P e r c o p y F r e e 8d . V O L . L I I
N o.
DISTILLATION PLANT
IN COURSE OF ERECTION
T H E A LU M IN IU M P L A N T A N O V E S S E L C O M P A N Y U M lT E O
W ANDSW ORTH P A R K , LONDON,S.W.18 Telephone i PUTNEY 4492 (8 lines) Telegrams t Anaclastic, Phone, London.
AUDLEY ENG IN EERING COMPANY L IM IT E D -N E W P O RT -S H RO P S H IR E • England L U B R I C A T E D P L U G VALVES in C a s t Ir o n , S te e l , S ta i n le s s S te e l , A c i d R e s i s t i n g B r o n z e , A u d c o l o y , R e i n f o r c e d E b o n i t e a n d ,Glass. f o r all
c h em ical p u r p o s e s .
f / Ä 'G 0V ifo fUGHT
°,igM , « • » ' , h u m . «
T H E C H E M I C A L A G E Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5
K E L V I N ■ B O T T O M L E Y * A N D * B A I R D • L T D .
Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 T HE C H E M I C A L A G E i
B A M A G O IL A N D F A T T R E A T IN G P L A N T S
M A R G A R I N E - V E G E T A B L E . G M g f l C O N F E C T I O N E R Y e t c.
B a m a g Ltd. s u p p l y a la rg e r a n g e o f P la nt f o r th e C h e m ic a l a n d O i l In d u s try i n c l u d i n g th o s e m e n t i o n e d in th e a b o v e chart. D o n o t hesitate to call u p o n th e se rv ic e s o f th e B a m a g Specia lis t C h e m is ts a n d E n g in e e rs to h e l p y o u in th e p l a n n i n g o f y o u r plant.
Full p a rtic u la rs a n d lite ra tu re u p o n re quest.
BAMAG
B A M A G L I M I T E D , U N I V E R S A L H O U S E
6 0 B U C K I N G H A M P A L A C E R O A D , L O N D O N , S . W . 1
T e le p h o n e : S L O a n e 9 2 8 2 T e l e g r a m s : B a m a g , S o w e s t , L o n d o n
B A M A G LIMITED a r e o n W a r O ffic e a n d A d m iralty Lisls
A
W A L L A C H
BROSL T DF .W . P O T T E R & SO A R .l t d
« • T A B E R N A C L E S T • L O N D O N • E C - l i C L E r k e n w e ll 1 « B '9
S A F E T Y F I R S T
PROTECT W ORKERS HANDS AGAINST IRRITANT SUBSTANCES THE “ O LD BU RY ” PATENTC A R B O Y D I S C H A R G E R
w ill e m p ty and e le vate up to 50 feet th e c o n te n t* o f any c a rb o y , b o ttle o r v e sse l, and com p iles w ith all th e con
d itio n s o f th e F a cto ry A c t o f 1937.
A pplied before w ork keeps hands healthy
R OZALEX L T D ., 10 N O R F O L K S T ., M A N C H E S T E R , 2
K ESTN ER EV A PO RA TO R & ENGINEERING --- CO., L T D .--- 5, G ro s re n o r G ard en s, W e stm in ste r, London, S.W .
— P O T T E R ’S --- Machinery Guards
* D E S I G N E D F O R S A F E T Y
T
Industrial MiTTi '■
Y” SAFETY
EQUIPMENT f c S E
ACID & ALKALI RESISTING C L O T H I N G , CARBOY S A F E T Y D E V I C E S , RUBBER, A S B E S T O S , L E A T H E R & C O T T O N G L O V E S , SPLASHPROOF G O G G L E S A N D F A C E S H I E L D S , and everything for th e p ro tec tio n of th e Industrial W o rk e r.
W ilte to -d a y for a co p y o f our “ B lue B ook lo r S a fe ty A p p lia n c e ,” — th e r e su lt o f fifty y e a r s ’ ex p e r ie n c e In
p ro tectin g Industry.
# U U I I. T F O R S E R V I C E
P o t t e r ’s guards a re Installed In w o rks th r o u g h o u t th e cou n try and are d lstln - g u is h a b le b y lh e ir so u n d c o n str u c - U on , g o od fittin g and m a n y e x c lu siv e fea tu res.
P I 1 I P P S T R E E T . L O N D O N . E .C .2 Tr'eoMones : FfShePigote 2177 (3
THE'TEflNTEE” STANDARD PORTABLE CONVEYOR
F I X E D & P O R T A B L E / C O N V E Y O R S ,
F A B R I C A T E D S T E E L W O R K
E T C . y
F i r s t A i d Outfi ts, etc., complying w i t h F a c t o r y R e g u l a t i o n s ,
F a c t o r y T h e r m o m e t e r s , etc. *
ï -'/ l'U n , b elt y T y j f ë Â 2 5 ft. c r s . f Suitable
j / *ora
variety of material*
jP^T.&T. WORKS LTD
r P h o n « ! B IL L E S D O N 261 B I L L E S D O N , L E I C E S T E R
FIRST AID SUPPLY CO. 1925
88, NEWINGTON B U TTS, LONDON, S .E .II T e le p h o n e : R E L Ia n c e 1823
THE CHEMICAL AGE Ma r c h 1 7 , 1945
S a f e t y F i r s t
Manufactured fry: THE TELEGRAPH CONSTRUCTION & MAINTENANCE CO. LTD.
Head Office : 72 O L D B R O A D S T ., L O N D O N , E .C .Z Tel: LONdon W all 3141 Sole Distributors:Be r y l l i u m & Co p p e r ALLOYS Lt d. 3 9 V i c t o r i a S t . Lo n d o n , S W 1 Tel: A B B e y 6259
Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 T H E C H E M I C A L A G E
I RS T
9 a h , is-A THE IGNITION IMP
8 HE Ign ition Imp is ever at the elbow o f workers using steel tools in hazardous locations. H e is th e spark produced when steel strikes steel, or any other spark-inducing surface. In industrial plants handling inflamm able or exp losive products, his opportunities for causing dam age and destruction are legion.
Run no risks ! Kanish th e Ignition Imp from y o u r factory by installing TELCON S A F E T Y TOOLS. Made from Beryllium - Copper— a new alloy o f amazing strength and hardness— th ey give, service com parable w ith steel tools, and arc im m une from danger
ous sparking. All types o f hand tools available. W rite for details.
T h e S a fe t y T ip is
iv T H E C H E M I C A L A G E Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5
A N E N T I R E L Y N E W P U B L I C A T I O N
O R G A N I C R E A G E N T S
F O R
O R G A N I C A N A L Y S I S
D eals w i t h t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f d e r i v a t i v e s o f o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s f o r p u r p o s e s o f i d e n t if ic a t io n by m e l t i n g p o in t s . F o r t y - o n e r e a g e n t s f o r t h i s p u r p o s e h a v e b e e n s e l e c t e d f o r d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t a f t e r careful r e - i n v e s t i g a t i o n in t h e H & W L a b o r a t o r y . A g e n e r a l s u r v e y o f t h e s u b j e c t in c l u d e s l i t e r a t u r e r e f e r e n c e s t o m a n y o t h e r r e a g e n t s , and e x t e n s i v e m e l t i n g p o i n t t a b l e s c o m p l e t e t h e v o lu m e .
O btainable only from the P ublishers
H OP KI N & W I L L I A M S L I M I T E D ,
1 6 - 1 7 , S T . C R O S S S T R E E T , L O N D O N , E . C . I
HOLLAND/S L M-
R O T A R Y C O M P R E S S O R S -
& V A C U U M P U M P S
LOW MAINTENANCE COSTS
LONG LIFE
I N I T I A L E F F I C I E N C I E S M A I N T A I N E D O V E R Y E A R S O F S E R V I C E
The B. A. Holland Engineering Go. Ltd ., 15 Dartmouth Street, London, S.W.1
W O R K S : P E R T H A V E N U E , S L O U G H A N O T H E R
P R O D U C T I O N
172 pages D e m y 8vo.
5
1 L . P o s t/ O Free,
Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 T HE C H E M I C A L A G E V.
v i T H E C H E M I C A L A G E Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5
F O U N D E D 1830
O ld-established y et u p -to -d ate in every detail, th is o r g a n is a tio n p r o v i d e s a s p e c i a l i s e d service for th e chemical industry th a t ensures rapid ¡delivery and low prices all th e tim e
H U D D E R S F I E L D
| One o f the many Holmes-Connersvllle Blowers supplied to Chemical W orks.
Capacity o f m achine Illustrated. 120,000 cu. ft. per hour a gainst a pressure o f 3 lbs. per sq. inch. Speed -400 r.p.m.
H E A D 0 F FI C E • T U R N B R I D G E - H U D O E R S F I E L O
LQNOON O FF IC E -119 VICTOR IA S T: S W_l - M10 1 ft H D S OFFICE - 2I.BENNET T 5 H i t t B IR H IHG H AH z' T e lep h o n es: H u d d e rsfie ld . 5 2 8 0 L O N D O N .' V i c t o r i a , 9971 : BIRMINGHAM. M id lan d . 6830
M A N U F A C T U R E R S A N D P R O P R I E T O R S O F
" I N
V i r T A " D E C O L O U R I S I N GI I N V I V i I M C A R B O N
PLUM BAGO CH ARCO AL (W ood & Animal) MANGANESE
" I K I V I r T A “ b i t u m i n o u s m a t e r i a l s I I N V I V r f I M FOR ROAD CON STRUCTION
g r i n d i n g i r , ' f b x r ’ ::
chemical and o th e r m aterials for th e trad e
T H O M A S H I L L - J O N E S , L T D .
MANUFACTURING CHEMISTS, INVICTA W ORKS, BOW COM M ON LANE' LO N D O N , E.3.
«nd a t M E E S O N 'S W H A R F , B O W B R ID G E , E .I 5 : : C O N T R A C T O R S T O H .M . G O V E R N M E N T T e l e p h o n e : E A S T 328S (3 t in e s ) . T e l e g r a m s : H l l l - J o n e t B o c h u r c h , L o n d o n
HOLM ES-CONNERSVILLE
P O S I T I V E A I R B L O W E R S
d e li v e r a p o s itiv e , r e lia b le a n d o il-fre e s u p p ly o f A ir e c o n o m ic a lly a n d effic ie n tly . A b s e n c e o f in te r n a l c o n ta c t e n s u r e s l o n g life , lo w m a in te n a n c e a n d c o n tin u o u s o p e r a tio n o v e r l o n g p e r io d s . M a n y o f th e s e m a c h in e s a r e in s u c c e s s fu l o p e r a tio n fo r th e h a n d lin g o f G a s e s . O v e r 1,400 h a v e b e e n s u p p l i e d a lr e a d y fo r s u c h p u r p o s e s .
D I F F U S I O N R E D U C T IO N
EMULSIFICATION CHLORINATION
\ x / y \ \ o \
NEUTRAEISATIOnA PRECIPITATION H YD RO G EN A TIO N .
P,R0 D #C T1>PJfS (LTD
-CENTRAL HOUSE^UPPER WOB.URN-PlACE .
yX^LONDON-KWC-l) ><Z><
T E - t h l - P - H ' O / H E : C U S T O-N / o B b- 7
M a r c h 17, 19.(5 THE CHEMICAL AGE
HORIZONTAL STAR AERATOR
T YP E S D / O t l O / 2
By\th,e u se ofjA erox porous c e ra m ib ^ m edia the 'degree's of diffusion c a n _ b e accur- 'a ie ly con tro lled due to^-the^
(\ Y
e v e n p o r e d e n s i t y . / T h e m e d i a - i s . s u p p l ie d i n .. s e y e n ,
y
t > ) i r \
d if f e r e n t p o r e s iz e s ,I r a n g i n g I
F o r 'I’u ^ th e ry p a r tic u la r s p lea se s e n d f o r o u r ¡6r 0 c b ’u T e r^ B '^
¡ ^ p r o d u c ts o f A Í R O Af iLTERS LTDÍ asgo»« and London.
v i ii T H E C H E M I C A L A G E Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5
A M E S C ftO S T A M IL L S & C O M P A N Y LTD.
M O S S I R O N W O R K S , H E Y W O O D, L A N G S . a n d A B B E Y H O U S E . V I C T O R I A ST..: L O N D O N S. WL
ATION OF TRADE WASTE WATERS
P U R IF IC A T IO N P L A N T S F O R B L E A C H W O R K S , D Y E W O R K S , T A N N E R I E S , C O L L IE R I E S , B R E W E R IE S , A R T I F I C IA L S IL K W O R K S , W O O L L E N M IL L S . C O T T O N W A S T E
M IL L S , E tc .. E tc.
T h e t r e a t m e n t o . t r a d e w a s te w a te r s calls fo r s p e c ia liz e d e x p e r ie n c e . F o r o v e r 40 y e a rs w e h a v e b e e n e n g a g e d in t h e m a n u f a c tu r e a n d in s ta lla tio n o f m e c h a n ic a l e q u ip m e n t f o r th is p u rp o s e . T h e ra n g e o f m a n u f a c tu r e s is e x te n s iv e a n d in clu d e s S c re e n s , G r i t S e p a r a t o r s , S e ttlin g T a n k s , R e v o lv in g a n d R e c ta n g u la r S p r in k le r s , B io lo g ic al T r e a t m e n t P la n ts , P u m p s , E je c to r s , V a lv es , P e n s to c k s , F lo a tin g A r m s , L im e M ix e rs , e tc . T h e s e a r e d e s c rib e d a n d i ll u s t r a te d in a c o m p r e h e n siv e s e r ie s o f b o o k le ts .
C h e m ic a l Eq u ip m e n t lined w ith Established a Century A c i d - r e s i s t i n g G l a s s E n a m e l and a Half. 1795-1945
T. & C. CLARK & C° LTD
T E L E G R A M S :
WOT A E R H A M P T O N
CLARK W OLVERHAMPTON " T 1 20204/5
Ma r c h 17. 1 945 T HE C H E M I C A L A G E
bring
immediate RESULTS
H a v e y o u re a l is e d j u s t h o w b i g th e fuel s a v i n g c a n b e w h e n a p l a n n e d , efficient F u e l W a t c h i n g s y s te m is o p e r a t i n g in a f a c t o r y ? R e s o u r c e f u l f a c t o r y m a n a g e m e n t s h a v e f o u n d in in t e n s i fie d F u e l W a t c h i n g t h e a n s w e r to t h e i r fu el p r o b l e m s .
D o n ’t f o r g e t t h a t t h e r e a r e F u e l Efficiency B u lletin s to p r o v i d e y o u w it h t h e l a t e s t ‘ s p e c i a li s t k n o w l e d g e o n a l m o s t e v e r y fuel s u b j e c t — v a l u a b l e a d v i c e a t y o u r fi n g e r-t ip s , r e a d y t o b e p u t t o full p r a c t ic a l use.
together they cannot fail
The com bination o f a good Fuel W atching system and the intelligent use o f your Fuel Efficiency B ulletins cannot fail to bring im m ediate and very w elcom e econ om ies in the consum ption o f co a l, g as and electricity.
■fr Fuel Watchers' Badges and additional copies o f the Fuel Efficiency Bulletins can be obtained fro m the Regional Offices o f the Ministry o f Fuel and Power.
IS S U E D BY T H E M IN IS T R Y O F F U E L & P O W E R
YOUR FUEL WATCHERS
B
X T H E C H E M I C A L A G E Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5
THIS APPARATUS M AKES
POTENTIOMETRIC TITRATION EASIER
THAN TITRATION BY COLOUR INDICATOR
W ith th is , th e M u lla rd E lectro m etric T itr a tio n A p p aratu s T y p e E .920, a ro b u st
* m agic-eye ’ tu n in g in d ic a to r replaces th e u su al fragile galvanom eter. N o external b a tte ry is n eed ed . D rift, a fre q u e n t b u g b e ar w ith su ch a p p ara tu s, has b e en en tirely overcom e — b y a n in genious n ew circu it. T h e a p p ara tu s is unaffected b y changes in th e su p p ly -m a in ’s voltage, a n d is eq u ally su itab le fo r research lab o ra to ry o r facto ry . B eing extrem ely sim ple to use, operatives w ith n o special tra in in g can use it. T h e price is £3 3.1 0.0. F o r fu rth e r p articu lars w rite to th e M u lla rd W ireless Service C o m p an y L td ., M e a su rin g A p p a ratu s S ectio n , C e n tu ry H o u se, S h aftesb u ry A venue, L o n d o n , W .C .2.
MULLARD
M E A S U R IN G A P P A R A T U S
Safe under severe strain s!
T he m any risks to which lab o rato ry glass is su b je c t w hen im p o rta n t te s ts and e x p e rim en ts a re being carried o u t, call for glassw are of p ro v ed reliability u n d e r conditions of s e v e re strain.
The am azing resistan t p ro p e rtie s o f PYREX Brand Scientific Glassw are have b e e n of in estim ab le value alike to th e scientist, th e re se a rc h w o rk e r and th e m anufacturing ch em ist.
W ith th e rem ark ab ly low co-effi<:ient of expiansion of .0000032, PYREX Brand Scientific G lassw are is im m u n e fro m th e e lfe c ts of su d d en th erm al changes, which fe a tu re allows th e s tru c tu re o f PYREX Brand G lassw are ta b e h eav ier and m o re ro b u st th an th a t of o rd in ary glass, th e re b y giving additional safety against b reak ag es in e v ery d ay handling.
P > Y f ô I X
REGD. TR A D E M A R K . B R A N D .SCIENTIFIC GLASSWARE
P Y R E X B r it m i S c ie n t i f ic G la s s w a r e is s u p p li e d o n ly t h r o u g h L a b o r a t o r y F u r n i s h e r s , b u t i l l u s t r a t e d c a t a lo g u e a n d tw o f r e e c o p ie s o f o u r C h e m is t 's N otebo ok w i l t be s en t d ir e c t oh a p p li c a t io n to >*s.
A s k f o r P Y R E X B ra n d an d see t h a t y o u g et it !
JAM ES A. JO B LIN G & C O . LTD.
S U N D E R L A N D . T^ c
Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 T H E C H E M I C A L A G E x i .
BTH R U G B Y
T H E B R I T I S H T H O M S O N - H O U S T O N C O M P A N Y L I M I T E Ö " . R U G B Y , E N G L A N D
FLAMEPROOF
CONTACTOR STARTERS
DIRECT-ON-LINE
S T A R T E R , w i t h m e c h a n i c a l l y a n d e l e c t r i c a l l y i n t e r l o c k e d i s o l a t o r , f o r m o t o r s u p t o 1 0 H o r s e p o w e r .
C o v e r c a n n o t b e re m o v e d u n less Is o la to r is o p e n . I s o l a t o r :—
In s e p a ra te fla m e p ro o f c h a m b e r.
S t a r t e r can b e e x a m in e d w ith is o la to r o p e n in p e rfe c t safety , and complies with Coal Mines D ra ft Regulation 1 4 (Hi).
fo r m o to rs up to 10 H o rsep o w er a t 4 0 0 /5 5 0 v o lts.
S T A R T E R ( w i t h o u t I s o l a t o r ) f o r m o t o r s u p t o 7 ; H o r s e p o w e r .
Flameproof Reversing Starters up to 6 Horsepower a t 4 0 0 /5 5 0 volts.
Flam eproof Star-delta Starters up to 15 Horsepower at 4 0 0 /5 5 0 volts.
Conform to BSS.229/1940
THE C H E M I C A L A G E Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5
ACTIVATED ALUMINA
ADSORBENT AND CATALYST
W R I T E F O R P A R T I C U L A R S
PETER SPENCE & SONS LTD.
NATIONAL BUILDINGS ■ ST. MARY'S PARSONAGE
M A N C H E S T E R , 3
l o n d o n'o f f ic e: 4 H A N G E R G R E E N ,E A L IN G W .S
T O W E R S
A N A L Y T I C A L B A L A N C E S . C apacity 200 grm . Sensitivity 0.1 m grm.
■
T o w e r s Model 75 £27 . 10 . 0
(illu stra te d )
T o w e r s Model 55 £19 . 10 . 0
ACID-RESISTING
=CEMENTS=
P A T E N T A C I D - P R O O F N O N - S L I P F L O O R S
Consult~
F. HAWORTH (
A C I C E M E N T 1 N G ) L T D .R A M S B O T T O M • L A N C A S H IR E
Made In o u r w orkshops a t W idnes.
Full particulars on application J. W . TOWERS & C O . LTD.
H ead Office and W orks : W ID N E S MODEL 7 S M A N C H E S T E R : 44 C h a p e l S t .. Salfo rd 3 L I V E R P O O L : 134 B ro w n lo w H ill
SO DIUM O X A L A T E
P h o n e : N e w C r o s s 1826 THE C H E M I C A L A G E Ma r c h 1 7, 1 945
G ood timber is scarce, but for essential work
still supply VATS
IN TIMBER UP TO
PRE-WAR STANDARD OF QUALITY AND SEASONING
CARTY
A N D S O N , L I M I T E D
H ard ers R d ., P e c k h a m , LONDON, S.E.15
CARTY’S can
R E A S O N S F O R U S I N G
‘A n a l a R ’ C H E M I C A L S
0 T h e y a r e o f B r itis h M a n u f a c tu r e
£ T h e y c o n f o rm t o p u b lis h e d s t a n d a r d s o f p u r i ty O T h e y a r e s u p p lie d u n d e r la b e ls sh o w in g
m a x im u m lim its o f a ll lik e ly i m p u r i t ie s 0 T h e y a r e b o t tl e d u n d e r c o n d itio n s w h ic h
e n s u r e f r e e d o m f r o m c o n ta m in a ti o n
9 T h e y a r e so p u r e t h a t ‘ r e a g e n t e r r o r s ’ a r e e lim in a te d
'A n a la R ’ laboratory chemicals are essentially intended for use as th e standard analytical m aterials in laboratories w h e re im p o rtan t and responsible w o rk is u n d ertak en . The ' A N A LA R ' specifica tio ns are set out in the publication
" A N A L A R STAN D ARD S FOR LA B O R A TO R Y C H E M IC A L S ."
Third Edition
Price : 5s. Od. Postage e x tra
THE BRITISH DRUG HOUSES LTD.
G R A H A M S T R E E T L O N D O N N .l
The Chemical Age
A '|W eekly Journal Devoted to Industrial and E ngineering C hem istry
B O U V E R I E H O U S E , 154 F L E E T S T R E E T , L O N D O N , E .C .4
T e leg ra m s: A LLA N G A S F L E E T LO N D O N T e le p h o n e : C E N T R A L 3 2 1 2 ( 10 lines) G LASGOW : 1 1 6 H o p e S tre e t (C entral 39 70) B IR M IN G H A M : D aim ler H ouse, P a rad ise S tre e t (M idland 0 78 4-5) T H E C H E M IC A L A G E offices are closed on S a tu rd a y s in acco rd an ce w ith th e a ^ j ^ i o a . p f th e fiv e-d ay w eek b y
B en n B ro th e rs L im ited
VOL. L I I
N o. 13 4 2.
March 17 , 1945
b scrip tio n 2 1s.it se as 26s.
T h e S evern B arrage
g r id . T h e s e m o d ific a tio n s h a v e g iv e n r is e to c e r t a i n c h a n g e s in th e d e s ig n o f th e s ta tio n w h ic h it is n o t n e c e s s a r y to d e s c rib e h e re .
T h e p r i n c i p a l m o d if ic a tio n is in th e m e th o d o f w o r k in g . T i d a l p o w e r is i n te r m it t e n t . O v e r e a c h 24 h o u r s th e r e w ill b e tw o p e r io d s o f a b o u t 7 h o u r s e a c h d u r i n g w h ic h th e b a r r a g e p l a n t w o u ld o p e r a te , l e a v i n g tw o p e r io d s o f 5 h o u r s e a c h w ith o u t p r o d u c tio n . T h e o u t p u t on s p r i n g tid e s is m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n on n e a p tid e s a n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , h i g h w a te r o c c u rs a b o u t 48 m in u te s l a t e r e a c h d a y . N o t h i n g c a n b e d o n e to s m o o th o u t th e s e a s o n a l v a r ia ti o n s o f th e p o w e r a v a i l a b le , a n d th e 19 3 3 C o m m itte e fo re s a w g r e a t d iffic u ltie s in u t i l i s i n g a d a ily v a r ia tio n in p o w e r o f th is c h a r a c te r . T h e y re c o m m e n d e d a s y s te m o f p u m p e d s to r a g e w h e r e b y p a r t
On Other P ages
N o tes and C om m ents ... 235 B oiler P la n t M a in ten a n ce—
M in era l W e a lth and R u stic C harm — E v a n e sc en t I n k R oyal I n s titu te o f C h em istry M agnesium P ro d u c tio n — I
A
N Y h o p e s t h a t m a y h a v e b e en e n te r ta i n e d t h a t th e g e n e r a tio n of e le c tr ic a l p o w e r f r o m th e r i v e r S e v e r n w o u ld le a d to e le c tr ic ity c h e a p e n o u g h to e n a b le e le c tr o - c h e m ic a l i n d u s tr ie s to b e d e v e lo p e d in th is c o u n tr y h a v e b e e n fin a lly s h a t te r e d b y th e l a t e s t r e p o r t o n th e S e v e r n B a r r a g e S c h e m e . S e v e ra l r e p o r ts h a v e b e e n is s u e d o n th is sc h e m e , o f w h ic h th e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s iv e w a s t h a t o f t h e 19 3 3 S e v e r n B a r r a g e C o m m itte e . N o a c tio n w a s th e n ta k e n a n d th e M in is te r o f F u e l a n d P o w e r s e t u p a p a n e l o f e n g in e e r s in N o v e m b e r , 19 4 3, to r e v ie w th e c o n c lu s io n s o f th e 19 33 C o m m itte e .In g e n e r a l, th e 194 3 C o m m itte e h a s fo u n d i ts e l f in a g r e e m e n t w ith m o s t of th e m a j o r f e a t u r e s p ro p o s e d by t h e ,
■933 C o m m itte e th o u g h w ith c e r ta in e x c e p tio n s . T h e s e
e x c e p tio n s a r e b a s e d u p o n l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e d e s ig n o f h y d r o - e le c tr ic p l a n t , e n a b l i n g fe w e r b u t l a r g e r tu r b in e a n d a l t e r n a t o r u n its to b e i n s t a l l e d ; th e g r e a t in c r e a s e in th e p r ic e o f c o a l d e liv e r e d to e le c tr ic ity p o w e r s ta tio n s s in c e 1 9 3 3; t h e p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e n e c e s s ity f o r c o n s e r v in g c o a l ; a n d l a s tl y , th e g r e a t e x p a n s io n in th e . s u p p ly a n d c o n tr o l o f e le c t r i c i t y w ith the.
d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e
236 237 243 243 I n d u st rial Resea rch
N ew C ontrol O rders ...
F ertilisers—-Iron and S tee l P rices
d a m m e x a n e ... ... ...244 B o xe d G lass C arboys ... 240 P erso n a l N o tes ... ... ... 248 P a rlia m en ta ry T opics ... 248 S ea w eed R esearch ... 249 G eneral N ew s fro m W e e k to W e e k 249 F o rth co m in g E v e n ts ... ... 251 C om pany N e w s ... i ...252 N ew C om panies R eg iste red ... 252 S to c k s and S h a re s ... 252 B ritish C hem ical P rices ... 254
o f th e p o w e r g e n e r a te d w o u ld b e u s e d ' to p u m p w a t e r b a c k in to s to r a g e so t h a t th e v a r ia b le a n d / i n t e r m i t t e n t p o w e r c o u ld b e r e p la c e d e ith e r b y c o n s ta n t c o n tin u o u s p o w e r o r b y p o w e r v a r y in g w ith th e d a il y d e m a n d . I n th e s e c i r c u m s ta n c e s th e p o w e r a v a i l a b l e p e r y e a r w a s c a l c u l a te d to be 1 6 10 m illio n u n its . T h e 194 3 C o m m itte e h a s c o m e to t h e c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e v a r y in g a n d i n te r m it t e n t 233
¿34 T H E C H E M I C A L A G E Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 o u t p u t of th e b a r r a g e c o u ld b e ta k e n u p
by th e e x is ti n g e le c tr ic a l g r i d by o p ty a t- in g th e c o a l-fire d s ta tio n s to s u it th e o u t p u t o f th e b a r r a g e . B y th is m e a n s p u m p e d s to r a g e is a v o id e d , b a r r a g e c u r r e n t w ill be c h e a p e r , a n d th e e n e r g y a v a i l a b l e w ill b e in c r e a s e d b y A p p r o x i
m a te ly 2 10 0 m illio n u n its p e r a n n u m . O u r r e a d i n g o f th e r e p o r t is t h a t sin c e th e p o w e r o u t p u t is i n c r e a s e d a n d th e c a p i t a l c o s t m a t e r i a ll y d e c r e a s e d by e l i m in a t in g th e p u m p e d s to r a g e s y s te m , th e C o m m itte e h a s a d o p te d th is p ro p o s a l a s a m e a n s fo r r e d u c in g th e c o s t o f th e c u r r e n t , a n d t h a t w ith o u t t h is c h a n g e th e r e w o u ld b e n o e c o n o m ic b a s is fo r th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f a S e v e rn b a r r a g e .
C o a l-fire d s ta tio n s s u p p l y i n g c u r r e n t to th e g r id a r e r e s tr ic te d in t h a t o u tp u t fro m a n y o n e s o u rc e is lim ite d to a r e a s o n a b le p r o p o r tio n o f th e to ta l d e m a n d o n th e s y s te m a t a n y tim e . T h is l im ita tio n in th e c a s e o f th e S e v e rn b a r r a g e .is to b e 20 p e r c e n t, o f th e d e m a n d . O n t h is b a s is a n d o n 1944 p r ic e s it is c o n c lu d e d t h a t b e tw e e n th e y e a r 10 5 5, w h e n th e b a r r a g e c o u ld b e in o p e r a tio n , a n d 19 7 0 th e c o s t o f c u r r e n t a t r e c e p tio n p o in ts \y o u ld b e 0.2 7 3d. p e r u n it, f a l l i n g to o .2 6 2d. a f te r 19 7 0, by w h ic h tim e th e r e s tr ic tio n w o u ld c e a s e to o p e r a te . T h e c o s t a t b a r r a g e s u b s ta tio n s w o u ld b e o .s o g d ./ k W h ; w ith - c o a l sa v e d a t th e a v e r a g e r a te o f 1.046 l b ./ k W J i, th e a v e r a g e c o st o f c o a l d e liv e r e d to c o a l-fire d s ta tio n b u n k e r s w o u ld h a v e to b e 3 7s. 3d . a to n to j u s t if y th is fig u re o f o .209d . o n p u r e ly e c o n o m ic a l g r o u n d s . .
T h e C o m m itte e h a s c o n s id e r e d w h a t u se c a n b e s t b e m a d e o f e le c tr ic a l e n e r g y o f th is i n te r m it t e n t c h a r a c te r . I t w a s h o p e d t h a t so m e d ir e c t i n d u s t r ia l u se m ig h t b e fo u n d b y th e e r e c tio n o f suit*
a b le f a c to r ie s in th e n e ig h b o u r h o o d o f th e b a r r a g e , b u t th is w a s r u le d o u t s in c e it w a s fo u n d t h a t n o in d u s t r y is a t p r e s e n t e q u ip p e d to u tilis e i n te r m it t e n t , v a r ia b le , a n d p r o g r e s s iv e e n e r g y in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e tid a l c y c le . Tt w a s th o u g h t p o s s ib le t h a t s u c h p ro c e s s e s m ig h t b e d e v is e d in f u tu r e a n d p a r t i c u l a r re fe r e n c e is m a d e to th e m a n u f a c t u r e o f m a g n e s iu m o x id e o r th e p r o d u c tio n o f h y d r o g e n a n d o x y g e n b y th e e le c tr o ly s is o f w a te r . I t d o e s n o t a p p e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t th e r e w o u ld b e a n y th i n g lik e su ffic ie n t d e m a n d to a b s o r b t h e b a r r a g e o u t p u t, a t a n y r a te fo r so m e tim e . O th e r m e th o d s o f u t il i s in g th e c u r r e n t w e re in v e s ti g a te d , s u c h a s
d i s t r ic t h e a t i n g , c o - o p e r a tio n w ith o th e r tid a l sc h e m e s w h ic h m ig h t o p e r a te w h e n th e S e v e rn b a r r a g e w a s o u t o f c o m m is sio n , s i m il a r c o - o p e r a tio n w ith h y d r o e le c tr ic s ta tio n s , a n d p u m p e d s t o r a g e a s m e n tio n e d ' p r e v io u s ly . F o r v a r io u s r e a s o n s a ll th e s e s o lu tio n s w e re r e je c te d , a n d i t w a s d e c id e d t h a t th e o n ly fe a s ib le m e th o d w a s to c o u p le th e b a r r a g e p l a n t to th e g r i d s y s te m a n d to r e g u la te th e o u t p u t o f c o a l-fire d s ta tio n s so t h a t th e y m ig h t, to g e th e r w ith th e b a r r a g e , g iv e a n o u t p u t v a r y in g w ith th e d a il y f lu c tu a tio n o f d e m a n d .
U n d e r th e s e c o n d itio n s th e d e c is io n w h e th e r to b u i ld th e S e v e r n b a r r a g e s ta tio n o r n o t is o n e o f e x tr e m e d iffic u lty b e c a u s e , s in c e th e b a r r a g e c u r r e n t is n o t p ro d u c e d a t th e s a m e tim e e a c h d a y o w in g to th e d a il y re c e s s io n — so m e 48 m in u te s — o f th e tim e o f h i g h w a te r , th e s a m e c a p a c ity o f c o a l-fire d s ta tio n s m u s t be b u ilt a n d m a in ta in e d w h e th e r th e S e v e r n b a r r a g e is c o n s tr u c te d o r n o t.
W e th u s h a v e (1) a h u g e e x p e n s e in b u i ld i n g th e b a r r a g e , e s tim a te d a t 7(4 7,000,0 0 0; (2) a r e d u c e d e ffic ie n c y in l b . / k W h f o r th e c o a l-fire d s ta tio n s , w h ic h m u s t w o r k i n te r m it t e n t l y o r a t le a s t a t lo w e r o u t p u t, in o r d e r t h a t th e g r id m a y a c c e p t th e b a r r a g e . c u r r e n t ; (3) a n in c r e a s e d c a p i t a l c o st p e r k W h fo r c o a l- fire d s ta tio n s , s in c e th e i r lo a d f a c to r w ill c e r t a i n l y n o t b e im p ro v e d . O n th e o th e r h a n d , it is sh o w n in a n a p p e n d ix to th e r e p o r t t h a t “ t id a l e n e r g y c a n u n d e r c e r ta in c o n d itio n s , d e p e n d e n t on c a p ita l c h a r g e s , w o r k in g c o s ts , a n d p r ic e o f c o a l, b e s u p p lie d a t a c o s t n o t g r e a t e r t h a n th e a v e r a g e c o s t o f e n e r g y fro m c o a l-fire d s ta tio n s a n d in so d o in g s a v e s th e c o n s u m p tio n o f c o a l t h a t w o u ld b e n e c e s s a ry if it w e re s u p p lie d fro m su c h s t a ti o n s . ”
W h e t h e r th e b a r r a g e s h o u ld b e b u ilt o r n o t, th e r e f o r e , d e p e n d s on th r e e f a c to rs . O n th e s t r i c t l y e c o n o m ic sid e th e fa c to r is th e p r ic e o f c o a l. I t is s u g g e s te d in th e r e p o r t t h a t th e a lr e a d y h ig h p ric e of c o a l w ill n o t d e c r e a s e , b u t on th e c o n t r a r y w ill c o n tin u e to in c r e a s e . T h e a v e r a g e p r ic e o f c o a l ( p r e s u m a b ly d e liv e r e d to th e C e n tr a l E le c t r i c i t y B o a rd S ta tio n s ) ro s e fro m 14s. 8d. in 19 3 3 to t6s. to d . in 19 36 a n d to 4 2s. 2d . in 19 4 4. C o n c u r r e n tly w ith th e p r o p h e c y o f th e in c r e a s in g p r ic e o f c o a l th e r e p o r t a ls o p r o p h e s ie s a d e c r e a s in g q u a n ti t y o f c o a l r e q u ir e d p e r k W h a t c o a l-fire d s ta tio n s ,
Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 T H E C H E M I C A L A G E -35 d o w n to a l im it o f 0 .5 4 lb. c o a l / k W h
w h ic h , it is re c k o n e d , w ill b e r e a c h e d in o r a b o u t th e y e a r 2 0 3 5. U n d e r th e s e c o n d itio n s , a d m i t te d l y p r o b le m a tic a l, it*
is c o m p u te d t h a t th e S e v e r n b a r r a g e w o u ld - b e e c o n o m ic o v e r a n 80- y e a r a m o r tis a tio n p e r io d if th e p r ic e o f co al w e re 49s. id . in 19 6 2, 49s. yd. in 19 7 0, r i s i n g s te a d ily to 90s. 6d . in 2 0 3 5. I t m u s t n o t b e f o r g o tte n t h a t th e p r e s e n t p ric e o f c o a l is a b n o r m a l a n d t h a t th e M in is te r o f F u e l h a s a p p o in te d a T e c h n ic a l C o m m itte e o n C o a l M in in g (w h ic h s h o u ld r e p o r t s o o n ), th e o b je c t o f w h ic h is to d e c r e a s e th e c o st of c o a l b y a p p r e c ia b l y i n c r e a s in g th e o u tp u t p e r m a n -s h ift.
T h e s e c o n d f a c to r is th e n e c e s s ity fo r c o n s e r v in g c o a l. I t is q u ite e v id e n t f r o m th e f ig u re s g iv e n t h a t w e a r e n o t g o in g to g e t c u r r e n t a n y c h e a p e r (to say
NOTES AND
B oiler P lant M aintenance
O
N p r e v io u s o c c a s io n s w e h a v e m a d e r e f e r e n c e to th e m e r its o f m a in te n a n c e e n g in e e r s , w h o s e b r a n c h o f w o rk h a s s u ffe re d h e a v ily d u r i n g th e w a r fro m s h o r t a g e o f m a n -p o w e r. W e a re th e r e f o r e a ll th e m o re g l a d to h e a r of th e is s u e o f a b o o k le t w h ic h w ill b e of a s s is ta n c e to th e m , a t a n y r a te to th o s e w h o a r e c h a r g e d w ith th e m a in te n a n c e o f b o ile r s . O fficia ls o f th e M in is tr y o f F u e l , w h o s e F u e l E ffic ie n c y C o m m itte e -has p r o d u c e d th e p a m p h l e t ( F u e l E ffic ie n c y B u lle tin N o . 38), in f o r m u s th a t th e y h a v e s e a rc h e d te c h n ic a l lib r a r ie s a n d b o o k s h o p s in v a in fo r a . r e lia b le g u id e to th e p r a c t ic a l s id e o f b o ile r p l a n t m a in te n a n c e , th o u g h b o ile r p la n t o p e r a tio n is d e a lt w ith a d e q u a te ly . NTo d o u b t th is la c k o f g u id a n c e h a s s o m e t h in g to d o w ith th e p o o r s ta te o f m u c h i n d u s tr ia l b o ile r p l a n t to -d a y . T h e c lo s e s c r u tin y w h ic h s te a m g e n e r a tio n a n d b o ile r p la n t p e r f o r m a n c e h a v e b e e n g iv e n on a n a ti o n a l s c a le u n d e r w a r c o n d itio n s h a s sh o w n th e e x te n t to w h ic h m a in te n a n c e o f p l a n t h a d b e e n n e g le c te d . “ I n m a n y i n s t a n c e s ,” th e M in is tr y p o in ts o u t, “ th e c o n d itio n of th e b o ile r p l a n t w a s fo u n d to b e such th a t effic ie n t o p e r a tio n w a s im p o s s ib le , th e m o s t e le m e n ta r y p r i n c i p l e s o f b o ile r m a in te n a n c e h a v in g b e e n ig n o r e d .' A ll e ffo rts to r a is e p e r f o r m a n c e to a h ig h
th e le a s t) d u r i n g th e first 80 y e a r s o f th e lif e o f th e S e v e r n b a r r a g e th a n w e s h o u ld if v h e b a r r a g e w a s n o t b u ilt. Is it w o rth w h ile b u i ld i n g th e b a r r a g e in o r d e r to s a v e a q u a n ti t y o f c o a l w h ic h is e s tim a te d to be a b o u t 1,000,00 0 to n s a y e a r in 19 3 5, d e c r e a s in g to j u s t o v e r 500,000 to n s a y e a r by 2035 ?
T h e t h ir d f a c to r is th e c o n tr ib u tio n w h ic h th e b u i ld i n g o f th e b a r r a g e w o u ld m a k e to e m p lo y m e n t in th e . d iffic u lt p o s t- w a r p e r io d t h a t is so n e a r l y u p o n u s. I t is e s tim a te d t h a t d u r i n g th e e ig h t y e a r s o f c o n s tr u c tio n th e r e w o u ld b e a n a n n u a l a v e r a g e o f 1 1 ,7 2 7 m e n e m p lo y e d in th is w o rk . C l e a r l y , th e d e c is io n is n o t g o in g to b e e a s y . W h a t e v e r is d e c id e d , it is f u l ly a p p a r e n t t h a t w e c a n n o t e s ta b lis h c h e a p p o w e r i n d u s tr ie s on th e b a s is o f th e S e v e rn b a r r a g e .
COM M ENTS
le v e l m u s t, o f c o u r s e , fa il if th e p la n t is n o t in a g o o d s t a te o f r e p a i r . I f th e p l a n t is w e ll m a in ta in e d g o o d re = u lts a r e m o re e a s ily g o t f ro m i n f e r i o r fu e ls a n d th e d e m a n d s o n b o ile r - h o u s e la b o u r a r e e a s e d . A s p e c ia l a d v a n t a g e o f th is B u l le t in N o . 38 is t h a t , a lth o u g h th e r e is in it a w e a lth o f r e a l ly u s e fu l f a c ts a n d s u g g e s tio n s , th e s e a r e s e t o u t in s u c h a m a n n e r t h a t th e in f o r m a tio n is q u ic k ly g r a s p e d .
M ineral W ealth and R ustic Charm
T
H E d e c is io n o f th e M in is te r o f T o w n a n d C o u n tr y P l a n n i n g to p e r m i t th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f a c e m e n t w o rk s a t C a u ld o n L o w , S ta f f o td s h ir e , a p p e a r e d to se t a te r m to th e c o n tr o v e r s y a b o u t th e a m e n itie s o f th e M a n if o ld V a lle y . T h e d e c is io n la y s d o w n t h a t th e e x p lo ita tio n o f B r i t a i n ’s n a tu r a l w e a lth m u s t ta k e p r e c e d e n c e of th e r u r a l s ta tu s q u o , p r o v id e d t h a t d u e a r r a n g e m e n t s a re m a d e a b o u t m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d w o r k in g m e th o d s a n d s u ita b le la n d s c a p e t r e a t m e n t. A s a r e s u l t o f r e p r e s e n ta tio n s m a d e b y th e C . P . R .E . a n d o th e r b o d ie s it h a s b e en la id d o w n t h a t q u a r r y w a s te m u s t b e c a r t e d a w a v , t h a t tr e e s m u s t b e p la n te d on la n d s p o ilt b y q u a r r y i n g , a n d t h a t s m o k e a n d d u s t m u s t b e re d u c e d to a m in im u m , a n d th e M in is te r s a id th a t h e h a d ta k e n g e o lo g ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic f a c to r s in to a c c o u n t, a s w e ll as q u e s tio n s o f a m e n ity . It c o m e s a ll th e m o re236 T H E C H E M I C A L A G E Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 a s a s u r p r is e , t h e r e f o r e , to le a r n t h a t a
r ic h s e a m o f c o a l h a s b e e n d is c o v e r e d in th e v ic in ity o f C a u ld o n L o w . T h is i n d e e d p u t s a n e w c o m p le x io n o n th e m a t t e r , a n d th e . m a in e c o n o m ic a d v a n t a g e o f o p e n in g th e c e m e n t w o r k s d is a p p e a r s in a fla s h . F o r th e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t th e o p e n in g o f a n e w c o llie r y w o u ld s u i t th e u n e m p lo y e d m in e r s of C h e a d le f a r b e tt e r t h a n c o u ld a c e m e n t w o rk s . T h o s e w h o f o u g h t fo r p r e s e r v in g th e a tt r a c t iv e n e s s o f th e c o u n tr y s id e w ill b e th e b e tt e r p le a s e d , to o . F o r to -d a y th e o p e n in g o f a p i t n o lo n g e r m e a n s th e d e v a s ta tio n o f a w id e a r e a , a s th e c o llie r y a t C a lv e r to n , in r u r a l N o t t in g h a m s h i r e , b e a r s w itn e s s . I t lo o k s a s t h o u g h b o u n te o u s N a t u r e h a s s p r u n g a p le a s a n t s u r p r i s e o n b o th p a r ti e s to th e c o n tr o v e r s y .
E vanescent Ink
E F E R R I N G to th e l e t t e r f r o m M r.
M a th e w s in o u r is s u e o f M a r c h 3 (p . 205) o n th e s u b je c t “ W a s te P a p e r a n d th e C h e m is t,” a c o r r e s p o n d e n t r e c a l l s a n o te p u b lis h e d in th e w e e k ly j o u r n a l P r o m e t h e u s , e d it e d b y th e d is t in g u is h e d d y e s tu ffs c h e m is t, P r o f e s s o r O . N . W i t t , a n d p u b lis h e d in G e rm a n y in th e c lo s in g y e a r s o f th e 1 9th c e n tu r y . T h e sc o p e o f t h e j o u r n a l w a s to e n li g h t e n th e p u b lic a b o u t s c ie n tific a n d te c h n ic a l d e v e lo p m e n ts , a n d o n e o f th e e d i t o r ’s w e e k ly a r ti c l e s d e a l t w ith th is v e ry p r o b le m o f d e - in k in g p a p e r . T h is w a s a t th e tim e w h e n n e w s p a p e r p r i n te r s , e s p e c ia lly in F r a n c e a n d A m e r ic a , w e re in th e h a b it o f u s i n g a n il i n e d y e s fo r p r i n t i n g ; th e s e w e re e a s ily r e m o v e d b y b l e a c h i n g , t h u s g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t i n g th e d e - in k in g o f u s e d p a p e r . D r . W i t t w a s s t r o n g l y in a g r e e m e n t w ith th is p r a c tic e , a n d a s k e d “ W h y s h o u ld o n e p r i n t e v a n e s c e n t n e w s o n p e r is h a b le p a p e r w ith i m p e r is h a b le in k ?” T h e p r o b le m to -d a y is m u c h th e s a m e , a n d o u r c o r r e s p o n d e n t a s k s w h y e a s ily r e m o v a b le o r b le a c h a b le d y e s tu ffs a r e so l i t t l e in u s e in th e p r i n t i n g in d u s t r y , e v e n f o r n e w s p r i n t , w h ic h n o r m a l l y d o e s n o t h a v e so lo n g a lif e a s d o c u m e n ts , b o o k s , a n d th e lik e .
P e r u ’s p o rtla n d cem ent p roduction in creased from 285,000 b arrels in 1928 to 1,227,000 barrels in 1943 and th e opening up of fu rth e r lim estone deposits is u n d e r con
sideration.
Royal Institute of Chem istry
T h e P r e s i d e n t ’s A d d r e s s
A
T th e 67th a n n u a l m ee tin g of th e R oyal In s titu te of C h em istry h eld on M arch 12, P ro fe ss o r A le x an d e r F in d la y , th e p re s id e n t, em p h asised th e grow ing o p p o rtu n itie s fo r m en of science to b rin g a b o u t a b e tte r b a la n c e betw een science an d p o litic s and betw een know ledge an d pow er. T h e ta s k s of g o v e rn m en t an d th e fo rm atio n of a n atio n a l and in te rn a tio n a l policy w hich w ill se c u re th e fu lle st an d m ost com plete d e velopm ent and ex p ressio n of h u m an n a tu re , w hen b e a u ty an d goodness m erge a n d b len d to g e th e r w ith tr u th , d e p en d ed in p a r t on values o th e r th a n th e scientific, an d involved p ro b lem s w hich could n o t be solved m erely by th e a p p lic a tio n of th e law s of n a tu ra l science. H o w ev er, in se cu rin g th e m a te ria l w ell-being of th e people an d in a d v an cin g in d u s tria l p ro sp e rity , science w as a ll im p o r
ta n t a n d re p re s e n ta tiv e s of scentific in s titu tio n s on th e P a rlia m e n ta ry an d S cientific C om m ittee w ere play in g a p a rtic u la rly im p o r ta n t p a r t in k eep in g th e G o v e rn m en t in form ed a b o u t th e disco v eries an d a p p lic a tio n s of science an d in p ro v id in g a scientific m eth o d of a p p ro ac h to th e p ro b lem s of n a tio n a l a d m in is tra tio n , a m eth o d in fu se d w ith th e s p ir it of tr u th r a th e r th a n of p r e ju d ic e o r p a r ty p a rtisa n sh ip .
T h e roll of m em b ersh ip of th e I n s titu te had in cre as e d by 523 to 9227 an d th e re g is te r of s tu d e n ts by 205 to 1225. T h e local sectio n s h a d b een activ e 111 m a in ta in ing th e scientific in te re s ts of th e m em b ers by m ean s of le c tu re s an d discussions.
N e w C h a r t e r S u g g e s t e d
T h e p re s id e n t n o ted w ith sa tis fac tio n th e g re a te r c o lla b o ra tio n am ong th e v a rio u s o rg a n is atio n s o f chem ists an d th e b e tte r c o -o rd in a tio n of th e ir a c tiv ities, in w hich re p re s e n ta tiv e s of th e In s titu te h a d c o n tin u e d to' p lay th e ir p a rt. H e c o n g ra tu la te d th e C hem ical C ouncil on h av in g g ain ed from in d u s tria l firm s an d p riv a te su b scrib e rs g re a tly in creased fin an cial s u p p o rt fo r chem ical p u b lic a tio n s. I t w as 60 y e ars since th e I n s titu te w as in c o rp o ra te d by R oyal C h a rte r. I ts m em b ersh ip h ad in crease d tw en ty fo ld a n d th e re h a d also ta k e n place re m a rk a b le e x p an sio n of th e a c tiv itie s o f c h em ists in b o th ra n g e a n d v a rie ty . It w as a tr ib u te to th e fo res ig h t o f those who w ere resp o n sib le fo r d ra w in g u p th e C h a r te r t h a t th e In s titu te h a d so success
fully a d a p te d its elf to c h an g in g co n d itio n s, b u t th e tim e h ad come to re fo rm u la te its aim s an d in te re s ts an d to a d a p t its o rg a n is a tio n so as th e m ore effec
tiv ely to achieve its aim s an d fulfil its re sp o n sib ilitie s. P ro p o s a ls fo r m odifying th e C h a r te r and by-law s w ould De laid b e fo re th e m em b ers in d u e course.
Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 T H E C H E M I C A L A G E 237
M agnesium P ro d u c tio n —I
D evelopm ents in Therm al Reduction P rocesses
b y D . D . H O W A T , B .S c ., P h .D ., F .R .I .C ., A .M .I .C h e m .E .
W
A R -T IM E d em an d s on th e sup p lies of p ra c tic a lly every m eta l of com m ercial v alu e have fo rced in cre ased p ro d u c tio n . O u tsta n d in g in th is in cre as ed p ro d u c tio n is th e sig n ifican t new re c o rd 'o u tp u t of m agnesium . In th e U n ite d S ta te s of A m erica in 1939 th e a n n u a l p ro d u c tio n of m agnesium w as a b o u t 3500 to n s, w hile five y e ars la te r the figure h a d rise n to 250,000 tons. In B rita in p ro d u c tio n figures ju s t d isc lo sed1 show th a t th e o u tp u t of m ag nesium rose from 5000 to n s in 1939 to 23,000 10-43, a lm o st a 500 p e r cen t, in cre ase. In view o f th e lack of h y d ro -ele ctric pow er and the s tra in e d fuel p o sitio n in th is co u n try the figures n o ted c o n s titu te a re m a rk ab le ach iev em en t.
G r a n t2 s ta te s t h a t a b o u t h a lf a to n of m agnesium is in co rp o ra te d in every b o m b er an d fig h te r p lan e p ro d u ced in th e U n ite d S ta te s , th e g re a te r p e rce n ta g e of th e m ag nesium o u tp u t b ein g ab so rb ed in a ir c r a f t s tru c tu ra l p a rts . T h e m ain s tru c tu re s of m achine-gun tu r r e ts in A m erican p lan e s a re m ade of m agnesium sh e e ts and castin g s, w hile p ra c tic a lly ev ery ty p e of m ilita ry a ir c ra ft, from larg e fo u r-en g in ed bom bers to sm all tra in in g p lan es, is fitte d w ith m ag
nesium w heels. E x tru d e d m agnesium I- beam s a re bein g em ployed in th e floor co n s tru c tio n of th e n ew er ty p es of D o u g las carg o p lan es. A n a sso ciated w ar-tim e use of th e m eta l—th e m a n u fa c tu re of in cen d iary bom bs—also calls fo r la rg e to n n ag es. A 500-lb. in c e n d ia ry bom b know n as a “ block b u rn e r ” is com posed larg ely of pow dered m agnesium .
P o s t-w a r d ev elo p m en ts in e n g in eerin g as a p p lie d to tr a n s p o rt, w h e th er by a ir, lan d , o r sea, a re c e rta in to em ploy m agnesium to a g re a tly in cre as ed e x te n t. In view of th e w ar-tim e e x p an sio n of th e in d u stry , su p p lie s of th e m etal w ill b e a v aila b le on a larg e scale and alm o st c e rta in ly a t keen p rice s. A g re a t o p p o rtu n ity w ill b e afforded to d esig n ers to b re a k aw ay from tra d itio n a l fe a tu re s an d to strik e o u t b o ldly along new lines. T h e e x ten siv e em ploym ent of th e lig h t m eta ls need n o t b e re s tric te d to tr a n s p o rt en g in e erin g o n ly ; household fittin g s an d a p p lia n ce s offer fields of use fo r th ese m etals w ith g re a t acc ru in g b en efits to h o u se
wives.
T h e P r i c e o f M a g n e s i u m
M agnesium p ro d u ced in th e U n ite d S ta te s is p rice d a t p re s e n t a t a b o u t 20 c en ts p e r lb.
{roughly Is .), an d it is p ra c tic a lly c e rta in th a t th is figure will show a re d u ctio n in p o st-w ar y ears. T h is low p ric e c o n stitu te s
a re al c h allen g e to th e m agnesium p ro d u c ers in th is co u n try . C o n sid erab le in v e s tig a tio n and re sea c h , w ith re a l p la n t d e v elo p m en t, have ta k e n place in B rita in d u rin g th e w ar y e ars, b u t w ill th e lec h n ica l skill re q u ire d , com bined w ith th e m o d ern an d efficient p la n t, allow m agnesium to be" p ro d u ced at p rice s c o m p a rab le w ith th o se o b tain in g in th e U n ite d .S ta tes ?
M odern m eth o d s for th e p ro d u c tio n of m agnesium o rig in a te d in th e e x p erim e n ts of B u n sen in 1852, w hen h e o b tain e d p u ro m agnesium by th e electro ly sis of th e fused ch lo rid e. T h e S ta s s fu rt d e p o sits in G e r
m any yield ed a d o u b le c h lo rid e of m ag n e sium an d p o tassiu m (carn a llite ) w hich pro v ed th e m ost su ita b le m a te ria l fo r th e p ro d u c tio n of m agnesium by electro ly sis. In 1886, th e first e le ctro ly tic m agnesium p la n t b egan to o p e ra te a t B re m e n a n d u n til 1917 G erm an y h ad alm o st a com plete m onopoly of th e sa le of th is m eta l. As a re s u lt of th e rise in p rice of m agnesium d u rin g th e F ir s t G e rm an W a r, som e A m erican firm s e n te re d th e field, th e D ow C hem ical Com pany b u ild in g q u ite a larg e p la n t in M ic h i
g a n in 1917. C o nsum ption of m agnesium in th e U n ite d S ta te s in 1918 w as 284,000 lb ., so t h a t to -d ay ’s con su m p tio n is a b o u t 2000 tim es th a t of 26 y e ars ago.
E le c t r o l y ti c P r o c e s s e s
E le ctro ly sis of fused b a th s of m agnesium c h lo rid e p ro v ed th e only im p o rta n t com m er
cial m eth o d of p ro d u c tio n fo r m any y ears.
M agnesium o xide is ex trem e ly difficult to re d u c e and in tre a tin g m ag n esite o res the ch lo rid e is form ed by in te ra c tio n w ith c a r bon an d ch lo rin e a t nigh te m p e ra tu re s :
M gO + C lJ + C - v M gCl + CO ... (1) S u b se q u e n t e le ctro ly sis re le ases th e c h lo r
ine, w hich is recy cled fo r f u r th e r use, w hile th e m eta l is se t fre e in th e m olten form .
V a rio u s difficulties a re en co u n tere d in th e ele ctro ly tic p ro cess : e.g ., th e fo rm a tio n of an h y d ro u s m agnesium c h lo rid e ; th e c o rro sive c h a ra c te r of th e c h lo rin e gas w hich m u st be h a n d le d in la rg e q u a n titie s ; losses o f c h lo rin e ; an d th e in tric a te design of th e e le c tro ly tic cell. M any a tte m p ts h av e been m ade to devise th e rm a l re d u c tio n p rocesses for th e p ro d u c tio n of m agnesium ' b u t u n til very re ce n tly th ese h a d m et w ith b u t little success an d v irtu a lly th e e n tir e m agnesium o u tp u t w as o b tain e d by th e e le ctro ly sis of fused ch lo rid es.
I n th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e rm a l re d u c tio n processes some serio u s difficulties a re e n c o u n te red , c e n trin g m ain ly a ro u n d th e p ric e
T HE C HE MI CAL A G E Ma r c h 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 of th e red u cin g a g en t, th e te m p e ra tu re at
w hich re d u ctio n o ccu rs, and th e highly pyro- ph o ric n a tu re of m agnesium v ap o u r and d u st. A s m agnesium boils at 1097°C ., th e red u ced m etal is lib e ra te d in th e v ap o u r form , and th e co n d en satio n of_ th e v a p o u r an d co llection o f th e d u st p re s e n t tric k y p r o blem s. A w ide choice of re d u cin g a g en ts e x ists : c arb o n , silico n , a lu m in iu m , ferro - silico n , calcium c a rb id e , and silicon c arb id e.
A lth o u g h carb o n is obviously th e ch eap est re d u cin g a g en t, a c arb o n -a rc fu rn ac e is necessary fo r th e re a c tio n , th e re d u c tio n te m p e ra tu re bein g in excess of 2000°C . M uch hnver te m p e ra tu re s a re possible w ith the o th e r re d u cin g a g en ts b u t th e cost of th ese su b sta n c es m ilita te s a g ain st th e successful d ev elo p m en t of th e processes. In a c tu a l fact only tw o th e rm a l processes fo r m agnesium p ro d u c tio n have b een successful on a full- scale p la n t : th e H a n sg irg p ro cess u sin g c a r bon, a n d th e P id g e o n p ro cess usin g fe rro - silicon as re d u c tio n agent.
A s an exam ple of a process developed on a la rg e scale u n d e r th é s tre ss of th e p re se n t w ar a b rie f o u tlin e may be given of t h a t
FLANGED
PERFORATIONS IN PERFORATIONS
CROSS WEBS IN TUBE
1 CROSS 6 J/jW E B S g
\ r H
n hW p o u r
1
y tubeCROSS SECTION OF CRUCIBLE ON LINE A. A F i g . 1 . A r r a n g e m e n t o f c r u c i b le c o n d e n s e r u n i t o f r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n , a s u s e d by' I n t e r n a t i o n a l A llo y 's, L td .
( B .P . 5 4 5 ,3 1 2 ).
a d o p te d by I n te rn a tio n a l A lloys, L td ., in th is c o u n try w ith alu m in iu m pow der as th e red u cin g ag en t. D e sch3 in d ic a te s th a t th e process em ployed m ag n esia o b tain e d from sea w a ter.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l A llo y s ’ P r o c e s s A m ix tu re of m ag n esia w ith pow dered alu m in iu m form ed in to b riq u e tte s u n d e r high p ressu re is c u arg e d in to sp ecially desig n ed cru c ib le s in w hich it is p re h e a te d to 400°C . T h e c ru cib le is a p a rtitio n e d ch am b e r w ith a c e n tra l d u c t lead in g dow nw ard to th e c o n d en ser a rra n g e d u n d e rn e a th it.
A ssem bled com pactly to g e th e r in to a p o r t
able u n it th e c ru cib le a n d c o n d en ser a re pushed u p w ard in to a v e rtica l cy lin d rical fu rn ac e h e ate d ele ctrica lly . A fte r m ak in g good Abe jo in ts , th e fu rn a c e is e v ac u ate d dow n to a p re ssu re of less th a n 4 m m. of m ercu ry . R e sistan ce e lem en ts h e a t the cru cib le to a te m p e ra tu re of 1100o-1250°('.
M agnesium v ap o u r begins to d istil off, p a ss
ing d o w n w ard in to th e c o n d en ser w hich is m a in tain e d a t a m uch low er te m p e ra tu re by w ater-co o lin g . T h e v a p o u r condenses in th e form of m asses of flat c ry stals. A fte r a p erio d of a b o u t tw elve h o u rs tiie te m p e ra tu re is re d u ce d an d th e vacuum b ro k e n . T h e p o rta b le u n it "com prising c o n d en ser and c ru cib le is w ith d raw n from th e fu rn ac e , a n d th e d ep o sit of m agnesium is rem oved from the co n d en ser an d tra n s fe rre d to a re m e lt
ing fu rn ac e . A lth o u g h offering th e g re a t a d v a n ta g e t h a t th e c o n d en ser m agnesium was in a n o n -p y ro p h o ric form a n d could be h a n d le d safely in a ir , th is process w as com p lete ly uneconom ic fro m th e cost of th e r e ducing a g en t. T h e R e p o rt of th e S e lec t C om m ittee 011 N atio n al E x p e n d itu re gives th e p ro d u c tio n cost- as 3 .l i d . p e r l b. 1
B efo re th e p la n t w as sh u t dow n a c o n tin u o u s vacuum fu rn a c e w as d esig n ed5 on th e tu n n el-k iln p rin cip le, th e p o rta b le u n its of c ru cib le a n d co n d en ser being pushed th ro u g h th e fu rn ac e by a h y d ra u liea lly o p e ra te d ra m . T h e design of th e c ru c ib le / co n d en ser u n it is show n in F ig . 1. S pecial lo ad in g and u n lo ad in g c h am b ers w ere p ro vided, w hich w ere s e p a ra te d from th e m ain fu rn a c e by v a cu u m -tig h t do o rs an d ev ac u ated by se p a ra te pum ps.
A c co rd in g to th e p a te n t claim s5 o th e r r e d u cin g a g en ts such as silicon o r ferro - silicon may be used in place of alu m in iu m . If these claim s a re s u b s ta n tia te d th e re m ay be a fu tu re fo r the process. T h e actu a l p la n t a n d chem ical en g in e erin g te c h n iq u e involved a re of a very h ig h o rd e r. O p e ratio n of th e la rg e fu rn a c e s em ployed a t th e high vacu a a n d te m p e ra tu re s c o n s titu te s a re ally n o ta b le achievem ent.
R e d u ctio n of m agnesia by carbon" offers tw o difficult p roblem s in a c tu a l p ra c tic e : first, a te m p e ra tu re of 2200°C . is re q u ire d , an d seco n d , th e re ac tio n MgO + C! ^ M g
