«Est enim ille flos Italiae» : Northern Italy in the Legal and Administrative Structures of the Roman Republic in the 3rd-1st centuries B.C.

Maciej Piegdoń

«Est enim ille flos Italiae» : Northern

Italy in the Legal and Administrative

Structures of the Roman Republic in

the 3rd-1st centuries B.C.

Studia Prawnoustrojowe nr 12, 175-188

2010

M aciej P ie g d o ń

U n iw e r s y te t J a g ie llo ń s k i w K ra k o w ie

E st enim ille flos Italia e.

N orthern Italy in the Legal and Adm inistrative

Structures of the Roman Republic

in the 3rd-1st centuries B.C.

T h e R o m a n R e p u b lic e s ta b lis h e d c o n ta c ts , in c lu d in g d ip lo m a tic r e l a ­ tio n s , w ith p o litic a l b o d ie s in C is a lp in e G a u l e v e n b e fo re its c o n q u e s t. R om e w a s tie d b y fo e d u s to t h e tr ib e s o f th e C e ltic C e n o m a n i a n d V e n e ti, w h ile P o ly b iu s d e s c rib e d th e R e p u b lic ’s r e la tio n s h ip w ith th e l a t t e r a s s y m m a -

c h ia 1. T h e R o m a n s h a d p r o b a b ly e s ta b lis h e d th e s e tie s b e fo re th e C eltic

in v a s io n o f 2 2 5 . I n a n y c a se , t h e tr ib e s w e re lis te d in th e R o m a n fo r m u la

to g a to r u m o f 2 2 5 a s so cii t h a t w e re to r a is e , a n d p e r h a p s s u p p ly to R om e,

2 0 ,0 0 0 tro o p s e a c h j u s t b e fo re th e C e ltic in v a s io n 2. T h e R e p u b lic a lso m o st lik e ly a c c e p te d c e r ta in o b lig a tio n s to w a r d s th e V e n e ti a n d th e C e n o m a n i.

1 For the foedus with the Cenomani: U. Gualazzini, Aspetti meno noti della fondazione di

Cremona, [in:] Cremona Romana. Atti del congresso storico archeologico per il 2200 anno di fondazione di Cremona, Cremona 1982, p. 4; J. Zając, Od Wenetów do Rzymian. Studia epigra- ficzno-antroponomastyczne (I w. p.n.e. - I w. n.e.), Toruń 1991, p. 17; eadem, Imiona własne z miast i terytoriów „przypisanych” u mieszkańców antycznej Brixii w Italii Północnej, „Xenia

Posnaniensia”, Poznań 2004, p. 167. According to Polybius (II 18) the Veneti signed an alliance with Rome already at the beginning of the 4th century: J. Zając, Od Wenetów..., p. 12. Polybius probably had a slightly different understanding of the treaties concluded by Rome, since sym-

machia was a term derived from Greek terminology and referred to a loose alliance (philos kai symmachos). Perhaps the Roman term amicitia et societas, which referred to informal co­

operation during a war fought outside Italian borders, conveyed a similar meaning to the Greek

symmachia: T. Grabowski, Ptolemeusze i Rzym. Przyjaźń czy zależność. Stosunki politycze w latach 273-43p.n.e., Kraków 2005, p. 35-36.

2 Polyb. II; 24 7-8; Liv. Per. 20; Diod. Sic. XXV fr. 13; Plin. NH 3.20.138; Eutrop. III 5; Oros. IV 13; T.P. Wiseman, New Men in the Roman Senate, 139 B.C.-A.D. 14, Oxford 1971, p. 19; J. Zając, Od Wenetów..., p. 13; G. Bandelli, Roma e la Venetia orientale della guerra

gallica (225-222 a.C) alla guerra sociale (91-87 a.C), [in:] Studi e ricerche sulla Gallia Cisalpina X I Vigilia di romanizzazione. Altino e il Veneto orientale tra II e I sec. a.c. Atti del Convegno, Venezia, S. Sebastiano, 2-3 dicembre 1997, Roma 1999, p. 285-288; W. Kruta, V.M. Manfredi, I Celti in Italia, Milano 1999, p. 148. Formula togatorum: A.J. Toynbee, Hannibal’s Legacy. The Hannibalic War’s Effects on Roman Life, London 1965, I 424-438, 479-505; W. Suder, Census populi. Demografia starożytnego Rzymu, „Historia” 160 (2003), p. 122-133.

M o reo v er, th e R e p u b lic h a d c o n ta c ts a n d a llia n c e s w ith s e ttle m e n ts in C is a l­ p in e G a u l w h ic h , d u e to t h e i r s tr a te g ic lo c a tio n a n d p o s itio n o n im p o r ta n t tr a d e r o u te s , p la y e d a n i m p o r ta n t ro le in R o m a n p o litic s. T h e R e p u b lic ’s i n t e r e s t i n A d r ia tic m a t t e r s ( s ta r tin g in th e la te 3rd c e n tu ry ) a n d th e L ig u r ia n a n d T y r r h e n ia n S e a s, a s w ell a s c o n ta c ts w ith M a s s illia a llie d w ith R om e, p e r s u a d e d th e R o m a n s to s e a r c h fo r fo o th o ld s in th is a re a . I t is lik e ly t h a t a lr e a d y in th e seco n d h a lf o f th e 3rd c e n tu r y th e r e w e re c o n ta c ts a n d p e r h a p s a lso som e a g r e e m e n ts b e tw e e n th e R e p u b lic a n d G e n o a a n d P is a 3, R a v e n n a on th e A d ria tic c o a s t4 a n d m a y b e s e ttle m e n ts o f E tr u s c a n p ro v e n a n c e .

T h e v ic to rio u s w a r a g a in s t th e C e ltic tr ib e s in 2 2 4 - 2 2 2 c h a n g e d th e g e o p o litic a l s it u a t i o n in C is a lp in e G a u l. F r o m t h e n on, R o m e b e c a m e th e m o s t i m p o r ta n t p o litic a l p a r t n e r in th e re g io n . A s a r e s u l t o f h e a v y d e fe a ts a g a in s t R o m a n le g io n s, th e d e f e a te d C e ltic B oii a n d I n s u b r e s w e re fo rced to a c c e p t th e te r m s o f t r e a t i e s im p o s e d b y th e R e p u b lic , a c c o rd in g to w h ic h th e y r e lin q u is h e d so m e p a r t s o f t h e i r te r r i t o r i e s ( th e co lo n ies o f P la c e n tia a n d C re m o n a w e re e sta b lish e d ), th e y a g re e d to allow R o m a n g a rris o n s in som e s e ttle m e n ts (M ilan, M u tin a , B o n o n ia, C la s tid iu m a n d T a n n e tu m ) a n d th e y p le d ­ ged to p ro v id e m ilita ry a s s is ta n c e to th e R ep u b lic w h e n re q u e s te d 5. T h e te rm s of tr e a tie s c o n c lu d e d w ith th e d e f e a te d B oii a n d I n s u b r e s w e re m o re b u r d e n ­ so m e t h a n t h e e a r l i e r fo e d u s ty in g R o m e to th e C e n o m a n i a n d th e V eneti.

T h e d e fe a t of C a rth a g e (w h ich w a s th e only g u a r a n to r of th e so v e re ig n ty of C eltic a n d L ig u ria n trib e s in th e face o f th e R o m a n R ep u b lic ’s e x p a n sio n ism ) in th e S econd P u n ic W a r b r o u g h t a b o u t v e ry s ig n ific a n t c h a n g e s in th e b a la n c e of po w er in C isa lp in e G aul. H a v in g d e fe a te d C eltic trib e s in C isa lp in e G au l, R om e fo rm ed a llia n c e s w ith th e m . T h e fo e d u s w a s to in clu d e th e tw o m a in C eltic tr ib e s t h a t s u rv iv e d th e R o m a n in v a sio n , i.e. th e C e n o m a n i a n d th e In s u b re s . It d id n o t m e n tio n th e Boii, w ho h a d b e e n on e o f th e m o st p o w erfu l trib e s (n e x t to th e In s u b re s ) p r io r to th e R o m a n in v a sio n , b u t a s a r e s u lt of R o m a n m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s b e cam e la rg e ly e x tin c t a n d t h e ir la n d s t a k e n o v er b y th e R o m a n s6.

3 For the foedus with Genoa see: Liv. XXVII 46.7; XXX 1.10; XXXII 29.5-8; M. Piegdoń,

Galia Przedalpejska. Studia nad rzymską obecnością w północnej Italii w III-I w. p.n.e., Kraków

2009, p. 96-98.

4 U. Ewins, Enfranchisement of Cisalpine Gaul, P.B.S.R. 23, London 1955, p. 74 a. 78; G. Luraschi, Foedus Ius Latii Civitas — Aspetti constitutionali della romanizzazione in Transpa-

dana, Padova 1979, p. 150-156; S. Magnani, La Ravenna preromana. Fonti e documenti, [in:] Ravenna romana, vol. I, Ravenna 1999, p. 34-52.

5 For the capture of Milan, Bononia, Mutina, Parma, Clastidium see: Polyb. II 34-35; Liv.

Per. 20; Plut. Marcell. 6-7; Sil. Ital. VIII 595. The terms of treaties with Celtic tribes appear in

the sources, although sometimes they are mentioned indirectly when discussing various other matters - see: Polyb. III 67; IX fragm. 3, 19; Liv. XXI 48.

6 A mention in Cicero’s speech Pro Balbo (14.32: quorum in foederibus exceptum est,

nequis eorum a nobis civis recipiatur) says that members of these tribes would not be able to

obtain civitas optimo iure. In the same speech, Cicero says that the foedus could also have included other smaller Celtic tribes but it is unclear whether they were from Cisalpine Gaul. Cf. G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 23-25, 98-101, 108-110; C. Peyre, La Cisalpine gauloise du IIIe au

T h u s , R o m e c o n c lu d e d a llia n c e t r e a t i e s w ith C e ltic tr ib e s a s th e s tr o n g e r p a r tn e r , th e v ic to r w h o d ic ta te d te r m s to th o s e d e fe a te d in w a r. W e sh o u ld a lso p o in t o u t t h a t th e p ro v is io n s o f th e t r e a t i e s s ig n e d in th e 19 0 s p ro b a b ly d iffe re d fro m th e te r m s o f t r e a t i e s t h a t h a d b e e n c o n c lu d e d e a r lie r . H ow ever, d u e to a la c k o f sp e cific s o u rc e in f o r m a tio n w e c a n o n ly s p e c u la te o n th e s u b je c t7.

R om e, b e in g a c ity s ta te , d id n o t h a v e s e p a r a te a d m in is tr a tiv e s tr u c tu r e s t h a t c o u ld b e u s e d fo r m a n a g in g n e w a c q u is itio n s . O n t h e o th e r h a n d , th e R o m a n a d m in is tr a tiv e s y s te m w a s fle x ib le e n o u g h , a n d t h e p e o p le r u lin g th e R e p u b lic w e re o p e n to n e w s o lu tio n s e n o u g h , so t h a t n e w a r e a s w e re a llo c a ­ te d to a lr e a d y e x is tin g s tr u c tu r e s . D u r in g w a r tim e R o m e e n t r u s t e d m ilita r y a n d a d m in is tr a tiv e o p e r a tio n s to o fficials e le c te d o n a y e a r ly b a s is , m o s t c o m m o n ly c o n su ls (s o m e tim e s p r a e to r s ) , w h o d u e to h o ld in g im p e r iu m co u ld c o m m a n d t h e i r s u b o r d in a te tr o o p s in m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s . I t s h o u ld b e m e n ­ tio n e d t h a t t h e c o n s u l’s p o w e r ( im p e r iu m ) e x te n d e d n o t o n ly to h is s u b o r d i­ n a t e tro o p s b u t a lso to th e te r r i t o r i e s o n w h ic h h e w a s c o n d u c tin g w a rfa re . T h e a n n e x e d te r r i t o r y c o u ld b e a s s ig n e d b y th e P e o p le ’s A sse m b ly o r th e S e n a te to a c o n s u l e le c te d fo r th e n e x t y e a r o r to a c o n s u l w h o h a d o p e r a te d th e r e b e fo re , u n d e r p r o r o g a tio im p e r ii. I n s u c h a c a s e h e w o u ld c o m m a n d th e a s s ig n e d a r e a (p ro v in c ia ) a s p ro c o n su l. C o m m a n d c o u ld a lso b e g iv e n to a p r a e to r (w h ic h w a s o fte n th e c a s e i n C is a lp in e G a u l) a n d t h e n p ro ro g u e d b y th e S e n a te fo r a n o th e r y e a r a s p r o p r a e to r 8, a s i l l u s t r a t e d b y th e p o litic a l a n d le g a l s it u a t i o n in C is a lp in e G a u l d u r in g th e S e co n d P u n ic W ar. A lth o u g h th e R o m a n s w e re d r iv e n o u t b y H a n n ib a l fro m a lm o s t a ll th e te r r i t o r i e s th e y h a d c o n q u e re d in 2 2 4 - 2 2 2 , a p a r t fro m th e co lo n ies in P la c e n tia a n d C re m o ­ n a , R o m a n o fficials in th e r a n k o f c o n su l, p r a e t o r o r p ro c o n s u l a n d p r o p r a ­ e to r w e re s till g iv e n G a u l o r L ig u r ia a s p r o v in c ia in 2 1 5 - 2 0 2 ( a p a r t fro m 209), a lth o u g h t h a t d id n o t m e a n t h a t th e te r r i t o r i e s w e re u n d e r R o m e ’s d ir e c t a d m in is tr a tio n 9.

7 For treaties with Celtic tribes from Cisalpine Gaul see: U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 74; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 23-24 and 40-41; L. Calderazzo, Arbitrati romani in Cisalpina (197-89

a.C): problemi e status quaestionis, Rivista di studi Liguri, Bordighera 1997, p. 26-27. For the foedus with the Marsi, who in Badian’s opinion entered into a foedus aequum in 304 but after

the defeat against Rome had to agree to worse conditions see: Liv. IX 45 18; X 3; E. Badian,

Foreign Clientelae 264-70, Oxford 1958, p. 27. This, however, was not a rule in Roman politics,

see: Liv. VIII 25.3; IX 20 (the case of the Apulian Teates); E. Badian, op. cit., p. 28; A.N. Sherwin-White The Roman Citizenship, Oxford 1973, p. 121.

8 For the term provincia see: J. Richardson, The Administration of the Empire, CAH IX (1994), p. 564. Cf. G. Tibiletti, Ticinum e la Valle Padane, „Atheanaeum” 40 (1964), p. 32. For the prorogation of power of Roman officials see: J. Richardson, op. cit., p. 572-580. A private person who had not been a consul or praetor could also hold the office of proconsul or propra­ etor: Liv. XXXVIII 42.10.

9 J. Richardson, op. cit., p. 567 and 568. For Roman officials in Cisalpine Gaul in the 3rd century see: M. Piegdon, op. cit., p. 186 fn. 592. For the presence of Roman officials in Cisalpine Gaul in the 2nd century see: P.A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C. - A.D. 14, Oxford 1971,

To g e n e r a lis e slig h tly , i t co u ld b e s a id t h a t u n t i l th e 8 0 s, i.e. u n t i l R om e d e c id e d to c r e a te a p ro v in c e in C is a lp in e G a u l, i t h a d b e e n t r e a t e d lik e th e r e s t of Ita ly , a n d th e c o n s u ls , p r a e to r s a n d p r o m a g is tr a te s w e re a p p o in te d b y th e S e n a te to p e rfo rm sp ecific t a s k s .

T h e la c k o f a w e ll-d e v e lo p e d a d m in is tr a tio n d id n o t m e a n t h a t R o m e d id n o t in flu e n c e th e i n t e r n a l a ffa irs o f its a llie s in C is a lp in e G a u l a n d on ly r e s p o n d e d to e x te r n a l t h r e a t s . I n fa c t, a f te r t h e S e c o n d P u n ic W a r e n d e d , th e R e p u b lic in te n s if ie d its in v o lv e m e n t in th e i n t e r n a l a f fa irs of its a llie s . T h e R o m a n s c o n d u c te d a la rg e -s c a le o p e r a tio n of ty in g th is re g io n to th e r e s t of th e R e p u b lic b y b u ild in g la r g e th o r o u g h f a r e s , c a r r y in g o u t h y d ro lo g ic a l w o rk (r iv e r e n g in e e rin g ) in C is a lp in e G a u l, a n d r e n tin g e .g . m in e s to p u b lic a n s w h o c o lle c te d ta x e s d u e to th e s t a t e . R o m a n a r b i t e r s s e n t b y th e S e n a te in te r v e n e d in c o n flic ts in a llie s ’ s e ttle m e n ts if s u m m o n e d ( th e a r b i t r a t i o n of c o n s u l M . A e m iliu s L e p id u s i n th e a r g u m e n t b e tw e e n p a r tie s i n P a ta v iu m in 175). T h e R e p u b lic a lso s e n t its a r b ite r s w h e n t r e a t i e s b in d in g R o m e to its a llie s w e re v io la te d ( th e a r b i t r a t i o n o f M. A e m iliu s L e p id u s , w h o b r o u g h t a b o u t th e r e t u r n o f a r m s to th e C e n o m a n i in 187, a n d th e in te r v e n tio n in R o m e of e n v o y s o f t h e C e ltic tr i b e s of C a r n i, J a p o d e s a n d H i s t r i , w h ic h w e re a tta c k e d b y t h e c o n s u l G. C a s s iu s L o n g in u s in 1 7 1 )10. A r b ite r s also in te r v e n e d in b o r d e r d is p u te s b e tw e e n a llie s ’ s e ttle m e n ts a n d co lo n ies (b e ­ tw e e n P is a a n d L u n a in 168, b e tw e e n P a ta v iu m a n d A te s te in 142 a n d b e tw e e n A te s te a n d V ic e tia in 136 o r 1 3 5 11). H o w ev er, n o t a ll o f th e S e n a te ’s p. 567-569; T.C. Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic, Oxford 2000, II 359. For the situation in Spain see: J. Richardson, op. cit., p. 567-568. Over a longer period of time it was the permanent presence of Roman officials and legions in the territories allocated by the Senate or the Assembly (provinciae) that made it possible to gradually transform them into Roman provinces in the modern sense of the word: J. Richardson, op. cit., p. 580; T.C. Brennan, op. cit., p. II 363.

10 For the Republic’s involvement in the allies’ affairs: E. Badian, op. cit., p. 145-153; A.J. Toynbee, op. cit., II 106-142; A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 128-129. For the Roman arbitration in Cisalpine Gaul see: A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 128; L. Calderazzo, op. cit., p. 28-46. For the arbitration on the disarmament of the Cenomani see: Liv. XXXIX 3.1-3; Diod. Sic. XXIX 14; L. Calderazzo, op. cit., p. 29; 36. For the arbitration on the violation of treaty provisions signed with the tribes see: Liv. XLIII 5.1-10; L. Calderazzo, op. cit., p. 30-31. For M. Aemilius Lepidus’s arbitration in Patavium in 175 see: Liv. XLI 2.3; U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 74; E. Badian, op. cit., p. 147; J. Zając, Od Wenetów..., p. 18-19; L. Calderazzo, op. cit., p. 29-32. Arbitration could be the beginning of a clientela relationship: FIRA 21; Plut. Flamin. 1; E. Badian, op. cit., p. 154-167; L. Calderazzo, op. cit., p. 42-43; R.E. Mitchell, The Definition of

patres and plebs: An End to the Struggle of the Orders, [in:] Social Struggles in Archaic Rome. New Perspectives on the Conflict of the Orders, ed. K.A. Raaflaub, 2005, p. 152. For the influence

on the colonies’ internal affairs see: Liv. XLI 27; A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 84-85.

11 For the dispute between Luna and Pisa see: Liv. XLV 13; T.R.S. Broughton, The Magi­

strates of the Roman Republic, New York 1951, I 399. For the dispute between Patavium and

Ateste see: CIL I2 633 725 = V 2491 = ILS 5944a = ILLRP 476; CIL I2 634 = V 2492 = ILS 5944 = ILLRP 476; CIL I2 2501 = ILLRP 476; L. Calderazzo, op. cit., p. 32-33; J. Zając, Od Wenetów..., p. 19-20. For the dispute between Ateste and Vicetia see: CIL I2 636 = V 2490 = ILS 5945; J. Zając, Od Wenetów..., p. 19-20; L. Calderazzo, op. cit., p. 34. For the arbitration between Genoa and its attributi Viturii in 117 see: ILS 5946.42-44; A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 128.

in te r v e n tio n s w e re s u c c e ssfu l. O cca sio n ally , a n official w ith a s tr o n g b a c k in g o f th e n o b ilita s w a s a b le to r e s i s t th e S e n a te ’s r u lin g s (a s w a s th e c a s e w ith th e a t t a c k o f th e c o n s u l M. P o p illiu s L a e n a s a g a in s t t h e L ig u r ia n S ta tie lli in 172, o r th e c o n s u l A pp. C la u d iu s P u lc h e r ’s m ilita r y c a m p a ig n s a g a in s t th e S a la s s i in 1 4 3 -1 4 0 )12.

T h e v a r ie ty o f c o lo n ie s e s ta b lis h e d i n th e te r r i t o r i e s c a p tu r e d fro m th e C e lts (ager G a llic u s a n d C is a lp in e G a u l) c o n tr ib u te d to a c o n s id e ra b le d iv e r­ s ity o f th e le g a l s t a t u s o f th e p e o p le i n h a b itin g th e s e p ro v in c e s a n d th e s t a t u s o f th e s e e n t i t i e s . I n n o r t h e r n Ita ly , R o m e e s ta b lis h e d m a in ly L a tin co lo n ies, b u t also colo n ia e c iv iu m R o m a n o r u m 13.

T h e e v e n t w h ic h g r e a tly in flu e n c e d th e p o p u la tio n ’s le g a l s ta tu s , a n d p e r h a p s e v e n th e a d m in is tr a tiv e s t a t u s o f C is a lp in e G a u l, w a s th e B e llu m

S o c ia le in th e y e a r s 9 0 -8 8 . U n d e r th e la w w h ic h th e R e p u b lic w a s fo rc e d to

in tr o d u c e d u r in g th e d iffic u lt a n d h a r d w a r a g a in s t th e re b e llio u s a llie s, R o m e ’s a llie s w e re g r a n t e d c iv ita s o p tim o iu re. T h e la w s s u c h a s lex I u lia , lex

P la u tia P a p ir ia a n d le x C o rn e lia g a v e R o m a n c itiz e n s h ip to v a r io u s g ro u p s

o f p e o p le a n d to in d iv id u a ls , r e g a r d le s s o f t h e i r p la c e o f r e s id e n c e . T h e g e o g ra p h ic a l a s p e c t d id n o t a p p ly to C is a lp in e G a u l, e ith e r, sin c e a ll its i n h a b i t a n t s w h o h a d th e L a tin s t a t u s re c e iv e d c iv ita s o p tim o iu re. T h is a p p lie d e s p e c ia lly to th e i n h a b i t a n t s o f L a tin co lo n ies a n d v ir itim s e t t l e ­ m e n ts fro m te r r i t o r i e s s o u th o f th e P a d u s , i.e. A rim in u m , P la c e n tia , B o n o n ia a n d L u c e . T h e la w also a p p lie d to s e ttle m e n ts n o r t h o f th e P a d u s , i.e . th e c o lo n ies o f C re m o n a a n d A q u ile ia1 4. H o w ev e r, C is a lp in e G a u l w a s in h a b ite d n o t o n ly b y p e o p le w ith th e L a t i n s t a t u s (m a in ly s o u th o f th e P a d u s ); its

12 F o r th e c ase of th e S ta tie lli see: Liv. X L II 7-9, 21; X L II 10, 21, 22, 26.1, 28.2. F o r A. C la u d iu s P u lc h e r’s w a r a g a in s t th e S a la s s i see: Cic. Fam. 11.20; Liv. Per. 53; S tra b . 4.6.7.(204); A pp. Illir. 17 49; D ion. 49.38.3; O ros. V 4.7.

13 M. P ieg d o n , op. cit., p. 1 8 8 -1 9 4 .

14 F o r lex Iulia, lex Plautia-Papiria a n d lex Kornelia see: Cic. Balb. 8.21; Arch. 4, 5; Fam.

13.30; Schol. Bob. 6-7 frag m . 175 S ta n g l.; S is e n n a frag m . 119 a n d 120 P e te r; Vell. II 16.4; App.

BC I 49 212; G ra n . L icin. 15; G .E.F. C hilver, Cisalpine Gaul. Social and Economic History from 49 B.C. to the death of Trajan, O xford 1941, p. 8; L.R. Taylor, The Voting Districts of the Roman Republic, R om a 1960, p. 125; T.P. W isem an, op. cit., p. 19; A.N. Sherw in-W hite, op. cit., p. 144-149 a n d 1 5 0 -1 5 6 ; G. L u ra s c h i, op. cit., p. 1 4 1 -1 4 3 ; G. B a n d elli, Il governo romano nella Transpada- na orientale (90-42 a.c.), [in:] Aquileia nella „Venetia et Histria", „A n tich ita A lto a d ria tic h e ”, vol. X X VIII, U d in e 1986, p. 47; E. B uchi, Roma e la Venetia orientale dalla guerra sociale alla prima eta augustea, [in:] Studi e ricerche sulla Gallia Cisalpina X I Vigilia di romanizzazione. Altino e il Veneto orientale tra II e I sec. a.c. Atti del Convegno, Venezia, S. Sebastiano, 2-3 dicembre 1997, R om a 1999, p. 3 0 3 -3 0 4 ; V.V. Ia sb ez , Aquileia dalla seconda guerra istrica all’eta postsillana, [in:] Aquileia dalle origini alla costituzione del ducato longobardo. Storia-Ammini- strazione-Societa, „ A n tic h ita A lto a d ria tic h e ”, vol. LIV, T rie ste 2003, p. 131, 132; R.F. R ossi,

Aquileia in eta cesariana ed augusta, [in:] ibidem , p. 160. F o r th e colonies a n d municipia in n o r th e r n I ta ly see: H ir tiu s B G V III 50, 51. L a tin colonies s o u th of th e P a d u s receiv ed R om an c itize n sh ip : P la c e n tia (Asc. Pis. 2), L u ca (Cic. Fam. 13.13) a n d G ell. 3.4.3: universo Latio lege Iulia civitas data est, i.e. a ll th o se w ith L a tin R ig h ts; C IL V 8288 (A) = C IL I2 2198 p.1093 = IL L R P 538 (A a n d B) = Imagines 226 (A quileia). Cf. A. A lb e rtin i Romanita di Brescia antica,

p o p u la tio n w a s m a in ly n a tiv e , th e m a jo r ity b e in g R o m e ’s so cii. D iffic u lt s tr u g g le s d u r in g th e W a r o f th e A llie s a n d th e R e p u b lic ’s w is h to p r o te c t th e n o r t h e r n fla n k fo rc ed i t to u n d e r t a k e a c tio n s to so lv e th e is s u e o f th e s t a t u s o f n o n - L a tin p o p u la tio n o f C is a lp in e G a u l, to w h ic h th e la w s lex I u lia , lex

P la u ta - P a p ir ia a n d lex C o rn e lia h a d n o t a p p lie d 15. F o r le g a l r e a s o n s , th is

w a s a v e r y c o m p lic a te d t a s k sin c e th e a llie s w h o in h a b ite d C is a lp in e G a u l fell in to d if f e r e n t c a te g o rie s , e a c h o f w h ic h w a s b o u n d to R o m e b y a s e p a r a te tr e a ty . A p a r t fro m th e d e f e a te d C e ltic a n d L ig u r ia n tr ib e s u n d e r g o in g slow R o m a n is a tio n , w ith w h ic h th e R e p u b lic h a d a g r e e d to a fo e d u s in th e f ir s t h a l f o f th e 2 nd c e n tu ry , th e r e w e re t r i b a l tie s ( th e V en eti) a n d a llie d s e t t l e ­ m e n ts , s u c h a s R a v e n n a , G e n o a o r P i s a 16.

T h e c a m p a ig n w a s to b e c o n d u c te d b y th e a m b itio u s a n d r u t h l e s s c o n su l o f 89, G n. P o m p e iu s S tr a b o 17. T h e is s u e w a s u r g e n t sin c e so m e m ilita r y c o n tin g e n ts fro m n o r t h e r n I ta ly a p p e a r e d in th e c a m p s o f b o th sid e s o f th e co n flict. E v e n th o u g h n o r t h e r n I t a l i a n s d id n o t p a r tic ip a te in th e B e llu m

S o c ia le o n a la r g e r sc a le , th e r e w e re f e a r s t h a t t h e i r p a r tic ip a tio n co u ld

in c r e a s e , p a r tic u la r ly sin c e th e r e w a s so m e u n r e s t o n b o th sid e s of th e P a d u s 18. T h a t is w h y P o m p e iu s S tra b o , w h o h a d b e e n s u c c e s s fu l in th e n e ig h b o u r in g P ic e n u m in th e f ir s t y e a r o f th e w a r, w a s th e r ig h t m a n to c a r r y o u t th e c a m p a ig n . A s th e c o n su l o f 89, h e re c e iv e d a s h is p r o v in c ia th e t a s k o f r e g u la tin g th e p o litic a l a n d le g a l r e la tio n s in n o r t h e r n Italy . T h e a m b itio u s g e n e r a l in tr o d u c e d th e lex P o m p e ia de T r a n s p a d a n is , w h ic h w e k n o w fro m a b r ie f m e n tio n b y A sc o n iu s (c o m m e n ta to r o f C ic e ro ’s sp e e c h e s) in h is c o m m e n ta r y o n th e s p e e c h I n P is o n e m 19.

T h is m e n tio n c o n ta in s th e e s s e n c e o f th e c o n s u l’s le g is la tio n r e g a r d in g th e i n h a b i t a n t s o f n o r t h e r n Ita ly . I t s e e m s t h a t t h e la w a p p lie d m a in ly to th e n a tiv e p o p u la tio n s e ttle d n o r t h o f th e P a d u s (T r a n s p a d a n i), a lth o u g h o n th e

15 M. Piegdoń, op. cit., p. 195-198.

16 Cic. Balb. 22; Fam. 8.1.4 (Rawenna); P.A. Brunt, op. cit., p. 170; T.P. Wiseman, op. cit., p. 19; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 150-156. Cf. A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 159 fn. 2. For the reaction of Heraclea and Neapolis to the offer of civitas optimo iure see: Cic. Balb. 8.21; Arch. 6; A. Krawczuk, Virtutis ergo. Nadania obywatelstwa rzymskiego przez wodzów Republiki, Kraków 1963, p. 78; L. Morawiecki, Monety miejskie Italii w II i I w . p.n.e., „Xenia Posnaniensia” Poznań 2004, p. 152-153 and 154.

17 Gn. Pompeius Strabo: Liv. Per. 73, 74, 75, 76; Vell. II 20-21; App. BC I 63, 66; Oros. V 19.10; U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 75.

18 CIL I2 864-866; Sallust. Hist. I fragm. 20-22: citra Padum omnibus lex Licinia [in]grata

fuit (against lex Licinia-Mucia of 95); Plut. Sert. 4; App. BC XIII 42, 50; A.N. Sherwin-White,

op. cit., p. 140.

19 Asc. Pis. 3: Neque illud dici potest, sic eam coloniam (scil. Placentiam) esse deducta

quemadmodum post plures aetates Cn. Pompeius Strabo, pater Cn. Pompei Magni, Transpada- nas colonias deduxerit. Pompeius enim non novis colonis eas constituit sed veteribus incolis manentibus ius dedit Latii, ut possent habere ius quod ceterae Latinae coloniae, id est ut petendi (rectius: petendo) magistratus civitatem Romanam adipiscerentur and Strab. 5.1.1.(209); Plin. N H III 138; Tacit. Ann. XI 23-24; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 144-145; C. Peyre, op. cit., p. 66-67;

o th e r h a n d th e a r e a u n d e r t h e c o n s u l’s c o m m a n d w a s p r o b a b ly la r g e r a n d p e r h a p s in c lu d e d L ig u r ia a s w ell, w h ic h m a y b e e v id e n c e d b y th e s e ttle m e n t o f A lb a P o m p e ia , fo u n d e d b y h im th e r e 20. P u t t i n g th e la w in to e ffe c t w as a c o m p lic a te d ta s k . U n til th e n , th e f o u n d a tio n o f a co lo n y h a d r e q u ir e d a s p e c ia l s e n a tu s c o n s u ltu m o r a d e c isio n o f th e P e o p le ’s A s s e m b ly a n d h a d b e e n a c o m p le x re lig io u s a n d le g a l, a s w e ll a s o r g a n is a tio n a l, p ro c e d u re sin ce a s p e c ia l c o m m itte e (tre sv iri co lo n ia e d e d u c e n d a e ) n e e d e d to b e e le c te d , colo­ n i s t s n e e d e d to b e g a t h e r e d to g e th e r , la n d s n e e d e d to b e a llo tte d a n d a s e ttle m e n t n e e d e d to b e c o n s tr u c te d 21. I n t h is c a se , th e s t a t u s o f L a tin co lo n ies w a s g iv e n to (o v e r tw e n ty ) n a tiv e s e ttle m e n ts a llie d to R o m e w ith o ­ u t th e w h o le p ro c e d u re . T h e i n h a b i t a n t s re c e iv e d th e L a t i n s t a t u s a n d th e r e l a t e d r ig h ts , i.e. iu s c o m m o e r c iu m , c o n u b iu m , s u ffr a g iu m a n d th e p o s s ib ili­ ty to re c e iv e c iv ita s o p tim o iu re u n d e r iu s a d ip is c e n d a e c iv ita tis p e r m a g i-

s t r a t u m 22. I t is d iffic u lt to s a y w h e th e r a ll th e s e ttle m e n ts a llie d to th e

R e p u b lic w e re fo rc e d to a c c e p t th e te r m s o f th e le x P o m p e ia d e T ra n s p a d a -

n i s , b u t it s e e m s t h a t so m e o f t h e s o c ii, w h o lik e ly h a d h a d a v e ry a d v a n ta g e ­

o u s fo e d u s w ith R om e, c o u ld h a v e k e p t t h e i r o ld t r e a t i e s o r r e c e iv e d t h e p riv ile g e s th e y h a d e n jo y e d b e fo re in a d d itio n to th e te r m s o f P o m p e iu s ’s law . I t c a n n o t b e e x c lu d e d t h a t r e g u la tin g t h e i n t e r n a l a ffa irs in C is a lp in e G a u l, a n d m a in ly i n th e te r r i t o r i e s n o r t h o f th e P a d u s , h a d a l a r g e r e x te n t, sin c e th e so u rc e s (P lin iu s th e E ld e r) te ll u s a b o u t a c a te g o ry o f p o p u la tio n c a lle d a d tr ib u tio , w h ic h w a s a s s ig n e d to b ig g e r s e ttle m e n ts o f o ld a llie s , w h ic h re c e iv e d th e s t a t u s o f L a t i n co lo n ies u n d e r th e lex P o m p e ia d e T ra n s-

p a d a n is . T h is w a s n o t t h e f ir s t le g is la tiv e in itia tiv e o f th is k in d sin c e th e r e

h a d b e e n la w s t h a t „ a s s ig n e d ” b ig g e r s e ttle m e n ts (e.g. G e n o a ) g ro u p s o f p e o p le liv in g o u ts id e t h e i r b o u n d a r ie s 23.

20 G.E.F. Chilver, op. cit., p. 7; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 148-150; 156. Perhaps those resear­ chers who draw attention to the civilisational and cultural aspects of the lex Pompeia de Transpada-

nis are right: G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 156; H. Galsterer, Aspetti della romanizzazione nella Cisalpi- na, [in:] Preistoria e protostoria dell’Alto Adriatico. „Antichita Altoadriatico”, XXXVII, Udine 1991,

p. 170-173; E. Buchi, Roma e la Venetia orientale..., p. 304. Some researchers believe that the native population from the areas south of the Padus did not receive civitas optimo iure: U. Ewins, op cit., p. 77 contra G.E.F. Chilver, op. cit., p. 7; A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 158-159.

21 M. Piegdon, op. cit., p. 125-174.

22 These settlements are treated as the so-called titular Latin colonies. For the rights of their citizens see: Cic. Att. 1.1.2: videtur in suffragiis multum posse Gallia; Asc. Pis. 3; U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 76-78; T.P. Wiseman, op. cit., p. 19; A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 157-159; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 164-173, 331-342; G. Bandelli, Il governo romano..., p. 50; E. Buchi,

Roma e la Venetia orientale..., p. 304. Citizens could also be granted the ius Ariminensis (ius XII coloniarum) - cf. E.G. Hardy, op. cit., Oxford 1924, p. 49-54. Granting the civitas optimo iure

was an important step on the part of the Republic towards the native population of northern Italy and its Romanisation: A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 159; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 158-159. The settlements were added to different tribus: L.R. Taylor, op. cit., p. 118-130; M. Piegdon, op. cit., p. 243-247.

23 Plin. NH III 134, 138; CIL V 7231 = ILS 94; E.G. Hardy, op. cit., Oxford 1924, p. 129; U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 77-78; L.R. Taylor, op. cit., p. 128; T.P. Wiseman, op. cit., p. 19; A. Albertini,

I n c o n te m p o r a r y r e s e a r c h , t h e lex P o m p e ia de T r a n s p a d a n is a lso a p p e ­ a r s a s th e la w t h a t e s ta b lis h e d th e p ro v in c e in C is a lp in e G a u l - lex p r o v in -

cia. T h e d e te r m in a tio n o f th e p re c is e d a te w h e n th e p ro v in c e i n n o r th e r n

I ta ly w a s c r e a te d h a s b e e n a n d s till is c o n te n tio u s a n d th e m a t t e r s e e m s to r e m a in u n r e s o lv e d 24. H is to r ic a l so u rc e s offer o n ly o n e m e n tio n c o n firm in g th e c r e a tio n o f th e p ro v in c e o f C is a lp in e G a u l; a f r a g m e n t o f th e L a te A n ti­ q u ity w o rk o f t h e r h e t o r L ic in ia n u s s a y s t h a t th e p ro v in c e w a s e s ta b lis h e d b y S u lla 25, w h ic h w o u ld m e a n t h a t i t w a s n o t c r e a te d u n d e r th e 89 la w of G n . P o m p e iu s S tr a b o . A p iece o f in f o r m a tio n p ro v id e d b y S a llu s tiu s a b o u t th e f ir s t g o v e rn o r o f th e p ro v in c e in t u r n te lls u s t h a t i t w a s G . A u r e liu s C o tta i n 75, w h ic h a g a in c o n firm s t h a t th e p ro v in c e o f C is a lp in e G a u l e x is te d in a p e rio d l a t e r t h a n th e la w of P o m p e iu s S tr a b o , a n d a t th e s a m e tim e s u p p o r ts L ic in ia n u s ’s a c c o u n t a b o u t S u lla c r e a tin g t h e p ro v in c e 26. H o w ev er, th e r e a r e s e v e r a l f r a g m e n ts o f a n c ie n t w o rk s w h ic h s e e m to im p ly t h a t th e p ro v in c e o f G a llia C is a lp in a w a s c r e a te d in th e p e rio d b e tw e e n th e in tr o d u c ­ tio n o f th e lex P o m p e ia d e T r a n s p a d a n is in 89 a n d S u lla o v e r ta k in g p o w e r in 81. A p p ia n m e n tio n s t h e p ro v in c e i n s e v e r a l f r a g m e n ts o f h is w o rk 27, a s w ell a s L iv iu s, V e lle iu s P a te r c u lu s a n d V a le riu s M a x im u s . R e la tin g th e m u r d e r o f th e c o n s u l Q. P o m p e iu s R u fu s , w h o w a s s u p p o s e d to t a k e o v e r c o m m a n d of S tr a b o ’s tro o p s , b y P o m p e iu s S tr a b o ’s s o ld ie rs , th e h is to r ia n s m e n tio n t h a t G n . P o m p e iu s S tr a b o w a s a p ro c o n s u l28. A p p ia n ’s m e n tio n is s im ila r . T h e in f o r m a tio n p ro v id e d b y V e lle iu s P a te r c u lu s m a y e v e n in d ic a te t h a t th e r e w a s a c o n tin u ity o f p o w er. To th e b e lie f o f m a n y h is to r ia n s , C icero , in o ne of h is sp e e c h e s a g a in s t G a iu s V e rre s, w h o w a s th e q u a e s to r o f th e n o r th e r n I t a l i a n c o n s u l G n. P a p ir iu s C a rb o , s e e m s to im p ly t h a t V e rre s w a s th e q u ­

a e sto r o f th e p ro v in c e g o v e rn o r29. I f w e t a k e a c lo s e r lo o k a t th e a c c o u n ts

s u g g e s tin g th e e x is te n c e o f th e p ro v in c e of C is a lp in e G a u l b e fo re S u lla to o k op. cit., p. 39-42; 49-50; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 189-214; G. Bandelli, 11 governo romano..., p. 49; E. Buchi, Roma e la Venetia orientale..., p. 305; J. Zając, Imiona własne z miast i terytoriów..., p. 167-168. For the adtributio of the peoples settled near Genoa see: CIL V 2 7749; U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 78. For the subjection of Cisalpine tribes to urban centres see: G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 158-164.

24 E.G. Hardy, op. cit., p. 46-49 and 232; G.E.F. Chilver, op. cit., p. 8; U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 75; P.A. Brunt, op. cit., p. 167; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 145-147, 148-177, 179-189, 207-214; G. Bandelli, Il governo romano..., p. 44-46; J. Zając, Od Wenetów..., p. 24-25; T.C. Brennan, op. cit., II 363-364.

25 Licin. 32 Teubner: data erat et Sulla provincia Gallia Cisal[pina...]; E.G. Hardy, op. cit., p. 45, 232; G. Luraschi; op. cit., p. 180.

26 Sallust. Hist. II fragm. 98 Maur.: sed consules a patribus provincias inter se parevere;

Cotta Galliam citeriorem habuit, Ciliciam Octavius and I fragm. 77 Maur.; Cic. Brut. 318; V.V.

Iasbez, op. cit., p. 143-145. For other sources confirming the existence of the province of Gallia

Cisalpina after Sulla’s dictatorship see: Liv. Per. 90; Plut. Pomp. 16; App. BC I 107 502;

E. Badian, op. cit., p. 275 fn. 8.

27 App. BC XIII 63 283-285; 66 303; 86 393; U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 75-76.

28 Liv. Per. 76 and 77; Vell. II 20 1; Val. Max. IX 7 m.R. 2; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 183-184. 29 Cic. Verr. II 1 12 34; U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 76; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 185.

o v e r po w er, i t is p o s s ib le to q u e s tio n t h e i r cre d ib ility . A c c o rd in g to som e r e s e a r c h e r s , A p p ia n ’s, L iv iu s ’s a n d V e lle iu s P a t e r c u l u s ’s a c c o u n ts im p lie d t h a t th e p ro c o n s u l o f 87 Q. P o m p e iu s R u fu s a r r iv e d in C is a lp in e G a u l a s h is o w n p ro v in c e , w h e r e h e w a s to t a k e c o m m a n d o f h is p r e d e c e s s o r ’s tro o p s 30. T h e fo rm e r c o n s u l w a s p ro b a b ly to t a k e o v e r th e tro o p s o f h is p re d e c e sso r, th e c o n s u l o f 89 a n d p ro c o n s u l o f 88 ( th e S e n a te c o u ld p ro ro g u e P o m p e iu s S tr a b o ’s office in C is a lp in e G a u l o r in P ic e n u m fo r th e y e a r 88 in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e o n g o in g B e llu m S o c ia le ). T h e s c e n a rio o f p r o ro g u in g im p e r iu m h a d o c c u rre d b e fo re , w h e n th e S e n a te a s s ig n e d a n a r e a a s p r o v in c ia to a c o n su l fo r t h e n e x t y e a r, b o th in th e 2 nd a n d 1st c e n tu ry . I t is im p o s s ib le to te ll w h e th e r Q. P o m p e iu s R u fu s t r ie d to t a k e c o m m a n d o f S tr a b o ’s tro o p s in C is a lp in e G a u l o r in P ic e n u m , sin c e th e a u t h o r does n o t m e n tio n w h e re th e c o n s u l w e n t, a lth o u g h h e im p lie s t h a t th e S e n a te e n t r u s t e d P o m p e iu s R u fu s w ith th e se c o n d a r m y in Ita ly , w h ic h w a s u n d e r th e c o m m a n d o f G n. P o m p e ­ iu s S tr a b o 31. A n o th e r f r a g m e n t b y A p p ia n d o es n o t e x p la in m u c h e ith e r ; on th e c o n tra ry , i t m a k e s th e s itu a tio n e v e n le s s c le a r a s i t s u g g e s ts t h a t G n. P o m p e iu s S tra b o , w h o h a d ille g a lly t a k e n c o n tro l o f th e a rm y , w a s n e v e r t h e ­ le s s s u m m o n e d fo r h e lp b y t h e s e rv in g c o n s u ls , G n. O c ta v iu s a n d L. C o rn e ­ liu s M e ru la , in o r d e r to d riv e a w a y th e tro o p s o f L. C o rn e liu s C in n a a n d G. M a r iu s in 87; h e w a s a lso a lle g e d ly s ta tio n e d in G a u l o n M a re Io n ic u m , w h ic h c o u ld n o t b e th e c a s e 32. I t is m o re d iffic u lt to d is p ro v e A p p ia n ’s a c c o u n t in w h ic h h e w r ite s t h a t d u r in g th e p r e p a r a tio n s fo r th e p o w e r s tr u g g le a g a in s t S u lla in 83, th e p o p u la r e s r e c r u ite d s o ld ie rs in I ta ly a n d s e p a r a te ly i n G a llia T r a n s p a d a n a 33. F o r s u p p o r te r s o f th e th e o r y t h a t th e p ro v in c e w a s c r e a te d e a rlie r, b e fo re S u lla to o k o v e r pow er, t h is is p ro o f t h a t th e p ro v in c e h a d a lr e a d y e x is te d in 83. B y m e n tio n in g I ta ly a n d G a llia T r a n s p a d a n a s e p a r a te ly , A p p ia n s u p p o s e d ly im p lie d t h a t C is a lp in e G a u l w a s th e p ro v in c e i n w h ic h th e p o p u la r e s re g im e r e c r u ite d s o ld ie rs . I t se e m s, h o w ev er, t h a t th e f r a g m e n t o n ly te lls u s w h ic h re g io n s th e p o p u la r e s co u ld c o u n t o n fo r h e lp w h e n o rg a n is in g th e ir re s is ta n c e a g a in s t S u lla . A s m e n tio ­ n e d above, th e p o p u la r e s h a d s u p p o rt in n o r th e r n Italy , m a in ly a m o n g th e in h a b ita n ts o f e a s t e r n C is a lp in e G a u l, in a g e r G a llic u s, A rim in u m , R a v e n n a , b u t also p ro b a b ly a m o n g th e co lo n ists in C om o34. I t co u ld b e s a id t h a t A p p ia n , te llin g u s a b o u t th e r e c r u itm e n t o f so ld ie rs in G a llia T r a n s p a d a n a , w a s j u x t a ­ p o sin g i t n o t w ith I ta ly b u t w ith L ig u ria , w h e re Q. C a e c iliu s M e te llu s P iu s , a follow er o f S u lla , fo u n d s u p p o rt a n d sh e lte r, a s th e a u th o r r e p o r te d e a r lie r 35.

30 App. BC XIII 63.283-285; Liv. Per. 76 and 77; Veil. Pat. II 20.1. 31 App. BC XIII 63 283.

32 Ibidem 66 303. 33 Ibidem 86 393.

34 M. Piegdoń, op. cit., p. 107; 168-169. 35 App. BC XIII 80 363; ibidem, p. 107-108.

W ith r e g a r d to th e r e le v a n t f r a g m e n t o f C ic e ro ’s s p e e c h , i t s h o u ld be e m p h a s is e d t h a t i n th e q u o te d p a r t o f t h e se c o n d V e rrin e C icero s t a t e s t h a t th e q u a e s to r re c e iv e d th e p ro v in c e b y lo t u n d e r se n a te s c o n s u ltu m , w ith h is d u tie s (p ro v in c ia ) in c lu d in g s u p p ly in g th e c o n s u l o f 82 in n o r t h e r n Italy , G n. P a p ir iu s C a rb o , w ith m o n e y fo r m ilita r y o p e r a tio n s a g a in s t S u lla ’s s u p p o r ­ t e r s 36 . H is t a s k w a s to p a y th e s o ld ie rs a n d p u r c h a s e food fo r th e le g io n s o p e r a tin g th e r e . H o w ev e r, V e rre s e m b e z z le d so m e o f t h e m o n e y a n d , w a n tin g to a v o id a tr i a l , a b a n d o n e d t h e p o p u la r e s a n d d e fe c te d to S u lla 37. T h e f r a g ­ m e n ts o f t h e sp e e c h r a t h e r s u g g e s t t h a t G n . P a p ir iu s C a rb o w a s g iv e n , a s c o n su l, t h e t a s k (p r o v in c ia ) o f c o n d u c tin g a c tiv itie s a g a in s t S u lla ’s s u p p o r ­ te r s in C is a lp in e G a u l38 a n d p ro b a b ly o f p r o te c tin g th e te r r i t o r i e s s y m p a th e ­ tic to w a r d s t h e p o p u la r e s . A t th e s a m e tim e , h e w a s to k e e p A r im in u m , a n im p o r t a n t f o r tr e s s w h ic h c u t o ff t h e e a s ie s t a c c e s s to I t a l y fro m t h e n o r t h ­ e a s t. I n t u r n V e rre s , a s q u a e s to r , w a s g iv e n b y th e S e n a te a s p r o v in c ia th e

q u a e s to r s h ip o n t h e s t a f f o f t h e c o n s u l C a rb o , r a t h e r t h a n t h e g o v e rn o r,

p ro c o n s u l39. T h is s t a t e m e n t is s ig n if ic a n tly d if f e r e n t fro m t h e in f o r m a tio n p ro v id e d b y C ic e ro w h e n h e m e n tio n s t h e c o u r s e o f V e r r e s ’s c a re e r, w h e r e h e s t a t e s t h a t V e rre s p e r f o r m e d f u n c tio n s in o t h e r l a n d s a n d li s t s t h e i r n a m e s 40. It se e m s , th e r e f o r e , t h a t n o t a ll t h e f r a g m e n ts r e f e r r e d to b y so m e r e s e ­ a r c h e r s a r e t h e b e s t p ro o f to s u p p o r t t h e th e o r y a b o u t t h e e x is te n c e o f C is a lp in e G a u l. H o w ev er, t h e m a t t e r o f t h e p ro v in c e ’s e x is te n c e in a s tr ic t s e n s e c a n n o t b e c o m p le te ly re je c te d , sin c e t h e r e a r e g ro u n d s t h a t p e r h a p s im p ly t h a t i t w a s c r e a te d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e 9 0 s. I t s e e m s t h a t th e r e a s o n fo r i ts c r e a tio n c o u ld h a v e b e e n , a t le a s t to so m e e x te n t, t h e t h r e a t p o s e d b y i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e s u b a lp in e re g io n s a n d t h e A lp s, a lth o u g h it m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t R o m e h a d d e a lt w ith th e s e t h r e a t s s in c e t h e b e g in n in g o f i ts p re s e n c e in C is a lp in e G a u l. H o w ev er, in t h e se c o n d h a l f o f t h e 2 nd c e n tu ry , h is to r ic a l so u rc e s in c r e a s in g ly m o re f r e q u e n tly in c lu d e in f o r m a tio n a b o u t in te r v e n tio n s o f R o m a n g e n e r a ls a g a in s t A lp in e t r i b e s 41. In d e e d , P om - p e iu s S tr a b o ’s in itia tiv e , w h ic h le d to th e c r e a tio n (?) o f th e colony in C om o, m a y b e a c o n f irm a tio n o f t h i s 42. P e r h a p s , t h e n , t h e le g a l g ro u n d w o rk fo r t h e f u tu r e p ro v in c e w a s in d e e d la id b y th e lex P o m p e ia d e T r a n s p a d a n is i n 89. I n t h e p o litic a l a n d a d m in is tr a tiv e s e n s e t h e p ro v in c e m a y h a v e b e e n c r e a te d l a t e r d u e to t h e c h a o s b r o u g h t a b o u t b y t h e o u tb r e a k o f t h e civ il w a r in

36 Cic. Verr. II 1.12-14. For the quaestor’s duties see: J. Richardson, op. cit., p. 580, 581. 37 Cic. Verr. II 1 13.

38 Ibidem II 14, but also App. BC XIII 67 308. 39 Cic. Verr. II 1 12.

40 Ibidem.

41 Liv. Per. 73; Strab. 5.1.6.(213); J. Zając, Od Wenetów..., p. 25-26; M. Piegdoń, op. cit., p. 102. 42 M. Piegdoń, op. cit., p. 103, 167-168.

R o m e s h o r tly a f te r th e B e llu m S o c ia le e n d e d . T h e p o p u la r e s , w h o ru le d R o m e w ith L. C o rn e liu s C in n a fro m 87 to 82, h a d m a n y o th e r d iffic u lt is s u e s to w o rry a b o u t ( th e t h r e a t p o se d b y L. C o rn e liu s S u lla , w h o w a s fig h tin g a g a in s t th e k in g o f P o n tu s , th e d e m a n d s o f th e so -c a lle d „n ew ” c itiz e n s to be a s s ig n e d to a ll th e 35 tr ib u s , th e eco n o m ic s it u a t i o n a f te r t h e B e llu m S o c ia le a n d th e civ il w a r b e tw e e n S u lla a n d th e p o p u la r e s )43. T h is d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t th e p o p u la r e s h a d no i n t e r e s t w h a ts o e v e r in w h a t w a s h a p p e n in g in th e n o r th . M a n y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f t h e p o p u la r e s fa m ilie s h a d tie s o f c lie n te la to th e n a tiv e s a n d c itiz e n s w ith th e L a tin s t a t u s a s w e ll a s R o m a n c itiz e n s fro m C is a lp in e G a u l. I n c o n n e c tio n to th e a p p r o a c h in g c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith S u lla , th e p o p u la r e s to o k a c tio n s i n C is a lp in e G a u l to s t r e n g t h e n th e fo o th o ld s in th e re g io n (A rim in u m , C om o). I t se e m s , h o w ev er, t h a t th e m a t t e r o f th e p ro v in c e o f C is a lp in e G a u l d id n o t a p p e a r in t h e i r le g is la tio n . O n th e o th e r h a n d S u lla , w h o c a m e o u t v ic to rio u s fro m th e fig h t a g a in s t th e p o p u la r e s in 8 3 -8 1 , co u ld a ffo rd to h a n d le a n d r e g u la te a ll t h e o u ts ta n d in g is s u e s , o n e o f w h ic h , i t se e m s , w a s th e m a t t e r o f th e p ro v in c e o f C is a lp in e G a u l44. M o st likely, S u lla w a s a b le to b u s y h im s e lf i f n o t w ith e s ta b lis h in g t h e n c e r ta in ly w ith c o n tin u in g w o rk o n c r e a tin g C is a lp in e G a u l. T h e le g a l b a s is fo r h is a c tiv ity w a s th e d ic ta to r ia l p o w e r g iv e n to h im u n d e r th e lex V a leria de

le g ib u s s c r ib u n d is e t re i p u b lic a e c o n s titu e n d a e . H is t a s k w a s a lso m a d e

e a s ie r b y th e fa c t t h a t h e h a d n o p o litic a l o p p o n e n ts , sin c e h e h a d g o t r id o f th e m , a n d h e d id n o t h a v e to w o rry a b o u t th e so cii re v o ltin g , sin c e m o s t o f th e m w e re s a tis f ie d w ith im p ro v in g t h e i r s t a t u s to R o m a n c itiz e n s a f te r th e

B e llu m S o c ia le e n d e d . H is re fo rm s , w h ic h c o v e re d m a n y s p h e r e s o f p o litic a l

a n d s y s te m c h a n g e s , s e e m to h a v e b e e n th e a p p r o p r ia te b a s is fo r c r e a tin g a n e w p ro v in c e in n o r t h e r n Ita ly . A fte r in c r e a s in g th e n u m b e r o f officials, in c lu d in g p r a e to r s , to e ig h t, th e r u le s o f th e c u r s u s h o n o r u m (leges C o rn elia e

a n n a lis ) m e a n t t h a t e v e ry y e a r t e n h ig h e s t o fficials (a lso in c lu d in g th e tw o

co n su ls), h a v in g h e ld t h e i r offices, r e m a in e d a t le a s t p a r t l y w ith o u t a n a p ­ p r o p r ia te in co m e o r a n o p p o r tu n ity to p u r s u e t h e i r c a re e r. T h e y w e re fo rced to w a it fo r th e n e x t office fo r a lo n g p e rio d o f tim e . S u lla ’s la w o n p ro v in c e s g a v e fo rm e r p r a e to r s a n d c o n su ls th e o p p o r tu n ity to g o v e rn p ro v in c e s a n d a t th e s a m e tim e e n a b le d th e m to p u r s u e t h e i r a m b itio n s , s h o r te n in g th e w a ­ itin g p e rio d fo r th e n e x t office. A t th e tim e , R o m e h a d n in e p ro v in c e s w h ic h n e e d e d to b e a llo tte d p r o m a g is tr a te s ; th e r e w a s a lso I ta ly b u t i t r e m a in e d in

43 The populares reverted to the law of the tribune of the people P. Sulpicius Rufus, the

lex Sulpicia de novorum civium libertinorumque suffragiis of 88: Liv. Per. 77; Exuperantius 4;

App. BC XIII 55.242-244, 56.245-249, 59.268; A. Krawczuk, op. cit., p. 80; A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 155-157; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 143; E. Buchi, Roma e la Venetia orientale..., p. 304; F.R. Rossi, op. cit., p. 161.

44 A. Albertini, op. cit., p. 43; G. Bandelli, II governo romano..., p. 44-45; H. Galsterer, op. cit., p. 166-167; R. Seager, Sulla, CAH, IX (1994), p. 205; 206; E. Buchi, Roma e la Venetia

th e h a n d s o f o r d in a r y m a g is tr a te s - c o n s u ls a n d p r a e t o r s 45. C r e a tin g a n e w p ro v in c e o r c o m p le tin g th e p ro c e ss o f its c r e a tio n b y S u lla co u ld h a v e g iv e n th e d ic ta to r a n d th e s y s te m h e e s ta b lis h e d a n a d d itio n a l p ro v in c e fo r th e n e x t p ro c o n s u ls a n d p r o p r a e to r s . S e c u r ity is s u e s co u ld h a v e b e e n j u s t a s im p o r ta n t i n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e t h r e a t p o se d b y A lp in e tr ib e s a tta c k in g R o m a n d o m a in s a n d w ith th e f e a r o f a r e p e a t o f a n in v a s io n o n I ta ly b y p e o p le s fro m b e y o n d th e A lp s, s im ila r to th e C im b r ia n o n e 46. W h e n th e d ic ta to r e x p a n d e d th e p o m o e r iu m , h e s tr e tc h e d R o m e ’s b o u n d a r y - u rb s (d o m ic iliu m R o m a e ) b u t a lso p ro b a b ly e x p a n d e d th e b o u n d a r y b e y o n d it (a g e r ), w h ic h co u ld h a v e in flu e n c e d th e e m e rg e n c e o f t h e b o r d e r b e tw e e n I ta ly a n d C is a lp in e G a u l ( th e R u b ic o n a n d M a g r a r iv e r s ) 47. T h e n e x t c h a n g e s in th e le g a l s t a t u s o f th e i n h a b i t a n t s o f th e p ro v in c e o f

G a llia C is a lp in a w e re c o n n e c te d w ith th e a c tiv ity o f J u l i u s C a e s a r, w h o h a d

e a rlie r, in t h e 6 0 s, b e g u n c a m p a ig n in g fo r c h a n g in g th e L a tin s t a t u s o f th e i n h a b i t a n t s o f C is a lp in e G a u l (T r a n s p a d a n i) a n d m a k in g th e m le g a lly e q u a l to t h e r e s t o f t h e p ro v in c e a n d Ita ly . In d e e d , n u m e r o u s p o litic ia n s o f th e R o m a n e s ta b lis h m e n t sh o w e d a c tiv e i n t e r e s t in c h a n g in g th e le g a l s itu a tio n o f th e T r a n s p a d a n i a t th e tim e o f p o litic a l s tr u g g le s i n R o m e b u t t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n t h is p ro b le m w a s m o s t o fte n i n s t r u m e n t a l a n d v e r y q u ic k ly w a ­ n e d on ce th e y a c h ie v e d t h e i r o w n p o litic a l a g e n d a .

O n ly w h e n th e g o v e rn a n c e o f C is a lp in e G a u l a s w e ll a s I lly r ia a n d N a r b o n e s e G a u l w a s t a k e n o v e r ( u n d e r th e lex V a tin ia d e p r o v in c ia (de

im p e rio ) C a e sa ris o f 59), w a s i t p o s s ib le to r e g u la te th e le g a l s t a t u s o f th e T r a n s p a d a n i. C a e s a r, o c c u p ie d w ith w a r o n t h e v a s t te r r i t o r i e s o f G a u l, co u ld n o t b e v e ry a c tiv e ly in v o lv e d i n th e is s u e o f c h a n g in g th e s t a t u s o f th e T r a n s p a d a n i. O n th e o n e h a n d h e w a s c o n d u c tin g a w a r to w h ic h h e a llo c a ­ te d a ll th e in co m e a n d re s o u rc e s p r o c u r e d i n h is p ro v in c e s, a n d o n th e o th e r h a n d h e w a s a w a r e o f th e f r a g ility o f th e a g r e e m e n t w ith G n . P o m p e iu s a n d M . L ic in iu s C r a s s u s , c a lle d th e F i r s t T r iu m v ir a te , a n d o f th e s t r e n g t h o f th e

o p tim a te s ’ o p p o s itio n . T h e l a t t e r w a n te d to q u e s tio n a t a n y c o st th e le g a lity

o f h is la w s in tr o d u c e d d u r in g h is c o n s u ls h ip o f 59 b u t also , in a lo n g e r te r m , to d e p riv e h im o f g o v e rn o rs h ip i n p r o v in c e s . T h e re fo re , h e w a s fo rced to be c a u tio u s in h is a c tiv ity in f a v o u r o f t h e T r a n s p a d a n i48, a lth o u g h a t th e b e g in n in g o f h is a c tiv ity C a e s a r h a d s e ttle d 5 ,0 0 0 c o lo n ists in N o v u m

Co-45

46

e la Venetia orientale..., p. 305; T.C. Brennan, op. cit., II 363, 574-575.

47

Last Republican, London 1982, p. 193, 200; G. Bandelli, Il governo romano..., p. 45; R. Seager,

op. cit., p. 205; N. Purcell, The Creation of Provincial Landscape: the Roman Impact on Cisalpi­

ne Gaul, [in:] Early Roman Empire in the West, Oxford 1994, p. 649.

m u m , w h ic h h e p ro b a b ly g r a n t e d th e s t a t u s o f c o lo n ia c iv iu m R o m a n o r u m b y v ir tu e o f h is p o w e r49. T h is in itia tiv e w a s l a t e r q u e s tio n e d b y t h e o p tim a -

tes, a s i l l u s t r a t e d b y th e flo g g in g o f o n e o f th e c itiz e n s o f N o v u m C o m u m

w ith c iv ita s o p tim o iure, o n th e o r d e r s o f th e c o n s u l o f 51, M. C la u d iu s M a rc e llu s 50. H o w ev e r, i t w a s o n ly a f te r th e c o lla p se o f th e T r iu m v ir a te a n d P o m p e iu s t a k i n g t h e S e n a te ’s s id e t h a t C a e s a r s t a r t e d to b e m o re a c tiv e ly in v o lv e d i n t h e T r a n s p a d a n i’s a s p ir a tio n s a n d e v e n e n c o u r a g e d th e m to c r e ­ a te in t h e i r s e ttle m e n ts in s t i t u t i o n s m o d e lle d o n R o m a n m u n ic ip ia in I ta ly a n d i n th e s o u th e r n p a r t o f C is a lp in e G a u l, e.g. th e offices o f q u a tto r v ir e s 51. T h e m o s t i m p o r ta n t c h a n g e s w e re b r o u g h t a b o u t o n ly in 49 w h e n a civ il w a r b e tw e e n C a e s a r a n d P o m p e iu s b ro k e o u t. D u r in g o n e o f h is b r ie f v is its to I ta ly in 49, C a e s a r i n i t i a t e d t h e in tr o d u c tio n o f a la w g r a n tin g t h e T ra n s p a - d a n i fu ll R o m a n c itiz e n s h ip . S in c e t h e h is to r ic a l so u rc e s a r e c o n fu sin g , it is d iffic u lt to d e te r m in e w h e n e x a c tly t h e la w w a s in tr o d u c e d a n d w h o its a u t h o r w a s. T h e f r a g m e n ts o f in s c r ip tio n s a c c e ssib le to u s im p ly t h a t th e la w w a s in tr o d u c e d b y a R o sc iu s, t r i b u n e o f t h e p eo p le, a t t h e P e o p le ’s A sse m b ly in th e s p r in g o f 49 (on M a rc h 11)52. H o w ev er, r e s e a r c h e r s a t t r i b u t e th e lex

R o s c ia to th e p r a e to r o f 4 9 , a lso b y th e co g n o m e n o f R o sc iu s, i.e. L. R o sciu s

F a b a tu s , a n d th e y b e lie v e t h a t t h e la w w a s p a s s e d in th e a u t u m n o f 49, sin ce t h e a c c o u n t o f C a s s iu s D io m e n tio n s th i s e v e n t53. H o w ev er, h is to r ia n s h a v e d o u b ts e v e n a b o u t t h e y e a r 49 b e in g t h e c o rre c t d a t e o f t h i s la w . A c c o rd in g to th e m , s u c h a c tiv ity is r e a s o n a b le in lig h t o f a n o th e r in s c r ip tio n fr a g m e n t, w h ic h also t a l k s a b o u t t h e le g a l r e g u la tio n o f t h e s t a t u s o f v a r io u s s e t t l e ­ m e n ts in C is a lp in e G a u l - th e lex R u b r ia . L e a v in g a s id e s p e c u la tio n s a b o u t t h e a u th o r s h ip a n d d a te o f in tr o d u c tio n o f t h e lex R o sc ia it m u s t b e s a id t h a t a lth o u g h t h e tw o f r a g m e n ts a r e p a r t s o f tw o d iffe re n t ta b le ts , th e y b o th r e f e r m a in ly to i n t e r n a l r e la tio n s in C is a lp in e s e ttle m e n ts . T h e ir lik e n e s s a llo w s u s to s u p p o s e t h a t b o th f r a g m e n ts r e f e r to o n e law , o n w h ic h e i t h e r t h e y w e re m o d e lle d o r o f w h ic h th e y w e re p a r t . T h e y d id n o t, h o w e v er, r e f e r to g r a n tin g fu ll R o m a n c itiz e n s h ip to th e c itiz e n s w ith L a t i n i t a s 54.

49 M. Piegdon, op. cit., p. 171-172.

50 Cic. Att. 5.11; Suet. Iul. 28; App. BC XIV 26; Plut. Caes. 29; E.G. Hardy, op. cit., p. 126-149; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 87-88, 382-506; C. Peyre, op. cit., p. 67-68.

51 Cic. Att. 5.2.3; Fam. 8.1.2; Hirtius BG VIII 50-52; T.P. Wiseman, op. cit., p. 19; E. Buchi,

Roma e la Venetia orientale..., p. 307.

52 U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 91-92; M. Humbert, Municipium et civitas sine suffragio. L’organi­

sation de la conquete jusqu’a la guerre sociale, Rome 1978, p. 265; U. Laffi, La lex Rubria de Gallia Cisalpina, „Anhenaeum” 64 (1986), p. 9-18; H. Galsterer, The Administration of Justice,

CAH X (1996), p. 403.

53 CIL I2 592 = XI 1146 = FIRA2 19; Dion. 41.36. Lex Roscia: E.G. Hardy, op. cit., p. 233-238; U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 91-92; T.P. Wiseman, op. cit., p. 19; M. Humbert, op. cit., p. 262-266; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 394-399; U. Laffi, op. cit., p. 10, 12; E. Buchi, Roma e la Venetia orientale..., p. 309.

54 CIL I2 600 = FIRA2 20 rr. 12-14 = Imagines 390 = CIL I2 fasc. IV 3 n. 600 (Fragmen-

T h e d ic ta to r ’s d e a th m a r k e d th e b e g in n in g o f a n o th e r civ il w a r, w h ic h e n d e d i n O c ta v ia n A u g u s tu s ’s victory. F o r th e p ro v in c e o f C is a lp in e G a u l th e tim e o f civ il w a r s a f te r C a e s a r ’s d e a th m e a n t d e s tr u c tio n , p lu n d e r a n d s e t t l e ­ m e n t o f t h e t r i u m v i r s ’ v e t e r a n s 55. I n t e r m s o f law , t h e p e r io d m e a n t a c h a n g e in th e a d m in is tr a tiv e s t a t u s . T h e tr iu m v ir s e n d e d C is a lp in e G a u l’s p ro v in c ia l s t a t u s a n d in c o rp o ra te d i t in I ta ly ’s a d m in is tr a tiv e s tr u c tu r e s in 42. I t se e m s t h a t th e r e w e re p o litic a l r e a s o n s b e h in d th i s d e c isio n . T h e p re s e n c e , in R o m e’s close p ro x im ity , o f a g o v e rn o r w h o h a d acc e ss to s ig n if ic a n t m i l i t a ­ ry p o te n tia l (in th e fo rm o f s e v e r a l le g io n s) a n d a r ic h b a s e , w a s d a n g e ro u s fo r t h e p o w e rs in R om e. A fte r C is a lp in e G a u l w a s in c o r p o r a te d i n I t a l i a n s tr u c tu r e s , th e b o r d e r s o f I ta ly w e re c h a n g e d a n d s h if te d n o r th . T h e y follo­ w e d tw o riv e rs : th e V a ru s in th e w e s t a n d th e F o rm io i n th e e a s t 56.

U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 92, 93, 94; A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit., p. 163-164; 170-173; M. Humbert, op. cit., p. 262-266; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 394-399; U. Laffi, op. cit., p. 5-44; E. Buchi, Roma

e la Venetia orientale..., p. 309. The confusion is made even worse by e.g. the inscription from

Patavium (CIL V 2864 = ILS 5406), which says: M. Iunius Sabinus IIIIvir aediliciae potestatis

e lege Iulia municipali. Cf. U. Ewins, op. cit., p. 92 fn. 82, 93; A.N. Sherwin-White, op. cit.,

p. 145; G. Luraschi, op. cit., p. 397-398; G. Bandelli, Il governo romano..., p. 60; E. Buchi,

Roma e la Venetia orientale..., p. 309-310.

55 M. Piegdoń, op. cit., p. 118-121 and 174-175.

56 A. Degrassi, Il confine nord-orientale dell’Italia Romana, Berno 1954, p. 46; J. Zając,

Od Wenetów..., p. 32; G. Bandelli, Il nuovo quadro storico, [in:] Tesori della Postumia. Archeolo­ gia e storia intorno a una grande strada romana alle radici dell ’Europa, Milano 1998, p. 159.