04-4

Pavel M. Dolukhanov

Lu yna Doma«ska

Ali e Marie Haeussler

LeiuHeapost Ken Ja obs Valeriy I. Khartanovi h PhilipL.Kohl Nadezhda S. Kotova Ri hard W. Lindstrom Ilze Loze Dmitriy Nuzhnyi Inna D. Potekhina Dmitriy Telegin Vladimir I. Timofeev Aleksander A. Yanevi h LeonidZaliznyak 1 V O L U M E 5

•

1998

c

CopyrightbyB-PSandAuthors All rightsreserved

CoverDesign: EugeniuszSkorwider

Lingvisti onsultation:MonikaWoj ieszek

PrintedinPoland

EDITORS'FOREWORD ... 7

KenJa obs,Lu ynaDoma«ska, "BEYONDBALKANIZATION"{AN

OUTLINEPROGRAMFORADISCUSSION ... 9

PavelM.Dolukhanov,THENEOLITHICWITHAHUMANFACE

ORDIVIDINGLINESINNEOLITHICEUROPE? ... 13

Ri hard W.Lindstrom,HISTORYANDPOLITICSINTHEDEVELOPMENT

ETHNOGENETICMODELSINSOVIETANTHROPOLOGY ... 24

Philip L.Kohl, NATIONALIDENTITYANDTHEUSE

OFTHEREMOTEPASTINTHECAUCASUS ... 34

Vladimir I.Timofeev, THEEAST|WESTRELATIONS

INTHELATEMESOLITHICANDNEOLITHIC

INTHEBALTICREGION ... 44

Ilze L oze,THEADOPTIONOFAGRICULTUREINTHEAREA

OFPRESENT-DAYLATVIA(THELAKELUBANABASIN) ... 59

DmitriyTelegin, MESOLITHICCULTURAL-ETHNOGRAPHIC

ENTITIESINSOUTHERNUKRAINE:GENESISANDROLE

INNEOLITHIZATIONOFTHEREGION ... 85

DmitriyNuzhnyi,THEUKRAINIANSTEPPEASAREGION

OFINTERCULTURALCONTACTSBETWEENATLANTIC

ANDMEDITERRANEANZONESOFEUROPEANMESOLITHIC ... 102

L eonidZaliznyak,THELATEMESOLITHICSUBBASE

OFTHEUKRAINIANNEOLITHIC ... 120

Aleksander A.Yanevi h, THENEOLITHICOFTHEMOUNTAINOUS

CRIMEA ... 146

Nadezhda S.Kotova,THEROLEOFEASTERNIMPULSEIN

DEVELOPMENTOFTHENEOLITHICCULTURESOFUKRAINE ... 160

Ali e MarieHaeussler, UKRAINEMESOLITHICCEMETERIES:

DENTALANTHROPOLOGICALANALYSIS ... 195

InnaD.Potekhina,SOUTH-EASTERNINFLUENCESON

THEFORMATIONOFTHEMESOLITHICTOEARLYENEOLITHIC

POPULATIONSOFTHENORTHPONTICREGION:

THEEVIDENCEFROMANTHROPOLOGY ... 226

L eiuHeapost,GENETICHETEROGENEITYOFFINNO-UGRIANS

(ONTHEBASISOFESTONIANMODERNANDARCHAEOLOGICAL

MATERIAL) ... 232

ValeriyI.Khartanovi h, NEWCRANIOLOGICALMATERIAL

ONTHESAAMIFROMTHEKOLAPENINSULA ... 248

This volume ontains the majority of the papers presented during a

onfe-ren ethattookpla e on16th-21stMay,1997inŠód¹,Poland.The onferen e was

organized by the Institute of Ar haeology, University of Šód¹ and Departement

d'anthropologie, Universitede Montreal(Canada). The onferen e wasfundedby

theUniversityofŠód¹andbyIREX(InternationalResear h&Ex hangesBoard),

whi h also supported this publi ation. The publi ation was partly foundedbythe

UniversityofŠód¹andbytheFoundationofAdamMi kiewi zUniversity,too.

The major questions of the onferen e were, 1) whatisthe urrenteviden e

foreastern orsouthernin uen es inthedevelopmentofeastern European

Meso-lithi andNeolithi populations,and2)to whatextentare urrentpoliti altrends,

espe ially the reassertion or, in some ases, the reation of ethni and national

identities, in uen ingourinterpretationsoftheprehistori data.

The idea for su h a onferen e ame into being through the o-organizers'

long-termstudiesofthedevelopmentofthoseprehistori humanpopulationswhi h

inhabitedthevastregionstret hingnorthandeastfromtheOderriverand

Carpa-thianMountainstothefoothillsoftheUrals. Ina traditionestablishedin modern

times byGordon Childe, virtually all of the transformationsof EasternEurope's

Neolithi Age human lands ape have been assumed to be responses to prior

de-velopments in the Balkan peninsula and Danube basin. We think that a body of

neweviden e requiresa renewedanalysisof thedistributionsof ultural produ ts,

peoples,andideas a rossEasternEuropeduringtheMesolithi throughtheEarly

Metal Age withina mu h wider geographi ontext than previouslyhas been the

ase.Thisin ludesgivingadequateattentiontothefar-rangingintera tionsof

om-munitiesbetweenthePonti andBalti areawiththoselo atedinboththeCau asus

andtheAralo-Caspianregions.

Wehope thatthisvolumewill ontributetosu ha redire tion offuture

ana-lyses.

Lu ynaDoma«ska

1.All datesintheB-PSare alibrated [see:Radio arbonvol.28,1986,andthe

next volumes℄(other versions are ited for thewish of authors).Deviations from

thisrulewillbe pointoutin notes.

2. The names of thear haeologi al ultures (espe ially from theterritory of

theUkraine)arestandarizeda ordingtotheEnglishliteratureonthesubje t(e.g.

Mallory 1989). In the ase of a new term, the author's original name has been

PLISSN1231-0344

IlzeLoze

THE ADOPTION OFAGRICULTURE INTHE AREA OF

PRESENT-DAY LATVIA (THELAKE LUBANA BASIN)

The pro ess involved in the initial adoption of agri ulture and the various

aspe tsofresear honthissubje trepresentoneofthemostdis ussedquestionsin

theliteraturedevotedtoEuropeanprehistory.

Theadoptionofagri ulturehasbeendis ussedagainstthegeneralba kground

ofplant ultivationandanimaldomesti ation.Su horiginsareviewedonlyasapart

ofthemu hwiderpro essofdomesti ation[Hodder1990:20-41℄.Thelatterin ludes

notonlythea quiringoftheplant ultivationskillsandkeepingofdomesti animals,

but also,most importantly, so ialdomesti ation evenbefore thedomesti ation of

plantsandanimals[Chapman1994:133℄.

The origins of agri ulture are seen notonly as an aspe t of the e onomyor

as ameans ofobtaining theprodu tion,but asa part ofa mu h wider pro essof

domesti ation, arriedoutbyso ialgroupswithanoutlookbasedontheimportan e

ofso ialstatus.

Theaim ofthispaperistosket hin theoriginsandbeginningsofagri ulture

in thearea of present-day L atvia, utilising the a umulated ar haeologi al, fossil

seedsandpalynologi almaterial,aswellastoindi ate thepossible hara terofthe

earlyagri ulture.

Useismadeofmaterialobtainedthroughar haeologi alex avationinaspe ial

mi ro-regionofNeolithi sites:theL akeLubanadepressionanditsenvironswhi h

hassofarnotbeendis ussedinar haeologi al literature.

Thelo ationofNeolithi settlementsitesinwetlandareasoftheL akeLubana

basinhasensuredthepreservationoforgani remains,whi hisveryimportantfor

identi ationandanalysisofindi ations ofagri ulture.

1. THESET TLEMENTSOFTHEFIRSTFARMERS

The settlements ofthe rstfarmers in the L ake Lubanadepression are sites

of roundstones and areas suitable for agri ulture in the vi inity. Su h sites must

also provide suÆ ient eviden e of theskills involvedin theearly agri ulture and

thepra ti eofthise onomi a tivity.There arefoursu hsettlementsites:AboraI

andL agaza[L oze1979:11-38℄,I a[L oze1993a:21℄andZvidze[L oze1988a:18-74℄,

whi hare onsidered notonlypermanent sites, butalso entralpla es duringone

parti ularperiodoftheNeolithi orevenduringseveralperiods(Zvidze)(Fig.1).

Thesesettlementsalsostandoutin termsofthe hara teroftheo upationlayer,

itsthi knessanddensityofnds,andinhavingatightlybounded,possiblyen losed

spa e.

Building onstru tionat these sites utilised posts and stakes of elm, spru e,

alder andaspen,as wellas alderplanks (woodsamples fromZvidze, 1982

ex ava-tions) 1

.Pines and bir hes were alsofelled (woodsamples fromL agaza, 1968,and

Abora,1970) 2

,andthese spe ieswereusedforstru turalelementsofbuildings.

Thesearesettlementswith loselyspa edbuildings,betweenandwithinwhi h

the de eased members of the ommunity were buried (Abora I, I a, L agaza and

Zvidze)[L oze1979:43-60;1988a:21-23℄.

Thestru tures were onsiderablyelaborated.The buildingshada ridgedroof

with overhanging eaves, an annex at one end or the other, one room (at

Zvi-dze) or several rooms (at L agaza), and a spe ially onstru ted entran e at the

end of the building (at Zvidze). An unusual building was also onstru ted,

on-sisting of two wings laid out at a wide angle to ea h other. The building had a

double wall fa ing the side of the settlement that had no natural prote tion (at

L agaza) [L oze 1978; 1998b℄. The massive timbers of de iduous wood supporting

theroofat thesettlement ofL agaza, as well asthesix metres longridge-pole (?)

and splitted planks, and theperfe tly sharpened endsof postsand stakes at this

site testify to developed skills in building and shaping of stru tural elements of

dwellings.

There wasa large on entrationof materialremains at these settlements,

fo-undwithinbuildingsandin spe ialareas forworkingparti ular materials.Afairly

haoti distributionofimplementsandpottery anbeseenintheupperpartofthe

o upationlayer.

Theeverydayutensils,huntingandshingequipmentoftheinhabitantsnumber

inthethousands.Themassndsofpotteryandtheirdensityaswellastheirpresen e

in numeri al terms between the entre andperipheryof thesettlementspointsto

theintensiveuseofpotteryandstorageofprodu ts.

Adevelopedsystemofex hangeofamberfor intfromtheUpperandMiddle

VolgaandtheDnieperbasin,andamberforslatefromKareliatestiestointensive

a tivity by theinhabitants of the L ake Lubana depression for subsisten e needs,

reating astrategi allyadvantageoussystemof ommuni ationsbetweentheirown

area andthoseoftheirneighbourstotheeast,south-eastandnorth[L oze1998a℄.

Theinhabitants ofall ofthesitesmentionedwere familiar with domesti ated

animals: attle, sheep/goats andpigs [L oze 1995b:13-15℄.The minimal number of

1

WoodsamplesidentiedbydrM.Buss.

Fig.1.ThedistributionofsettlementsoftherstfarmersintheL akeLubanadepressioninrelation

tothegeomorphologyoftheregion[Eberhards1972℄.1-tillandkamerelief,2-rangeofgla io uvial

hills,3a-undulatingandgentlyslopingmoraineplain,3b-undulatingmoraineplainwithpronoun ed

moraineuvalsandmoraine ridges,4-slopesofuplands, 5-eskers,6-isolatedgla iola ustrinehills,

7-eolian relief,8-sandylate-gla ial basinplain, 9-abraded moraine plainswithintermittent thin

overingofsandandboulders,10-theL akeLubanaandwetlanddepression,11-wetlandplains,12

-deltas,13-shorelines oflate-gla ial andpost-gla ialwater-bodiesandtheir heightabovesea-level,

14-abraded hollows,15-out owvalleysoflate-gla ial basins,16-small,poorlydistin tpost-gla ial

ood-plainvalleys andriver ood-plains oftheL akeLubanadepression,17-valley-likehollows,18

-dire tionofmeltwater ow,19-geologi alse tions,20-geomorphologi alregions(1-GulbeneRidge,

2-VidzemeCentralUplands,3-Madona-TrepeRidge,4-L atgaleUplands,5-NorthL atgalePlateau,

individuals of domesti animals is not great: 25 at Zvidze, 34 at Abora and 9at

L agaza [L oze1979:Tables12,13;1988a:Table 22℄.However, notall oftheanimals

were ne essarily slaughtered: animals were possibly also kept for milk andwool.

The ri h hunted fauna in the L ake Lubana depression, in luding birds and sh,

ould have reated spe ial onditionsforsupplying foodresour es andstabilising

thesubsisten estrategy.

The so ial organisation, as seen from the burials at Abora I settlement (61

individuals)[L oze1979:43-52℄,wasorientedtowardsre ognitionofso ialstatus.

Onlyonemalegrave (no.3)wasfurnishedwith ri hgrave goods(in ludinga

string of 27 te hni ally well-made button-shapedbeads) [L oze 1979:Fig. 40℄.The

de easedwaslaidinagravetogetherwiththreeotherindividuals,in ludingtwo

wo-men,andapie eofwood(aplank?)wasfoundinthisgrave,resembling box-wood

(Buxussempervirens)[L oze1995a:35℄,a hara teristi entralEuropeanspe ies

on-sideredexoti totheeasternBalti .

Burialno.3 anbe onsideredanindividualofhighstatus,whi his onrmed

bythefa tthatoneofthe hildren (burial 18)was buriedwith a parti ularlyri h

and ne array of grave goods(2 bulging and 2snake-like pendants) [L oze 1979:

Table5℄,indi atingthathighstatus ouldbeinherited.Possibly,thisisare e tionof

aso ialstru turebasedonaasimple formof hiefdom,ata timewhenpatrilineal

organisationhadalready be omedominant.

2. CHRONOLOGYANDTHESEQUENCEOFNEOLITHICCULTURES

The earliest Neolithi ulture in the L ake Lubana depression with pottery,

exhibiting a onsiderable number of anthropogeni indi ators (fa tors indi ating

human intervention in theenvironment), isdes ribed as theNarva ulture, dated

totheperiod4585-4100BC

∗

[Liiva, L oze1988℄.

Inthis asethedatingsfromthemulti-layeredsettlementofZvidze,in luding

nineinter-laboratory omparisondatings,havebeenused[Veksler,Punning1988:16,

17℄.Sin ethey orrespondonlypartiallywiththeradio arbondatingsfromOsa,the

otherEarlyNeolithi settlementintheL ake Lubanabasin[Liiva, L oze1988:Table

4℄, we must assume that they re e t the original and thus the earliest stage of

developmentoftheNarva ulture,whi hwasin existen eupto3780

±

50BC. The next ulture in the L ake Lubana depression was the Comb-and-Pitted

Pottery ulture.This ultureisdateddierently, sin eatbothZvidzeandOsathe

respe tive layers o ur above thelayers with Narva pottery,and its hronologi al

boundariesareset onsiderablylater: 3370-2800BC.

This ultureis followedbythePost-Narva ulture(representedin the entral

part ofthe eastern Balti bya pottery ware knownfrom thesitesof Piestina and

espe ially Zvidze in the L ake Lubana depression). Compared with the

Pit-and--CombPottery ulture,itsupperandlower hronologi al boundariesaresetlater:

2800-2480BC[L oze1988a:Table 16,Fig. 74℄.

Onthebasisofradio arbondatesfromAboraI,I aandL agaza,theageofthe

L ateNeolithi omplex,in luding theCorded Ware ulture is between 2540(?) /

2300and1910/1820BC[L oze1991℄.A ordingtoradio arbondatesfromL agaza

settlement,LubanaWare oftheEarly BronzeAge wasbeingmade 1690-1390BC

[L oze1979:121,122℄.

3. ECOLOGICALZONES

Several dierent e ologi al zones an be distinguished in the L ake Lubana

depressionandthesurroundingarea.Settlementswereusuallysitedatthetransition

between dierentenvironments.The Zvidzesite, ofparti ular interesthere, ison

theveryedge of an abraded moraine plainat thetransitionto theformer bed of

L ake Lubana,whi h in theNeolithi was already lledwith depositsof gyttjaand

peat(Figs1,2).

The edge of the moraine plain in parti ular, overed with mixed forest and

s rub, was in terms of soil hara ter the pla e that provided the opportunityfor

learingtheforestatsomestage forelds.

However, other e ologi al ni hes, too: the nearshore and shore zones (with

shorelineandaquati vegetation)andwetlandswiththeirsoils, parti ularlyduring

thedrySubborealPeriod,providedfavourable onditionsforgeneraldevelopment

ofthee onomyofthepeopleinhabiting thesite.Su h zonesoered onsiderable

e onomi potential,providingtheopportunitytoutiliseparti ulare ologi al zones

inparti ularseasons.

Itis onsideredthatanareawithina1kmradiusofasiteisintensivelyutilised

foragri ulture,andthisisoftendes ribedasthe\site at hmentarea",wheretrees

were felledandtherstelds laid out.

Ontheotherhand,theAboraI settlementwas onsmall isolated riseonthe

rightbankofthe60-70mwideAivieksteRiver, onsistingofdepositsof lay loam

withintheL akeLubanadepression(a low area oflakes andbogs).Dierent

e o-logi al zones an be distinguished here, too. These are also re e ted in a oral

analysis ofvegetation representedbyseeds of 40dierentspe ies [L oze,Y

akubo-vskaya1984:Table 3℄.

Tree ands rub oras,together with thoseofforestgrasses andshrubs, make

up12%,with27% onsistingofbogandwetmeadow orasand58%representing

thedominantshoreandopenwater oras.

The risingproportionofaquati plantsispossible eviden e of hanges inthe

whole of the ontinental water system. This is also shown by resear h on fossil

seeds at thissite [L oze,Yakubovskaya 1984:Table 3℄. Also, a study of Pediastrum

algaeasindi atorsofhydrologi al onditionsande ologi al hangesinwater-bodies

has shown that the L ake Lubana was originally a warm, eutrophi basin. These

eutrophi onditionswerestillinexisten eintheSub-borealPeriodwhenthewater

temperaturegraduallyfellandatransitionbegantoa old,oligotrophi typebasin

[Yakubovskaya1996℄.

However,thisfa thasnotae tedtheutilisationbytheinhabitantsofthesite

ofthee onomi potentialofthevariouse ologi al zonesduringdierentseasons,

althoughthe hanges in waterlevel eventuallyled theinhabitantsoftheNeolithi

|BronzeAgesitetoabandontheL akeLubanadepressionentirely.

The following e ologi al zones were found within a 1 km radius around the

Abora site: forest and s rub (i.e. suitable for agri ulture), bog and wet meadows

(suitableforpasture),andashoreandopenwater zone.

TheenvironsofthesettlementsatI aandL agaza anbesimilarly lassied,the

geographi alsituationnodoubthavingbeen hoseninordertofa ilitateutilisation

ofdierente ologi al ni hes.

4. THEDISTRIBUTIONOFSOILTYPES

TheL ake Lubanadepressionislledwithfenandtransitionalbogpeats (Tza

and Tzh, so- alled hydromorphi soils), overing quite a onsiderable area: 55%

[Nomals 1943:223-225,257-261; Zarins 1974℄ (Fig. 2). These soilshave been

for-medin depressionsandin thelowestpartsof theplain, wherethedepressionhas

graduallybogged-upthroughthelong-termee tof oodingandhighgroundwater

level.ThereisnodoubtthatduringthedrySubborealPeriod atleasta proportion

ofthisarea ouldhavebeenusedforsmalleldsorpastureandhay-meadows.The

onditionsunderwhi hthesewetsoilswereformedweredependentonthe limate.

Adry limatehadafavourableee tonthedevelopmentofwetlandsoils

(minera-lisationoforgani matterin reases,aerationimproves).Atthepresentdaysod-gley

andgleysoils(GlgandGlv,so- alledsemi-hydromorphi soils) overlessthanone

quarter ofthepreviouslymentionedarea: 12%.These are formedunderverywet

onditionsover arbona eous substrates, as well as on sand and loam under the

in uen eofmineral-ri h groundwaters.

Sod-podsoli gleysoli and sod-podsoli gley soils formed on higher ground

(PggandPgv,so alledautomorphi soils)overloamandsandin oniferousforest.

Table 1 gives a s heme of soil type distributions for the environs of Zvidze

Neolithi site[Karklins1995℄,whi h learlyshowsthatduringtheSub-borealperiod

inthevi inityofthesiteforest learan ewaspossibleonthetill,aswellonthefen

Fig.2.SoilmapoftheenvironsoftheZvidzesite1-lowlandboghumussoil,2-sod-podsoli gleysoli

soil,3-sod-gleysoli soil,4-sod-gleysoil,5-lowlandbogmu ky-humusgleysoil,6-theZvidzesite.

DrawingbyDaigaPjatkovska.

Possiblythepeatlayerinsu hsoilsalreadyex eededathi knessof0.50mand

ouldalsohavebeenusedforpasturelandandmeadows.

The distribution of soil types in the L ake Lubana depression would not be

ompletewithoutmentioning alluvial soils (Type 09,a ording to theL atviansoil

lassi ation),whi hformedinperiodi ally oodedrivervalleysonalluvium

onsi-stingof lay andloam.Theseo urover depositsofgleyed layor lay loam.

There is a low degree of soil improvement in the L ake Lubana depression

andthelake basin [Mezals, etal.1970:443℄,butthelarge-s ale land improvement

workandthe ultivation ofmeadows andwetlandshas presently alteredthis view

[Rubenis1964℄.

Evidently, in the dry Sub-Boreal period, when the former bed of the L ake

Lubanahadalreadybe omebogged-over, overedbyasoil hara teristi of

Table 1

Thedistributionofsoiltypesinthevi inityoftheZvidzesite

Symbol

∗

Soilsub-types

∗∗

Sub-typenumbers Soiltypes

∗∗∗

PGg sod-podsoli gleysoli soil 8.1 0.8podsoli gleysoli soil

PGv sod-podsoli gleysoil 8.4

GLg sod-gleysoli soil 7.1 07.

GLv sod-gleysoil 7.4 gleysoils

TZa lowlandbogmu kyhumusgleysoil 10.2 10.lowlandbogpeatsoil

TZh lowlandboghumussoil 10.3

∗

AftertheFAO lassi ation.

∗∗

Afterasoilmap ompiledbytheL andUsePlanningInstituteforthe`Aiviekste'StateFarm,MadonaRegion, No.419/3,1990.

∗∗∗

Afterthe lassi ationofsoiltypesinL atvia[Karklins1995:167-168℄.

5. THENEOLITHICLANDSCAPE

Re onstru tion of the parti ular features of vegetation development in the

L akeLubanadepressionandthesurroundingareahasinvolvedpollenanalysisand

thestudyoffossilseeds,aswell asradio arbondatingsoftheboundariesbetween

pollenzones.Thishaspermitted hara terisationofthelands apeinvariousphases

oftheNeolithi .

In theinitial phase of theNeolithi (se ondhalf of theAtlanti Period) the

lands apeinthevi inityoftheL akeLubanadepressionwas hara terisedbymixed

forest with de iduous trees, parti ularlyelm and oak, with pine and hazel stands

de liningatthistime.Thisperiod oin ideswiththe limati optimum,whenaspen

stands were dominant, with a high proportion of oak, lime, elm and hazel. The

lands ape of this time was hara terised byhemp, plantain, butter up, groundsel

and primulas, all re e ting human a tivity [Yakubovskaya 1997℄. The amount of

bir h in reased in the middle of the Atlanti Period. Herba aeous plants of the

time in luded hemp and plantain, and espe ially mugwort and goose-foot. The

presen e of aquati plants and water- hestnutis indi ative of the early stages of

lake transgression.

At the transition from the Early to the Middle Neolithi the lands ape was

hara terised byan in rease in spru eandpine, with aspenandbir h de reasing.

The presen e of oak and lime was highin theMiddle Neolithi , but the amount

s ale.Thede lineoftheelm(Sb

1

a

)intheL akeLubanabasinisdatedtotheperiod

4750

±

60{4430

±

50BP.

Attheendofthersthalf oftheSubborealPeriod(Sb

1

b

),withanin reasein

theamountof hazel,elm andaspen, there was a de line inspru e. In these ond

half oftheSub-borealtheamountofspru eandpinein reased on eagain, pollen

diagramsshowedade rease inthe urvesforbir h,aspenandmixedforest.

Thatpeoplewerea tiveinshapingtheopenlands apeofthattimeitisre e ted

bythepresen eofmugwort,butter upandgroundsel.Ruderal,aswellasforestand

wetmeadow, omponents onsistofnettlesandgrasses,while plantsoffallow-land

in ludespurry,sheep's sorrel,ribwortandPolygonum [Yakubovskaya1997℄.

Thus,indi atorsofearlyfarminga tivitiesappearinpollendiagrams.Ofthese

indi ators,pollenanalystsstressplantaininparti ularasbeingveryhardyinpasture

landin omparisonwith otherplants[Andersen1993:74℄.

A ording to palynologists, ommunities with these andother plantsare

lin-ked to forest learan e andthe reation ofan open lands ape, notonly forplant

ultivation,whi hinterestsushere,butalsoforpasture.

IntheMiddleNeolithi anopenlands apewasformed,anditwaspre iselyat

thistime,asseenfrompollendata, thattherstsmalleldsappeared.Thearea of

forestde reased, theamountof oakandaspen fell,but an in rease isseen inthe

amountofpine.

6. ARCHAEOLOGICALINDICATIONS

Ar haeologi aleviden e for hara terisingtherstfarmingin theenvirons of

the L ake Lubana in ludes possible farming implements. These an be divided as

follows:toolsforforest learan e, toolsforlandtillage, toolsforharvesting ereals,

grainpro essingtoolsandtoolsforworkinghempand ax.

Forest learan etools.Therequiredwoodfellingtoolsforforest learan eare

represented bygood quality intaxes ( elts) whi h were xed in a wooden shaft.

These are thestraight thin-buttedaxes(Jaunsvirlauka in ZemgaleandL ejas iems

intheVidzeme uplands)andthi kbuttedaxes(NigrandeandRamtasinKurzeme)

(Fig. 3). These have been arefully polished. Rarer are examples with additional

fa etsonthe sides.This te hniqueof intknapping | grinding andpolishing |

isknownin Europe,in luding southernS andinavia,from thetimeof theFunnel

Beaker ulture.Su haxeswereinuseforover500years[Nielsen1977:69,70℄.Their

ageinsouthernS andinaviaisattestedbyover50radio arbondates.The

pointed--buttandthin-buttedformsare onsideredtobeearliest,whilethethi k-buttedaxes

aretakentobelater.Thelatterare hara teristi bothoftheFunnelBeaker ulture

Fig.3. Flintaxesinthearea of present-dayL atvia (Colle tionsof the HistoryMuseum ofL atvia,

DepartmentofAr haeology,nos.A10670,CVVM59026,A9841,A3530):1-Jaunsvirlauka,Jelgava

Thus, the int working te hnique mentioned, grinding and polishing, ould

have appeared in theL ake Lubana depression already at the time of theFunnel

Beaker ulture.Thiswasnotimpossible,inviewofthe hara terof intte hnology

atthistimeandthe hara terofthespreadofinnovationsinthiseld.Experiments

in Denmark havereprodu ed thete hnique of manufa turing su haxes [Madsen

1984;Hansen& Madsen1983℄.Itmayalready havebeenemployed intheMiddle

Neolithi intheeastern partofpresent-dayL atvia,sin ehigh qualitypointed-butt

andthin-butted axeshave beenobtained at L ejas iemsin Gulbene Region,

Jaun-svirlaukainJelgava Region,Ve saule inBauska Regionet .

Ontheotherhand,asindi atedbystrayndsfromRamtasinTukumsRegion,

Pampali inKuldigaRegion,MilzkalneDistri tinTukumsRegion,Nigrandein

Lie-pajaRegionandVe saulesSeli inBauskaRegion,thi k-butted,wedge-shaped int

axesbelongedtothepeopleoftheCordedWare ulture(Fig.3:3,4).

Thehaftsintowhi h intaxeswerexedhavebeenfoundmainlyatsettlement

sitesandinhoardsinDenmarkandSwitzerland.Thesehavebeenmadeofash,only

onebeinghewnfrombee hwood.

Experiments ondu tedbytheDanishresear herSvendJorgenseninsouthern

Jutlandrelatingtopreparation, lengthandworkingof thehaft, treefelling, tra es

ofuse ontheaxe blades, bladebreakage, sharpeningandgrinding, theuse-life of

theaxe et . all indi ate thatspe ial skills were required for hafting intaxes, and

thattheright balan e was required between theweight oftheaxe and thelength

oftheshaft[Jorgensen 1985:25-51℄.

Lime and oak (hard woods) were easily felled, whi h was notthe ase with

bir h,alderandash(softwoods).Elm(havingveryresistantwood)wasevenmore

diÆ ult to fell, while bee h sometimes presented diÆ ulties and sometimes was

easytofell.

The int axes of Denmark and Switzerlandwere hafted in thesame fashion

[Wyss 1988:41, 42℄. The ratio of thelength of theshaft to the hafting pla e was

5.5:1.5.The shaftwasslightlybent,itsthi kenedhaftingpla e beingspoon-shaped

inprole.Theholewas utoutinthemiddleoftheshaft,adjustedforthethi kness

oftheaxetobehafted.

AnothertypeofhaftingisfoundintheL akeLubanadepression,attheAbora

site.Onlypartofthishafthassurvived,andjudgingbythedimensionsofthehole,

ithelda 2.5 mthi kand3.2 mwidestonepi k(Inventoryno.76:3855;Fig.8:1).

Anunnished56 mlonghaftfora intaxe (?) (Zvidzesite, no.118:1371)isan

eviden e ofadierentformofhafting(Fig.5:1).

Soiltillage tools.Digging, hoeing andsoil looseningtools are representedby

a wooden spade, wooden, antler and stone matto ks, wooden sti ks and antler

implementswith aholeforatta hmenttoa haft.

Aslightlyroundedwoodenspade with apartially preserved haftfrom thesite

ofZvidze(Fig.4:2)didnothaveitssurfa eexposed tore [L oze1988b:Fig.4℄.It

isvery primitive in form in omparisonwith thosefrom theSwiss Neolithi sites,

in parti ularthatfoundat Egolzwil3[Wyss1988:45℄.The bladeof thespade was

Fig.4.Spades madeof elkantler(1) andwood (2)fromtheNeolithi sitesof AboraandZvidze

(Colle tionsofthe InstituteofHistoryoftheUniversityofL atvia,Department ofAr haeology,nos.

76:3685,188, olle tionofwoodenartefa tsno.8).DrawingsbyMartaJankalnina(1)andVilnisZabers

(2).

Possibly alsospade-liketoolsmade ofthebase ofanelk antler wereusedfor

digging (Abora, no. 76:654and 1080). They ould be hafted in thesame way as

stonespade-liketools(Fig.4:1)[L oze1979:Fig.5:5℄.

Woodenmatto ksweremadeofonepie eofde iduouswood(Fig.5:2).These

had a pointed oval blade arefully worked from both fa es (dimensions: 18 x 9

m and 14.7 x 6.5 m) and a slightly bent shaft [L oze 1988b:Fig. 5:5℄. This type

of matto k,also knownfrom thewetland dwellingsof Sarnate [Vankina1970:Fig.

XIX:1-3℄and 

Sventojilagoon sites 1B, 2B, 3Band 23 [Rimantiene 1979:Fig. 23℄,

wasawidespread formofhoeingtoolinNeolithi Europe[Wyss1988:45,Fig.7℄.

In ontrastto thewooden matto ksfromSarnate and 

Sventoji, theexamples

fromZvidzedonothaveathi keningoftheshaftwhereitjoins theblade.

Hoe-likestonetools,whi h ouldbehafted,are hara teristi oftheL ate

Neo-lithi sites in the L ake Lubana depression. Their form is not pronoun ed, sin e

stone-working(apart from intand slate)didnotdevelop fullyin theStoneAge.

Thesethi k-buttedmatto kswithaheavybodyandnarrowedinthelowerpartwere

verysuitable fortilling theearth[L oze1979:Fig.XXII:2℄.

Tools for loosening soil in lude reddeer antlers witha drilled holein the base

Fig. 5. Possiblesemi-manufa tured shaftfor a intaxe (1) and wooden matto k (2). Zvidze site

(Colle tionsofthe InstituteofHistoryoftheUniversityofL atvia,Department ofAr haeology,nos.

Fig.6.Toolsforlooseningsoilmade ofreddeerantler.Aborasite(Colle tionsof theInstituteof

HistoryoftheUniversityofL atvia,DepartmentofAr haeology,nos.76:3104,3699).

(Visby et .), where they have generally been obtained as grave goods [Malmer

1962:313-321,Figs.66,77;Janzon1974:Plate30℄.

Cereal harvesting tools. Knife-shaped int si kles, one of the toolforms for

harvesting ereals,werepossiblyknowntotheinhabitantsoftheL ateNeolithi sites

intheL akeLubanadepression,su hasAboraI[L oze1979:Fig.VIII:11,12℄(se ure

identi ationrequiresuse-wearanalysis).Asseenfromre onstru tions, intsi kles

werexedinsi kle-shapedordierentlyformedwoodenhandlessothatthey ould

easilybegripped[Wi±la«ski1979:216;Korobkova1987:Fig.31℄.

Grainpro essingtools.Forgrinding,thepeopleoftheL akeLubanadepression

usedgrindstonesandpestles.

So- alledsingle-handedgrindstoneswereusedforseparatingthegrainfromthe

husksandforgrindingthegrain afteritwasseparatedfromthe ha.

Theearliestgrindstones(roundriverpebbleswithoneworkingfa e)are8.5-9

mindiameterand ouldeasilybegrippedinonehand.Su hgrindstonesare

alre-adypresentintheMiddleNeolithi dwellingsoftheZvidzesite(no.188:1639,1787).

AmongL ateNeolithi grindstonesfromAboraI,L agazaandKvapaniIIsites,

there are, inaddition toroundforms,also oval examples (Fig.7:2), whatpossibly

DimensionsofgrindstonesfromthesettlementsoftheLakeLubanadepression( m)

Site Form Inventoryno. Diameter Thi kness L ength Width

AboraI oval 76:66 - 5.2 9.85 8.2 76:3518 - 3.8 11.4 7.8 76:3519 - 3.1 8.4 7.6 round 76:3585 6.4 5.5 - -oval 76:3663 - 4.4 14.9 9.8 Eini oval 119:344 - 3.8 8 5 round 119:345 6.5 3.39 - -I a oval 303:139 - 4.2 10.1 7.6 303:156 - 0.51 8.1 6.5 L agaza oval 118:597 - 4.75 11 9.9 round 118:595 7.7 5.4 - -118:594 7.2 5.65 -

-There are among theexamples obtained at theL agaza sitesome grindstones

whoselateraledgeshavebeenusedforgrinding(nos.118:596;Fig.7:2),andtra es

of use are also seen on bothopposite fa es of theother examples (no. 118:594)

(Table 2).

Asestablishedthroughex avation,grindstonesare on entratedinlarge

num-bers around thehearths of thedwellings. Thus,for example in thedwellings

un- overed in Area F ( overing an area of 240 m 2

) 74 grindstones were found,the

majorityofwhi h ame fromtheimmediate vi inityofthehearthofoneparti ular

dwelling[L oze1979:Fig.12℄.

Alargelowergrindstonemadeofne-grainedstone,wasfoundinex avations

at the L agaza site in the late 1960's [L oze 1979:Fig. XXV:7℄ (dimensions: 29.6 x

24 m; Fig. 7:3). Thiswas verysuitable for grinding grain. Eviden e of long and

intensive use isa 3.5-4 mwide groovearound theslightly oval proje tionin the

middle.

Stonepestleswerepresentasatoolforgrindinggrainintheareaofpresent-day

L atvia already from the Middle Neolithi . Apart of su h a toolwas obtained at

Table 3

Themeasurementsofthepulleysheaveofweawingspindle

Potteryware Site Inventoryno. Diameter Thi kness Remarks

Post-Narva Zvidze 188:2366 6.8 0.8

188:708 6.5 0.95 semi-manufa tured

Textileimpressed Eini 119:319 6.4 1 fragment

Post-Narva L agaza 118:547 6.5 0.7 semi-manufa -tured

118:264 6 1.3

118:191 3.1 0.9 mu hused

Lubana L ateNeolithi 101:24 3 0.7 mu hused

andEarlyBronze

Agesiteat

themouthof

ther.Malmuta

Abora 76:1342 4.7

(3 m in diameter) [L oze 1988a:Fig. XXIII:1℄. Ar haeologi al parallels indi ate

thatpre isely thisformoftoolwasusedtogetherwith`saddle querns'forgrinding

grainin theNeolithi ofAsia [WangXing-guang1995:Figs.15-17℄.

There is other eviden e of agri ulture, too: spinning and weaving tools and

possibleelementsthereof.

Spinning implements. Among spinning utensils are the spindle whorls

obta-inedin ar haeologi al ex avations. Theearliest ofthese are dis oidal formsmade

from at sherds of pottery, with the edges rounded and a hole drilled in the

entre for xing to a spindle. Often these spindle whorls still show pottery

de oration.

Spindle whorlshavebeenmadefrom pot-sherdswith ompletely smooth

sur-fa es(L agaza,no.118:547),withde orationofwrapped ordimpressions(L agaza,

no. 118:264) and textile impressions (Eini, no. 119:319). One example has also

been found of a spindle whorl with a linear design (Zvidze, no. 188:354, 2366;

Table3).

Themean diameterof spindlewhorlsis6.5 m, and0.5 mforthehole.The

thi knessofthespindlewhorlsisthesame asfortherespe tivepotteryforms.

Weaving implements. Weaving equipment and elements of su h utensils

of fabri making. Thisin ludes textileimpressions onpot-sherds,as well as wooden

shuttles. Fragmentary shuttles obtained in the Middle Neolithi layers at the site

of Zvidze are re tangular in form with a hole in the middle and symmetri ally

orasymmetri ally workedends[L oze1988a:Fig.XXXVI:10,12℄,reminis ent ofa

perforated shuttle a ording to the lassi ation given in ethnographi literature

[Alsupe1982:Fig.32:5℄.(Fig.8:2,4).Itispossiblethatalreadyin theMiddle

Neo-lithi theverti alloomwasusedforjoiningplantbres.ItisdiÆ ultto onne tthe

manyndsofwooden elements(rods,poles, thinrodset .)witha denite typeof

verti al loom.

Theyresemble warp poles, dis ussedinethnographi literature [Alsupe1982:

Fig. 23:1℄. They onsisted oftwo 1.9-2.3 m high verti al poles with pegs (of pine

or bir h) and two horizontalrods joining them. Itis mentioned thatin terms of

onstru tion they resemble a verti al loom and ould be used for arranging the

warp.Theyare lassiedasportablewarppoles,whosefun tionwastopreventthe

weaverfromtanglingupthewarp.Thepegsaremore loselyspa edthanthoseof

ordinarylooms.

Tools for pro essing hemp, nettles and ax. The earliest hemp, nettle and

ax pro essingtoolsintheL ake Lubanadepression arerepresentedonlyby

swin-gles, be ause among the wooden artefa ts from the Zvidze site there are some

whi h losely resemble ethnographi examples in termsof formand ross-se tion.

Ethnographersdistinguishknife-likeandre tangular single-sidedanddouble-sided

swingles[Istoriko-etnogra heskiyatlas,1985:Fig.159℄,oftenmadeofbir h[Ligers

1952:123℄.

A ordingtondsfromZvidze,single-sidedswingleswereofroundedtriangular

se tion, 18 mlong, with a 5.5 mwide blade [L oze 1988a:Fig.XXXVI:13℄ (Fig.

8:5,6).Itispossiblethatsingle-sidedswingles werealso onsiderablywider.Thisis

shownbyheavily workedexamples with abroad bladeandabrokenhandle [L oze

1988a:Fig.XXXVII:1,3℄.Judgingfromethnographi material,thebladesof

single--sidedswinglesmayhavebeen atorsegmentalinse tion,thehandlebeinground

orroundedre tangular inse tion[Istoriko-etnogra heskiyatlas,1985:Fig.139℄.

It is possible that a wooden omb (Fig. 8:3) also relates to pro essing, i.e.

ombing, ofhemp and ax bres [L oze1988a:Fig. XLI:1;1988b:Fig. 2:1;℄.Bits of

woodenboardsfoundatZvidze,AboraandL agaza ouldbe eviden e ofso- alled

tablets, or smooth supports, used when pro essing hemp and ax bres with a

swingle.

Hempbreswereusedformakingropeandfabri s.Mentionshouldbemade

of a spe i features of hemp pro essing, for hemp is a dioe ious plant [Ligers

1952:127℄. The male plants were plu ked rst (immediately after owering) and

providednerbres.

Hempseedswerealsousedasfood,beingheatedandthen rushedinamortar.

Hemp ourmixedwithfatshasbeenusedasfood.

The nettle is the oldest bre plant in L atvia. It ould be used for spinning

thread and weaving loth. It is possible that tools like the ones des ribed above

7. FARMINGASREFLECTEDINPOLLENSPECTRA

Theresultsofpollenanalysesrepresent oneofthemain lassesofeviden ein

thestudyofinitial farmingsystems,aswell aslater ones.

IntheL ake Lubanadepressiontoo, pollenof ultivated plants,together with

their a ompanyingsynanthropi plants(weeds)serves to hara terise the

ultiva-tionof ereal ropsduringtherespe tiveperiodsoftheNeolithi habitation.

Hemp(Cannabissativa)appearssporadi allyinthepollenspe traoftheL ake

Lubana depression (at Zvidze) already in the Early Neolithi layers, and an be

tra ed without interruption from the Middle Neolithi onwards [Yakubovskaya

1997℄.

Along theLithuanian oast hempbres were usedin everydaylife, asshown

byndsofseedsanda pie eofstringfroma MiddleNeolithi sitein the 

Sventoji

lagoon (no. 32) [Rimantiene 1979:75, 168℄, as well as hemp pollen in the L ate

Neolithi sitesat 

Sventoji(nos.1Aand9).

There is little data relatingto theuse of hempbre in theNeolithi of

pre-sent-day Poland. Its possible presen e is only noted in the territory of the

Li-near Pottery ulture (around 4000-4200 BC) in north-western Poland [Wi±la«ski

1979:179℄.

Barley (Hordeumvulgare)has beenfoundin a dierentarea | ontheshore

oftheGreater L ake Ludzas, whereahalf of aseed was foundinthevi inity ofa

hearthattheKrei iNeolithi settlement[Rasins,Taurina1983:154℄.

Inthevi inityoftheL akeLubana,barleypollenappearsinthelowerandupper

se tionsof theMiddle Neolithi layer of pollenspe tra [Yakubovskaya 1997:157℄.

This is possible eviden e of a hiatus in the ultivation of barley. The presen e

of this pollen is low in per entage terms. Previously it was the ereals, in luding

barley, fromKivutkalnsalongthelowerDaugava(L ateBronzeAge)thatservedto

hara terise early thefarming [Graudonis1989:72℄.Barley pollen has beenfound

in theMiddleNeolithi o upationlayer,whoseage, asindi atedabove,has been

determinedthroughradio arbondating[L oze1988a:Table19℄.Thismeansthatthe

initial pro ess of ereal ultivation,in luding thatof barley, started two thousand

yearsearlier.

Of ereal rops,barleyandmillethavebeenfoundintheNeolithi sitesalong

the Lithuanian oast at 

Sventoji [Rimantiene 1979:168; 1994:129℄. Also, Gaerte

[Gaerte 1929:32℄ mentions a nd of a husk of two-row barley at a site on the

CouronianSpit.

Barley was known at the Linear Pottery ulture and the Funnel Beaker

ul-turesitesin Poland[Wi±la«ski1979:Fig.XLVI℄,aswellastheTripolye ulture,the

GlobularAmphorae ultureandtheCorded Ware ulture sitesin entral Europe

[Wi±la«ski 1979:Fig. L℄. It has also been foundat the Funnel Beaker ulture

set-tlements in thesouth-western part of Skane [L arsson 1985:56℄,and it is thought

that barley was mu h easier to ultivate than einkorn or emmer wheat [L arsson

8. THEINITIALDEVELOPMENTOFAGRICULTURALSKILLS

Ar haeologi alandpalynologi alindi ationsofelementsoffarmingintheL ake

Lubanadepressionandthevi inity leadtothe on lusionthatthepeoplelivingin

thisareahadpossiblybeguntopra ti eshifting ultivation.

Shifting ultivation isa small-s ale formof agri ulture,interpreted asa

land--extensive and labour-intensive subsisten e system, be ause the leared areas, no

largerthan4ha,providedagoodreturnforonlyashortperiod(onetothreeyears).

Atthesametime,thepro essofforest learan e, ultivationandharvestingrequires

intensive humana tivity, with theuse of toolssu h as axes, knives, matto ksand

diggingsti ks[Harris1972℄.Thisformofsmalls aleagri ultureisusuallyasso iated

withalow populationdensityorsparselydistributed settlementswithapopulation

below250.

Shifting ultivation is onsidered parti ularly suitable for forest e osystems,

sin e the vegetation of the elds leared in forest ontains a higher potential of

nutrientstobeusedforprodu tionthaneldsestablishedin s ruborgrassland.A

grain rop,ri hinproteins, onstitutesalargerreserveoffood,whenitis ultivated

in ash andsoil, thandoesa root ropgrownunderthe same onditions.It isthe

erealsthatrequirea hangeinthesiteof ultivation,andforthisreasontheelds

are shiftedoften,witha largeterritoryusedbyea h ommunity.

ThedevelopmentoffarmingskillsintheL akeLubanabasin anbedis ussed

notonlyonthebasisofthespe i bodyofeviden edes ribedhere,butalsoagainst

amu h broaderba kground.

Asmentionedabove,theoriginofagri ultureisseenaspartofabroadpro ess

ofdomesti ationofthelands apebyso ialgroups[Chapman1994:113℄.

Oneofthemostimportantdetails relatedtothisquestionisthemodelling of

theinitial farmingoverlarge regions, onrmingorrefutinghypothesesof

indige-nousorigin ordiusion.

Without attempting to produ e a model of the rst farming, whi h should

doubtless be ondu tedat a larger s ale, overing theeastern Balti region, some

ofthebasi prin ipleswillbesket hedinwhi hshouldbetakenintoa ountwhen

interpretingthisquestionasitappliestotheL akeLubanadepression.

First, attention should be given to the long-term settlement of this region.

Thisisindi atedbythesu essionofo upationlayers attheZvidzesite,showing

uninterruptedsettlement in the Mesolithi andNeolithi [L oze 1988a:18-23℄.

Ar- haeologi al ex avationshereshowthesu essionfromMesolithi totheNeolithi

o upationlayersandthe hara ter of artefa tassemblages, andprovideeviden e

ofthe hara teristi softhe oraandfaunaofparti ularphasesofsettlement.

L ong-term settlement at Zvidze possibly indi ates thatthe lo al ommunity

asso iatedthe hoi eofthissettlementsitewiththeregularutilisationoftheL ake

Lubanaanditsshorezone,aswell asinitial useof pastureland andelds. Thisis

shownbyseed samples fromtheZvidzesite.Dominant areaquati grasses(40%)

trees and shrubs(10%)are worse represented in the e ologi al stru tureof seed

oras[L oze,Yakubovskaya1984:90,91℄.

ZvidzeisoneoftheveryraresitesontheeasternshoreoftheBalti Seawith

an o upationlayer in situ, re ording thebeginnings of the hange in subsisten e

strategy,markedbythetransitionfromahuntingandgatheringsubsisten estrategy

toagri ulture.Itispossiblethatlong-termsettlementre e tsadenite worldview

of the inhabitants,involving thelong-term use of a ertain hosen settlement, to

theextentthatitwasalsoadapted toadierentsubsisten estrategy.

Se ond, itshould be notedthatthere are noindi ations in theL ake Lubana

basin of thearrival of a new ulture, whi h ould have broughtwith it theskills

related to agri ulture. However, at the Zvidze site, a small amount of the

Fun-nel Beaker potteryhasbeenfound[L oze1988a:Fig.LVIII:1-3℄indi ating onta ts

betweenthepeopleoftheL akeLubanadepressionandthepeopleofthis ulture.

Thuswe anex ludethepossibilityofa ulture-bearingmigration,whi h ould

have indu ed hanges in the e onomi stru ture of the lo al tribes prior to the

CordedWare ulture.

Thepointed-buttandthin-butted intaxesfortree-fellingandforest learan e,

whi h have been re overed as stray nds in the area of present-day L atvia, do

not,withrareex eptions,repli ate hara teristi western,i.e. entralEuropeanand

S andinavian,formsof intaxesoftheFunnel Beaker ulture.

Third,isshouldbeborneinmindthatagri ultureintheL akeLubana

depres-sionwas beingadoptedinan area veryri h innaturalresour es. Thisisindi ated

by the thi k Neolithi o upation layers at the Zvidze site whi h have produ ed

remains ofalarge numberofspe iesof forestfauna(wildboar, elk,roedeer,red

deer andauro hs),as well aswide-ranging informationaboutNeolithi diet, sin e

the re orded data provides eviden e of intensive everyday use of birds and sh,

as well as water hestnut, hazelnut, hi k-weed, reed, stinging nettle et . [L oze,

Yakubovskaya1984:88,89℄.

Fourth, it shouldbe noted that it was pre isely in theMiddle Neolithi that

theL ake Lubanadepression, whi h ontinuedto be ome bogged up,was densely

pa kedwithnewsettlementsites,whi hdoubtlessindi atesasudden hangeinthe

demographi situation. On the other hand, the Mesolithi settlements, in luding

theOsasite,ex avatedbyZagorskis[Zagorskis1978:660-662℄werelo atedonlyon

theshoreoftheformer bedof theL ake Lubanaata heightof94-95m abovesea

level.Anin reaseinthepopulationandthesitingofsettlementsintheimmediate

vi inity of thenew, onsiderablylower, shoreline of theL ake Lubana (Sulka and

KvapaniIIintheMiddleNeolithi , AsneIandMalmutaIIintheL ateNeolithi ),

aswell asin themajor Aiviekstesystemofwater ourses(Dzedziekste, Nainiekste,

Piestina et .) indi ates thatnewly bogged over areas were being settled andthat

people were entering a new environment whi h initially had notbeen utilised |

withallofthe onsequen esthatthisentails.Atthesametime,intensiveNeolithi

settlementat theZvidzesite,ontheshoreof theformer bedof theL akeLubana

(on the edge of the undulating till) at a height of 94-95 m above sea level, was

It is possible that theinhabitants of these new settlements, who made their

homes in a dierent environment from that found at Zvidze, kept to the same

e onomi regime, butwerenolongerboundbytheviewoftheirprede essorsthat

itwasne essary to ontinuetoliveat the\spe ially hosenpla e".

The settlement of new areas was of great signi an e. Itis thought thatthis

stabilised thee onomi regime andbroadened thesphere of a tivities ondu ted

by the people of the region: they began to herd domesti animals and ultivate

ereals. However, it shouldbe noted that the bogged-over areas were subje t to

hangesinthewater onditionsbothduringtheAtlanti andtheSubborealPeriods,

whi h for ed the inhabitants to moveto higher ground | islands and headlands

| in the wetlands on at least a few o asions at ertain times in the Neolithi .

It is generally agreed that hunter-gatherers used natural resour es within a

ra-diusofa twohour'swalk,while forfarmersandsto k-keepersthis radiuswasone

hour's.

Itis of oursediÆ ult to judge,to whatextent theuninterruptedo upation

oftheZvidzesitewasin uen edbyso ialaspe tssu hasthelinkstothepastand

thean estors,buttheso ialvalueofthissitetogetherwithitsfun tionofproviding

naturalprote tionanditse onomi aspe ts, ouldnodoubthaveservedtomaintain

uninterruptedsettlement.

Fifth, thesedentary ommunitythatinhabited theZvidzesettlement wasnot

the last to make use of this area. L ateNeolithi sites have also been ex avated,

andthereare indi ationsthatEarlyandL ateBronzeAge,aswellastheIronAge

settlements, dis overedduringar haeologi al surveyworkbetween1961 and1990

were alsositedhere.

Also,themedievalvillageatSmaudiwaslo atedonlyafewhundredmetresto

thewestofZvidzeNeolithi siteontheshoreofareli tlake|anovergrownbayof

theformerbed oftheL akeLubana[L oze1974:41-44℄.AnEarlytoL ateIronAge

emetery was sited immediately adja ent [L oze 1974:42-44℄. These fa ts indi ate

thatsettlementwas uninterruptedand learlypointtoprodu tiveutilisationofthis

area overthe ourseofmillennia.

Sixth, indi ations of intensive farming (with mass nds of grindstones | an

average of40 per 100m 2

) in the entralpart of theL ateNeolithi siteof Abora

I indi ate a on entrationof settlement by another sedentary ommunity.

Inten-si ation of agri ulture iseviden e of a tivedevelopment ofthis subsisten e

stra-tegy, with the use of an assemblage of grindstones of the hand quern type and

pestles and mortars (Fig. 7), possibly at the same time handling a small herd of

livesto k.Hunting,shingandgatheringstillprovidedmostsubsisten eneeds.

Ho-wever, this site, unlike the site of Zvidze, was in later times, in the Middle and

L ateIronAge,utilised only ona seasonalbasis, be ause ofthegeographi al

situ-ation:therapidbogging-upofthisarea didnotpermithabitationaftertheBronze

Age.

Seventh, it is thought that the further adoption of agri ulture was fostered

by the inltration of small groups from the Corded Ware ulture into the L ate

Fig.7.Uppergrindstonesfromthe KvapaniII(1)andL agaza(2)sites,lower grindstonefromthe

L agaza site (3).(Colle tions of the Institute of Historyof the Universityof L atvia, Department of

Ar haeology,nos.194:693;118:596,290).DrawingbyMartaJankalnina.

who represented a new ultural environment, also started to adopt pastoralism

∗

.

They buried their dead in spe ial hambers (?) between buildings or within an

en losed area in thesettlementitself,rather thanat spe ialburial sites, providing

thedead with thepossibilityof beingpermanently among theliving. There might

be reserved the far end of the house or the area between houses, depending on

whetherthehearthwasinthemiddle orthefrontofthedwelling.

This fa t isgiven parti ular attention in interpretationsof the domesti ation

pro ess,andis onsideredasignofthedomesti ationofso iety[Hodder1990:29℄.

∗

de-Eighth, hangesinNeolithi symbolism analsobea epted,whi h,likeso ial

hanges, ouldhaveo urredinadvan e ofe onomi hanges.These hangestook

pla e on omitantlyandwereare e tionoftheworldviewandso ialstru tureof

therespe tiveperiod.WiththeintegrationofthepeopleoftheearliestCordedWare

ultureintothelo alenvironmentandthe reationofanew ulturalenvironment,

agri ulturalsymbolswereintrodu ed:solarandlunarsigns(intheformofpendants

andornaments)[L oze1994a;1994b℄.

Alsoahypothesishasbeenputforwardlinkingthe onstellationTauruswiththe

an ient agri ultural alendar, spe i ally thetime ofspringsowingand theadvent

ofsummer [Chmykhov1990:276-288℄.

The Taurus onstellation is seen in dis pendants whi h are widespread in

Europeandwhi h in theL ake Lubanadepressionwere madeof amberand worn

bywomen,a ompanyingthemtotheworldbeyondthegrave[L oze1993b;1993 ℄.

Changes in world view and so io-e onomi developments are also re e ted

in theL ate Neolithi art, su has a bull's head representationas a int s ulpture

(fromL agaza),whi hsurprisestheviewerwiththesuperblyexe uted urvedhorns

hara teristi ofthisparti ularanimalandthestylisedproportionsofthehead.

This symbol, like thoseof the sun and moon, are asso iated with the

han-gingseasons,oneofthemaindeterminantsoftheagri ultural y le.Observingthe

alendar was oneof themain pre- onditionsforobtaining a su essful |though

as yet small | harvest, whi h was perhaps notinsigni ant, bearing in mindthe

possibilitiesoftheearlyfarming.

It is possible thatthe role of the bull in the adoptionof thenew e onomi

regime was mu h greater than hitherto onsidered [Graudonis 1967:118;1989:76,

77℄. Thisis also shownbya model of a yoke for oxen found at a L ate Neolithi

site at 

Sventoji (no. 4A) onthe north-west oastof Lithuania[Rimantiene 1994:

Fig. 53℄.

ItseemsthattheuseofthehorseintheL ateNeolithi waslinkedtotransport

requirements,i.e. riding,asshownbypartofabridlebitfoundintheL akeLubana

depression(Abora; olle tionsoftheL atvianInstituteofHistoryattheUniversity

of L atvia, no. 76:3441). Establishing whether the horse was domesti ated does,

however,dependverymu honthedegree ofwearofthepre-molars.

The rst farming in the L ake Lubana basin indi ates the beginnings of the

adoptionofagri ulture(Zvidze),andtheintensi ationoffarmingskillsinthelater

partoftheStoneAgeinthissameregion(AboraI)showsthegradualdevelopment

ofthise onomi a tivity,alongwith hanges insymbolsandso ialstru ture.

Thatthis e onomi systemwas graduallydeveloping is shownbythesiting of

BronzeandIronAge settlementsandmedieval villages inthevi inityof theL ake

Lubanabeyondtheboundsof bogged-upareas,maintainingsome of theprevious

settlementsitesintheLubanawetmeadowsforseasonala tivities.

Finds of StriatedPotteryshow that L ate Bronze and Early Iron Age farmers

(1300BCtothese ondorthird enturyAD)madeuseofhighergroundalongthe

banksof theRezekne (Ideni andZoseri), Malta (Kup iand Zvejsalas) andSulka

Fig.8.Fragmentofahandleofastonematto k(1),fragmentsofshuttles(2,4), omb(3)andswingles

(5,6)fromAbora(1)andZvidze(2-6)(Colle tionsoftheInstituteofHistoryoftheUniversityofL atvia,

(SmaudziandZvidze).Thisisaperiodwhentherstfortiedsettlementappeared

at the south-east end of Ideni ridge [L oze, Vasks 1974:48-50; Vasks1994:65-73℄.

This is also a time of ardinal hanges in so ial stru ture, with the beginnings of

theso- alled periodof tribal so iety. The system offorti ations dis overed here

(defensivedit hesandwoodenpalisades)servedtoprote tnotonlythepeopleliving

at this site, but also those of the open settlements dis overed in the immediate

vi inity, also se uring the produ ts of farming labour (grain and other seeds of

ultivatedplants).

Eviden eoffarminginthisperiod omesintheformofseasonala tivitiesinthe

area ofthepresentwet meadows,possiblyinvolvinghaymakingandpasturealong

thebanks oftheAiviekste (Abora IandL agaza), Malta (Jasubova) andRezekne

(KvapaniII)rivers.

Thepeople makingEarly IronAgetextile impressedpottery afterthese ond

or third enturyAD ultivated elds onhigherground along thelower ourse of

theRezekne River (KvapaniL aivu Baze, Mikuli, Zoseri andLielie Idini),onthe

Idenihill(Brikuli)andonhighergroundalongthelower ourseoftheMaltaRiver

(Kup iandZvejsalas),alongthemiddle ourseoftheSulka(Sulagals)andonrises

se urefrom oodinginthebasinoftheMalmutaRiver(AdumeniIandII),aswell

asonthepresentshoreoftheL akeZvidzes(SmaudziandZvidze).

There is onsiderable eviden e ofseasonal a tivities of thepeople produ ing

textileimpressedpotteryinthebogged-updepressionoftheL akeLubanaalongthe

lower oursesoftherivers:Aiviekste (Abora IandL agaza),Malmuta (MalmutaI

andII)andRezekne (KvapaniIandIII).

Ontheotherhand,thefarmingpeoplemakingplasteredpotteryintheMiddle

and L ateIron Age (fthto tenth enturies AD) utilised areas of fertile alluvium

onthebanksof therivers: Piestina (MazaOsa, Liela Osaand Galeji),I a (Sala),

Rezekne (Kvapanu L aivu Baze, Mikuli, Pasloka, Zoseriand Ideni), Malta (Kup i

and Zvejsalas), Malmuta (Adumeni I and II) and Aiviekste (Naglini). They also

ontinuedto ultivate elds ontheshore of theL ake Zvidzes (Smaudzi and

Zvi-dziena).

Likemanypreviousgenerations,themakersofplasteredpotterymade

seaso-nal amps onthe banksof theAiviekste (Abora I), I a (I a and Upesgala Li is),

Rezekne (Kvapani II and III) and the lower ourse of the Malmuta (Malmutas

Grva).

That areas of higher groundwith mineral soil withinthe presentarea of the

Lubana wet meadows were used for growing summer ereal rops during

er-tain periods is shown by the use of the Abora site for agri ulture in the 1920's

and30s.

Thus,the L ake Lubanadepression with the StoneAge sites in the presently

bogged-overareas andsixtynewly dis overedsettlementsandvillage sites(Bronze

andIronAge,MiddleAges)outsideofthiszone, onstitutesaspe ialmi ro-region.

This is an area very well suited for large-s ale interdis iplinary resear hnot only

on erning earlyanddevelopedshifting ultivation, butalso ultivation of

9. MODELLINGTHEPROCES SOFADOPTIONOFAGRICULTURE

Modelling of the pro ess of the adoption of agri ulture is not possible

wi-thout resear h on a spe i body of data. For this reason, an understanding of

thispro essintheL akeLubanabasinneedstoutilise theabovedes ribedbodyof

eviden e gathered over the ourse of de ades, in luding studies of the

palaeoge-ographi al situationandenvironment ofthe rstfarming settlements, requiring a

onsiderable amount of work, whi h needs to be seen against the general

ultu-ralba kground[Eberhards1969:59-63;1981;1989;Dolukhanov,L evkovskaya1971;

L oze,Eberhards1983:116,117;L oze,etal.1984℄.Modellingoftheadoptionofthe

rstfarmingin theL ake Lubanabasin ouldbe ondu tedasfollows:

1. A ontinuousline of ulturaldevelopmentis onrmed(Mesolithi toMiddle

Neolithi ),envisioninga pro essoflo al, pea efuladoptionofagri ulture

wi-thina parti ularso ialenvironment (withouttheparti ipationofimmigrants)

asaresultofdiusion(thetimeoftheFunnelBeaker ulture);

2. A ertain in uxof so ially organised people isadmitted (inltrationof small

groupsoftheearliest CordedWare ulture)in theL ateNeolithi , already

fa-miliarwithagri ulture,furtheringthepro essoftheintrodu tionofthisa tivity

intothelo al ulturalenvironment;

3. Intensi ationof thepro essoftheadoptionofagri ulture in theL ate

Neo-lithi andthetransitiontotheBronzeAge,with pronoun ed hanges in

sym-bolism and so ial stru ture, markedthe possibilityof gradual stabilisation of

theintrodu tionofthisfarminga tivity,whi hwasinterruptedby atastrophi

hange( hanges in thewater regimein theL ake Lubana basin,whi h led to

rapidpaludi ation)andfor edthepeoplelivingintheregiontosettleoutside

ofthearea ofthepresent-daywetmeadows.

TranslatedbyValdisB

−

AR { Ar heologi kerozhledy,Praha.

AP { Ar heologia Polski,Wro ªaw.

AJPA { Ameri anJournalofPhysi al Anthropology,NewYork.

CA { CurrentAnthropology,Chi ago.

KSIA { Kratkiye Soobsh heniya Instituta Arkheologii Akademii

NaukUSSR,Moskva.

KSIA(Ukraine) { Kratkiye Soobsh heniya Instituta Arkheologii Akademii

NaukUSSR,Kiev.

KSOGAM { KratkieSoobs heniyaOdesskogoGosudarstvennego

Arkhe-ologi heskogoMuzeya,Odessa.

MASP { Materialy po Arkheologii Severnogo Pri hernomorya,

Kiev.

MIA { Materialy iIssledovaniyapoArkheologii,Moskva.

SA { SovetskayaArkheologiya,Moskva.

SAA { SovetAnthropologyandAr haeology,Moskva.

SE { SovetskayaEtnograya, Moskva.

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