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Anetta Zieliľska ISSN 2071-789X

INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO ECONOMICS AND SOCIOLOGY 124

ECONOMICS

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Anetta Zieliľska

Department of Governing Quality and Environment

Faculty of Economy, Management and Tourism

in Jelenia Gora University of Economics in Wroclaw

St. Nowowiejska 3

58 - 500 Jelenia Gora, Poland

DURABILITY PRINCIPLES VERSUS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT,

ECO-DEVELOPMENT WITH REFERENCE TO FORMS OF NATURAL VALUABLE AREAS

E-mail:

anetta.zielinska@ue.wroc.pl

Received: July, 2012

1st Revision: September, 2012 Accepted: October, 2012

ABSTRACT. The aim of this article is to identify durability principles in relation to sustainable development, eco-development and forms of natural valuable areas.

Sustainable development accepts sensitive and strong durability principle, however, it does not accept a weak durability principle and restrictive principle. Eco- development does not accept a weak and sensitive durability principle, does not partly accept strong principle, but it accepts restrictive principle. Only one durability principle does not refer to any form of natural valuable areas, it is a weak principle.

JEL Classification : Q26, Q01, Q29

Keywords : natural valuable areas, sustainable development, eco- development

Introduction

One should distinguish a term eco-development from a term sustainable development.

Eco-development term is narrower than a term – sustainable development, because in a term eco-development we usually focus on environmental and natural context of social development, in the second plan we take into account such issues like: economic development and widely understood social development, and – in case of conflict among these spheres – one accepts the primacy of ecological demands in comparison with economic or social demands (Compare: WskaĨniki ekorozwoju (Eco-development indicators), 1999, section 3;

Zabáocki, 2002; Czaja, Fiedor et al, 2002, section. 8).

For Stefana Kozáowski eco-development means, “development based on ecological criteria, in other words the one, which is accomplished in accordance with natural conditions, or creating socio-economic development without destruction of natural resources”

(Kozáowski, 2000, p. 83). A term sustainable development itself, can be found in Environmental Protection Act (Journal of Environmental Law, 2008). In Article 3, Section 5 there is the following record: it is understood that such a socio-economic development, where the integration process of political, economic and social action take place, at the same time retaining natural balance and durability of fundamental natural processes, in order to guarantee a possibility to satisfy basic needs of particular societies or citizens for contemporary as well as future generations.

Anetta Zieliľska, Durability Principles Versus Sustainable Development, Eco- development with Reference to Forms of Natural Valuable Areas, Economics &

Sociology, Vol. 5, No 2, 2012, pp. 124-131.

Scheme 1. Accomplishment elements of sustainable development strategy Source: own study.

At first this idea was called an organic growth, using the influence of ecology and nature studies.In the second report for Rome Club “Mankind in a turning point”, it was written: “… this pattern of sustainable and non-sustainable growth constitutes a crucial source of most urgent problems facing mankind, a leading way to their solution, is a way of organic growth” (Mesaroviü, Pestel, 1977, p. 40).

The essence of sustainable development lies in finding a proper balance (proportion) among economy, society, space or nature. An attitude towards sustainable development according to a principle criterion lies in the choice of the durability level. A durability level defines pressure on environment protection and strength in approaching to retaining natural capital, taking into account economy and society’s needs in a contemporary generation (JeĪowski, 2009, p. 28).

In the early period, when the concept of sustainable development appeared, more often the notion of eco-development was used, which strongly emphasized ecological dimension of processes. First definitions appeared at the turn of 1980s and 1990s.

Management system of natural environment protection

Democratic system of political and self- government authority

The system of scientific and implementation research

The system of pro- ecological diffusions

and technical- technological innovations

Economically-legal system considering problems of rational

exploitation and protection of natural

environment

Developing democratic methods

of population participation in decision-making

processes

Strengthening ecological awareness

and new ecological ethics in society

Recycling and low, and non-waste

technologies

Decrease of waste- generating and production, and consumption processes

Increase of effectiveness in

exploitation of natural resources and

energy Increase in effectiveness of

exploiting natural resources and energy

Support system of resources development strategy

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

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Table 1. Way towards sustainable development on Earth

Date of event Event

1968 Establishment of the Club of Rome

1969 Report of Secretary-General of the UN UThant 1972 First report for the Club of Rome “The limits to growth”

05.07.1972 Conference in Stockholm “The Only One Earth”

1980 World Nature Conservation Strategy 1982 World Nature Card

20.03.1987 Brundtland Report

1991 New World Conservation Strategy IUCN “Caring for Earth”

03-14.06.1992 First Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro “Environment and Development”

14.06.1992 Declaration from Rioof environment and development 14.06.1992 General ClimateConvention

14.06.1992 Convention on BiologicalDiverisity 14.06.1992 AGENDA 21

28-30.04.1993 Conference in Lucerne “For clean environment for Europe”

1995 Conference in Sofia and Pan-european Biological and Landscape Diversity strategy for the 1996-2000 period

12.1997 The Kyoto Protocol

06.09.2000 Millennium Summit of UN General Meeting – Millennium Declaration and Millennium Goals of UN

26.08-4.09.2002 Second Earth Ecological Summit in Johannesburg 1-12.12.2008 Conference in Poznan

7-18.12.2010 Conference in Copenhagen

20-22.06.2012 Summit of Sustainable Development ”Rio+20” in Rio de Janeiro

Source: own study.

Durability idea refers well to the forms of natural valuable areas, including (look further ZieliĔska, 2010, pp. 211-220):

• national parks and nature reserves, landscape parks, the areas of protected landscape and Natura 2000 areas;

• the forms of individual protection including: natural feature of historic importance, documentary positions, ecological arable lands, nature-landscape complexes;

• the forms of the species protection of plants, animals and mushrooms (in situ, ex situ);

• botanical gardens, zoological gardens and rehabilitation centres for animals;

• greenery and tree-covered areas;

• and additionally beyond legal protection.

• protection of urban greenery.

Table 2. Selected definitions of Eco-development in Polish literature Authorship of

definition

Definition

Universal Polish Dictionary

Economic and spatial development of a certain area, taking into consideration ecology principles, not causing any damages in natural environment

Encyclopedia of Wyborcza Newspaper

Process of long-lasting economic growth, taking place with the attention to environment protection, caused by particular care for intergeneration justice– retaining for future generations appropriate environment quality, including its resources and non-economic arable lands

PWN Encyclopedia

Process of long-lasting and permanent, self-supporting economic growth, taking place with the attention to environment protection, caused by particulary care for intergeneration justice

Source: (1). Uniwersalny sáownik jĊzyka polskiego, (ed.) S. Dubisz, tom 1 A-G, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, (2). Encyklopedia Gazety Wyborczej, tom 4, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa 2003, p. 472, (3). Wielka Encyklopedia PWN, tom 8, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 2002, p. 124.

What kind of relation are there among durable development and sustainable development? Do durability principles refer to all forms of natural valuable areas? The answer for the above mentioned questions, will allow to understand connection of durable development through durability principles, with the sustainable development concept, eco- development and forms of natural valuable areas. It will result in the assessment in an economical sense of economic potential, which is found in natural valuable areas. They function in accordance with sustainable development. Durability principles do not limit the developmental possibilities of natural valuable areas.

The aim of this article is to identify durability principles in relation to sustainable development, eco-development and forms of natural valuable areas. The author does not aim at pointing out, which durability principle is the most universal one for natural environment.

Nature of durability principle

Durability of development is a category, which relations towards conventional and unconventional development, through which we understand sustainable development and eco- development, are not clear enough. Therefore, it should be asked if one can identify durable development with sustainable development or eco-development? In order to do that, we have to get closer and examined mentioned in the literature durability principles (Cf. WskaĨniki ekorozwoju, 1999, pp. 70-75), which show an existing conflict among a conservative attitude towards environment and expansive forms of natural environment managing. That is why a term – durability does not have a universal character, but is grading according to “strictness”

or restrictiveness principle of retaining natural capital. There are four durability principles

(Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1. Durable development principles

Source: worked out on the basis of Opracowanie modelu wdroĪeniowego …, T. Borys (ed.), 2004.

A detailed approach towards durability principle is introduced by Tadeusz Borys and Bogusáaw Fiedor, who identify the following principles (criteria) of capital durability, look:

WskaĨniki ekorozwoju, 1999, p. 72; Fiedor, 2004, p. 8; Opracowanie modelu …, T. Borys (ed.), 2004, subsection 2.1.1; Ayres, et al, 1998, No. 3; Neumayer, 2003; Turner, 1992, vol. 26):

1. Weak principle(or excellent substitution of capital) means a need to retain capital source as a whole, regardless of its structure, including natural capital, created by a human being (anthropogenic – economic and cultural) and social (human). It is assumed that, different kinds of capitals are excellent substitutes, at least in the limits appointed by a current level of business activity and existing resources at that time. It is an approach towards typically conventional development, in this sense durable development cannot be identified with sustainable development or eco-development.

2. Sensitive (moderate) durability principle, requires not only retaining the whole source of capital, but also a stability of its structure. This approach is based on an assumption about a limited range of substitution (in a strictly defined limits)of natural capital, which is created by a human being. Therefore, a proper functioning of a system, sets a demand, it means that capital elements have to be present there all the time, or eventually it defines their mutual proportions or minimal participation in a whole. Because we do not know the limits appointed by critical factors, necessary amounts of particular kinds of capital, that is why, a practical conclusion is a careful exploitation of nature resources and avoiding their fast wasting. Then, one takes into account ecological limitations of human’s activity and, at the same time considering possibilities to reach a compromise and translating ecological premises into practical language of natural resources managing, retaining durability of their usage.

3. Strong durability principle (or capitals’ complementarity) requires retaining resources of all kinds of capitals, according to the quantity as well as quality.

It results from an assumption that, anthropogenic and natural capital are not

substitution towards each other, but rather complementary. It concerns, most of all, regulative environment’s functions. It means that, a loss of a certain kind of resources should be compensated by the growth of the same resource, not an investment into another kind of capital. A condition for development is keeping natural capital and not allowing for a negative change in quantity and quality of goods and environmental services.

4. Restrictive (a very strong one) durability principle is an extreme example of previous principle and leads to not reducing any of the capital resources. Non- renewable resources would not be exploited at all. In case of renewable resources it is possible to use only this part, which is its annual growth, so it will not reduce capital and influence on the ability to renew in further periods.

This conception comes from ecological knowledge about ecosystems and puts the emphasis on applying conservative principle of nature protection, in all possible areas of human being’s functioning.

In subject literature, one can find an attitude towards reducing these durability principles to two basic ones: weak and strong, look: Neumayer, 2003; Turner, 1992; Ayres et al, 1998). In the first case, balance is assessed in accordance with the assumption of resources substitution, in other words the assumption accepting substitution of capital. Economic system is in balance with environment, as long as it creates resources of equal value of used resources. Therefore it is accepted that, development based on a weak durability principle is not sustainable development. In weak development, substitution concerns not only natural resources (industrial resources), but also nature resources (biological diversity, ecosystems, soils, landscapes etc.) and resources created by human beings (anthropogenic resources). In a case of strong sustainability, one includes mutual incomparability of some resources, and a fact that, some foods cannot be substituted (lack of substitution). Strong sustainability rejects possibility of substitution acceptance.

Sustainable development acknowledges sensitive and strong durability principle, however, it does not acknowledge weak durability principle (excellent capitals’ substitution), and to great extent restrictive principle. Eco-development is strongly connected with a term nature capital and with its durability principles at least in “strong” version. Eco-development does not accept weak and sensitive principle, and to great extent it accepts restrictive principle of nature’s capital protection. Restrictive principle accepts such development, which allows to hold possessed heritage of natural environment, in an untouched state for some time. In other words it means that, it allows to hand over possessed capital, containing conditions for providing life quality for future generations. That is why, eco-development to little extent should be explained through the principle of integrated order, because the main aim of this development conception is protection of natural capital (environmental). Eco-development is only a part of integrated order.

Durability principles for natural valuable areas

None of single durability principles does not translate into all forms of natural

valuable areas. If we take natural valuable area as a sustainable development idea’s element

then, one should take into consideration a fact that, it should be preserved in time (for future

generations, so called intergenerational justice), it means to obey rules of conduct with the

principle of capital’s durability. Analysing one by one, all durability principles, one should

eliminate weak principle, which does not refer to any form of natural valuable area. Whereas,

sensitive (moderate) durability, where cautious exploitation of natural resources is needed,

and preventing their qualitative degradation, refers to such forms of natural valuable areas

like: botanical garden, zoological garden, rehabilitation centre for animals, urban greenery,

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urban parks, areas of protected landscape, Natura 2000, documentary positions, ecological arable lands, nature-landscape complexes. Next, strong durability principle pays attention to a necessity to preserve each capital resource, it concerns national parks (partial protection), landscape parks and natural feature of historic importance and species protection of plants, animals and mushrooms (in situ, ex situ). While, restrictive principle, prohibiting depleting any of resources concerns nature reserves, national parks (rigorous protection).

Such an approach towards principles for natural valuable areas is connected with economic, social and spatial activities, which take place within different kinds of ecosystems, they are subject to continuous modifications and changes. That is why, a problem of sustainable development and eco-development durability, always has to answer the question:

what natural valuable areas do we want to preserve for present and future generations? Here, one should aim at caution principle, which means a need to avoid irreparable changes in natural environment and means to assure that the effect of economic-social-spatial activity would be safetly absorbed within continuously changing assimilation abilities of ecosystems.

On the basis of durability principles, it results that the accomplishment of sustainable development idea refers to all forms of natural valuable areas, except form nature reserves, national parks, where eco-development idea is applied. For nature reserves and national parks (rigorous protection) harmony order is weakened (ecological, social, institutional and spatial), because a dominating order is an ecological one (environmental).

Sustainable development idea of natural valuable areas has to take into account a condition of preserving fundamental, irreplaceable natural capital. Using natural resources of these areas has to include their harmony with economic rationality and social acceptance.

Final conclusions

On the basis of conducted theoretical analysis, the following conclusions can be formulated:

• Eco-development is a narrower term than sustainable development.

• One should pay attention to the role, which durability principles play, in defining relations among durable development, sustainable development or eco- development, semantic range of terms – sustainable development and eco-development.

• Unconventional development conceptions (sustainable development and eco- development) cause wider understanding through anthropocentric values system.

• Sustainable development accepts sensitive and strong durability principle, however, it does not accept weak durability principle and restrictive principle.

• Eco-development does not accept weak and sensitive principle, partly strong principle, however to large extent it accepts restrictive principle of natural capital protection.

• Sustainable development is accomplished for all forms of natural valuable areas, except form nature reserves and national parks, for whicheco-development idea is applied.

References

Ayres, R.U., van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., Gowdy, J.M. (1998), Viewpoint: Weak versus Strong Sustainability, Tinbergen Institute, No. 3.

Becla, A. (2012), Information Society and Knowledge-based Economy – Development Level

and the Main Barriers – some Remarks, Economics & Sociology, Vol. 5, No 1, pp. 125-

132.

Czaja, S., Fiedor, B., Graczyk, A., Jakubczyk, Z. (2002), Podstawy ekonomii Ğrodowiska i zasobów naturalnych, Wydawnictwo C.H. Beck, Warszawa.

Encyklopedia Gazety Wyborczej (2003), vol. 4, PWN, Warszawa.

Fiedor, B. (2004), Zasoby nieodnawialne i odnawialne w teorii trwaáego rozwoju, in: Polskie lasy i leĞnictwo w Europie, Kraków 29 listopada 2004r. http://www.lp.gov.pl (date of access: 3.04.2010).

JeĪowski, P. (ed.) (2009), Metody szacowania korzyĞci i strat w dziedzinie ochrony Ğrodowiska i zdrowia, Szkoáa Gáówna Handlowa, Warszawa.

Journal of Laws environmental of the Republic of Poland 2008 No. 25, Item 150.

Kozáowski, S. (2000), Ekorozwój. Wyzwanie XXI wieku, PWN, Warszawa.

Mesaroviü, M., Pestel, E. (1977), LudzkoĞü w punkcie zwrotnym. Drugi Raport dla Klubu Rzymskiego, PWE, Warszawa.

Neumayer, E.(2003), Weak Versus Strong Sustainability: Exploring the Limits of Two Opposing Paradigms, Edition 2, Edward Elgar Publishing.

Opracowanie modelu wdroĪeniowego wskaĨników zrównowaĪonego rozwoju w ramach banku danych regionalnych na poziomie kraju (marzec 2004), (ed.) T. Borys, Raport KoĔcowy z Realizacji Pracy, Regionalny OĞrodek Ekorozwoju Fundacji Karkonoskiej Jelenia Góra–Warszawa.

Turner, R.K. (1992), Speculations on Weak and Strong Sustainability, CSERGE Working Paper GEC, vol. 26.

Uniwersalny sáownik jĊzyka polskiego, (ed.) S. Dubisz, tom 1 A-G, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

Wielka Encyklopedia PWN (2002), vol. 8, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa.

WskaĨniki ekorozwoju, (1999), T. Borysa (ed.), Wydawnictwo Ekonomia i ĝrodowisko, Biaáystok.

Zabáocki, G. (2002), Rozwój zrównowaĪony – idee, efekty, kontrowersje, Wydawnictwo UMK, ToruĔ.

ZieliĔska, A. (2010), Istota obszarów przyrodniczo cennych w naukach prawnych i ekonomicznych, in: T. Borys, B. Fiedor (ed.), Ekonomia 11. Gospodarka a Ğrodowisko,Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocáawiu, Prace Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego we Wrocáawiu No. 140, Wrocáaw

ZieliĔska, A. (2011), The Problem of Effectiveness in the Managing Assessment in Natural Valuable Areas, Economics & Sociology, Vol. 4, No 2, pp. 112-119.

ZieliĔska, A. (2011), Applying Multidimentional Comparative Analysis for the Assessment of

the Concept Realization of Sustainable Development for the Protected Areas,

Economics & Sociology, Vol. 4, No 1, pp. 87-96.

Arminda do Paço, Helena Alves, Carolina Nunes

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ECONOMICS

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Arminda do Paço University of Beira Interior, Research Unit NECE, strada do Sineiro, s/n 6200-209 Covilhã, Portugal Tel.: +351 275 319 600 E-mail: apaco@ubi.pt

ECOTOURISM FROM BOTH HOTELS AND TOURISTS’

PERSPECTIVE

Helena Alves University of Beira Interior, Research Unit NECE, Portugal strada do Sineiro, s/n 6200-209 Covilhã, Portugal Tel.: +351 275 319 600 E-mail: halves@ubi.pt Carolina Nunes University of Beira Interior, strada do Sineiro, s/n 6200-209 Covilhã, Portugal Tel.: +351 275 319 600 E-mail: carolnunesf@hotmail.com Received: July, 2012

1st Revision: August, 2012 Accepted: October, 2012

ABSTRACT. This empirical research about ecotourism was elaborated having in mind two perspectives: the lodging and the consumer. It was possible to conclude that the hotels involved in the research need to improve its performance in terms of market research and of the environmental accreditation, but it is convenient to empathise that the environmental and social concerns are present in its activities. Regarding ecotourists, the findings indicate that they are concerned with the environmental issues when they are lodgin.

Their great motivation is the possibility of having a contact with the nature, the environmental conservation and the sustainability.

JEL Classification : Q56 Keywords : ecotourism, sustainability, environmental concern

Introduction

Tourism can contribute to economic diversification and profitability by increasing employment, improving basic services, and increasing economic equity between urban and rural populations (MacPherson, 1997; Narayanan, 2002; Byrd, Bosley and Dronberger, 2008).

However, tourism can also generate several negative impacts such as air, water and noise pollution, litter and solid waste, water shortage, traffic congestion, disturbance, lost of authenticity, soil and beach erosion, damage to ecosystems and loss of flora and fauna (Wilkinson, 1989; Buckley and Pannel, 1990; Inskeep, 1991; Narayanan, 2002; Nepal, 2008;

Pappas, 2008; Van Wincle and Mackay, 2008). Given this scenario, an alternative type of tourism – the ecotourism – is being gaining adepts around the world.

Despite the mentioned problems, tourism industry is extremely important for some countries and it is expected to grow by 4.3% per annum between 2008 and 2017 (WTO, 2007). Ecotourism/nature-based tourism became the fastest growing sector (IES, 2008), and this fact seems to be also connected to the increasing trends in environmental concern.

The adoption of environmental principles and responsible behaviour in developing

Arminda do Paço, Helena Alves, Carolina Nunes, Ecotourism from both Hotels

and Tourists’ Perspective, Economics & Sociology, Vol. 5, No 2, 2012, pp. 132-142.

sustainable ecotourism lodging is indicative of the increasing demand for these new travel alternatives (Wight, 1993).

Ecotourism has had a relevant role in some countries’ developing strategies. It is attractive due its ability to generate employment, foreign exchange and regional growth (Weaver, 1998). Countries like Brazil are trying to take advantage of its natural conditions to develop not only tourism in general, but also ecotourism in some specific areas (ex.

Amazonas).

This research aims to analyse the Brazilian ecotourism market having in mind the perspective of the eco-hotels operating in the subsector. More specifically, we intend to analyse some of their management practices related with the environmental aspects. This will allow us to discuss the projects’ sustainability. Additionally, we will also perform a study aiming to know better the ecotourist’s attitudes and behaviours.

On one hand, the knowledge of the target market nature allows ecotourism operators to change its marketing mix variables according to the needs and desires of the environmentally friendly tourist. On the other hand, that understanding of the ecotourist’s profile has also significant implications for managers and protected areas agencies (Wearing and Neil, 2009).

As Brazil has a great ecotourism potential, because of its rich biodiversity, this industry is seen as a logical alternative to other more consumptive forms of land exploitation.

Although the evidences showed that the nature-based tourism began in Brazil in 1960, its growth has been rising (kala and Maikhuri, 2011). Due its importance, it was developed a code of ethics for ecotourism in 1996 and the government has been investing millions of dollars to develop this industry (Fennell, 2008).

The paper is structured as follows. The concept of ecotourism, regarding both perspectives of the eco-lodges and the consumer market, is presented in the literature review section. After, a brief description of the methodological aspects, in terms of the case studies and the quantitative research is shown. This is followed by the discussion of results and conclusions.

Literature review

Ecotourism became a kind of tourism incorporating a diverse set of activities (e.g. bird watching, scientific study, photography, diving, trekking, etc.). For some authors it is a subset of nature-based tourism and for others is a niche market (Wearing and Neil, 2009).

Concepts as sustainable tourism, ecotourism and green tourism are growing trends, indicating the public concern and expectation to see destinations that aim to preserve both physical and socio-cultural environments (Uriely, Reichel and Shani, 2006). However, there are different perceptions about some terms related with this tourism. To Fotiou, Buhalis and Vereczi (2002), sustainable and responsible travel respects to the whole tourism sector, while ecotourism concerns mostly to travel to natural areas containing cultural/educational elements.

In its purist version, Parks, Parks and Allen (2009) defend that ecotourism definition

should include these aspects: nature based, active participation, educational travel, social and

cultural elements, involvement of the local community and ecological sustainability. Singh,

Slotkin and Vamosi (2007) question if it is possible to have a “pure form” of ecotourism that

effectively sustain economic, social and natural environment, since not all sustainable tourism

is necessarily ecotourism, this is, sustainability alone does not defines ecotourism. However,

when correctly regulated, ecotourism can provide numerous benefits like: long-term

sustainable resource preservation, empowerment of local people living in that community,

promotion of public and private cooperation and material for scientific and educational

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research (Parks, Parks and Allen, 2009).

Marketing present in ecotourism should be socially responsible. The organisations of this sector should have as principles ethics, legality and social responsibility. Concerning to demand, it is necessary to identify the current consumption options and the criteria used by consumers at the moment of the buying decision. This way, the marketing professionals could intervene and promote a change to an ecologically consumption.

The idea behind the definition of marketing is that the consumers’ needs should be attended and the organisation’s aims should be achieved. This idea of the organisational objectives is crucial for any ecotourism operator that has to deal with the dilemma: sustaining the environment or profitability? (Wearing and Neil, 2009).

At this point it is important to talk about the contributions that ecological marketing and social marketing could bring to the field of ecotourism. Ecological marketing questions the role of demand stimulation (Henion and Kinnear, 1976). If more and more individuals chose a more experiential ecotourism product, there is a danger for less environmentally concerned mass tourism operators also enter in the sector. Regarding social marketing, its focus on client satisfaction and society welfare, should be adopted by ecotourism operators, since, in practice, this approach seeks to mediate the preferences of the tourist with the long term interests of the host community. Having all these aspects in mind, a definition of ecotourism marketing could be: the development of ecologically sustainable products, as well as its price, distribution and promotion, whose impact in physical and cultural environment is minimum, and the profits are accordingly (Wearing and Neil, 2009).

Marketing permits to better analyse not only the consumer’s needs, but also the industry requirements, which is being diluted due the distortion of ecotourism by some operators who are only oriented to their own product (Fennell, 2008).

Given the expansion and changing nature of ecotourism, in order to market successfully, operators will have to alter the focus of their approaches to planning and communication strategies. This means that, instead of measuring the success by the number of tourists that visit the place, the level of the customer satisfaction and his predisposition to return, should be considered (Wearing and Neil, 2009).

According to Wearing and Neil (2009), the actions that characterise the corporate social responsibility depend from a set of conditions such as: the development of the surrounded community, the environment preservation, the internal and external clear communications, the investment in the work conditions, the employers’ well-being, the profits for the stakeholders and the customers’ satisfaction. The firm should be part of the society not only as an economic agent, but also as a social agent, following certain duties, pursuing rights according to the society development; this is, being a citizen-firm that cares with the Man’s life quality in its all aspects.

Sustainable consumption can be applied to the field of tourism, and more specifically to the ecotourism. This way, ecotourist can be defined as “people who require environmentally compatible recreational opportunities … where nature rather than humanity predominates” (Kerr, 1991, p. 248); usually has interest in visiting wildness, national parks, and forests, and in viewing fauna and flora, at the same time that is contributing towards conserving and benefiting local economy (Eagles, 1992).

Generally ecotourists are characterised as having higher incomes and qualifications than the average, and tend to be female (Galley and Clifton, 2004; Wight, 1996). Usually they are experienced travellers and have a college/university degree (IES, 2008). Wight (1996) adds that they tended to travel as couples, limited family or some singles, but the great difference, compared to general tourists, is in the amount they are willing to spend in the travel experience.

Along these traits, behavioural and psychographic characteristics are used to profile

the ecotourist. For instance, Ballantine and Eagles (1994), refer the possession on environmental ethic, the predisposition to conserve the resources, the focus on extrinsic motivations, the anthropocentric orientation, the desire to benefit the environment, etc. They are frequent and experienced travellers and they have preference for small groups, personalised service and outdoor activities (Wearing and Neil, 2009). Due their “science orientation”, they are interested in the study, demand of information and instruction (Galley and Clifton, 2004).

Regarding the Brazilian market, the ecotourist is characterised by his high cultural and educational level, generally has a university education degree, medium to high income and is aged between 20 and 40 years old. This tourist seeks the direct contact with the nature, the exotic, the uncommon, unique cultures and environments. His daily routine is stressful, without any contact with the environment, and because of that he wish relaxation and leisure activities. The ecotourist is aware of the fact that he is paying a superior value for environmentally friendly programmes; he concerns itself with the environment preservation and with the life quality of the local community and he is able to contribute to its development, interact with it or consuming there (EMBRATUR, 1994).

Methodology

The topic of environment and sustainable tourism has becoming a critical issue for the lodging industry. A growing number of hotels are taking this trend seriously and some of them opted to operate in the subsector of ecotourism. One part of this research is focused in these units, more specifically in the ecotourism hotels in Brazil.

In order to study this topic we formulate some research questions as follows:

- Are the eco-lodges concerned with the analysis of their customers?

- Are environmental and social concerns present in the hotels managers’ attitudes?

- Is environmental accreditation the standard practice in these companies?

- Which are the main promotional channels used to communicate and place the ecotourism product?

This is a qualitative research based in case studies. The target population comprised four directors of hotels that are operating in the ecotourism area. To collect the information documental analysis was used, as well as an individual interview. The latter included questions concerning the general description of the organisation; the demand perspective (knowledge about their clients’ attitudes and behaviours) and the supply perspective (knowledge about the ecotourism theme, the ecological awareness of the sector and the use of marketing tools to promote and distribute the offer).

Concerning the demand side, this study intends to analyse the ecotourists’ attitudes and behaviours, as well as to access their environmental awareness. Having these aims in mind we also formulate some research questions:

- Is there any relation between individuals’ environmental concern and their behaviour concerning ecotourism?

- Is there any relation between the ecotourism practice and the concern with the conditions offered by the hotels?

- Will the ecotourists give preference to the hotels with environmental accreditation?

- Will the ecotourists prefer socially responsible enterprises?

- Will the ecotourists’ demographic profile be relevant to differentiate the individuals that practice ecotourism from the other individuals?

The method used to announce the questionnaire was the internet, uploading it on specialised sites of ecotourism in Brazil and networks like facebook, twitter and orkut.

Although the sample group was only 100 individuals, the number of visits to the

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questionnaire site was 502 (response rate – 20%).The collection of data from this kind of sites (social networks and blogs) is considered very relevant by CMIGreen (2009), to find and study the buying behaviours of green tourists. Most of the respondents of the GMIGreen’s study referred that usually they consulted sites, articles and publications containing other´s tourists opinions.

The questionnaire included several parts in order to measure: the general environmental concerns and behaviours; the perception about the lodging industry regarding corporate social responsibility; the knowledge and practices of ecotourism; and the demographic data. This survey was previously pre-tested with a sample of 20 individuals.

After collection, data were statistically analysed and interpreted using the statistical software SPSS 19.0 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). A descriptive analysis was undertaken (frequencies, cross tabulations and central tendency statistics), together with nonparametric tests.

Results

In this section, the analysis concerning the case studies of the hotels involved in the study (illustrating the supply side), as well as the study of consumers (illustrating the demand side) will be presented.

Study of the Ecotourism Hotels

The case studies are based on four ecotourism hotels (Canto das Águas, Verdegreen, Uacari and Caiman Ecological Refuge) located in four Brazilian regions, which develop nature based activities. These companies employ between 8 and 69 employees and were founded between 1986 and 2008. Next, the results that aim to present the answers to the research questions are presented.

Q1. Are the eco-lodges concerned with analysing their customers? Based on the results found, it is possible to say that the majority of the surveyed companies, never performed a study concerning its costumers behaviour, with exception of the Uacari Hotel that in 2009 performed a research based on a questionnaire. The main results show that this kind of tourists is interested in maximising the possibilities for observing fauna and flora, and that they look for ways of knowing local populations life style. The results also show that they are more ecocentric than anthropocentric. Based on the opinion of the interviewed directors, the environmentally conscious habits of the guests are directly related to the established good practices standards. Guests comply with the rules, and besides that, are concerned with garbage treatment, with the local community and support the projects developed by the hotels.

In order to evaluate guest’s satisfaction, the hotels use tools such as book complaints and service evaluation forms.

Q2. Are environmental and social concerns present in the hotels managers’ attitudes?

Data collected from the interviews indicate that the hotels are concerned with the environmental aspects when the units were been constructed. Verdegreen is the more recent hotel and was projected as a sustainable construction. Remain hotels try to adapt the buildings with adequate technologies in order to minimise the negative environmental impacts.

Additionally, the social responsibility of the companies is well established. All use means to

diminish the social disparities and to value the local workers, as well as implement procedures

to reduce the environmental impact of their activities (recycling, cleaning the forests,

educational environmental projects, etc.). The Canto das Águas Hotel supports the local

community through donations, financial help and training programmes, being this the most

concerned company with the community. Also the Uacari is socially concerned as it uses a

rotating system involving 60 service providers of 7 communities of the natural reserve.

Q3. Is environmental accreditation the standard practice in these companies? From the four hotels only Canto das Águas (entitled as the first sustainable hotel in Brazil) has a certificate of environmental compliance. However, it is important to mention that Verdegreen Hotel and Caiman Ecological Refuge are in the accreditation implementation phase.

Q4. Which are the main promotional channels used to communicate and place the ecotourism product? In what regards communication and place of the ecotourism product, the interviewed companies demonstrated being synchronized with sector trends. The internet is the most used channel to communicate and place the ecotourism product. Faced with the easiness the consumer has in obtaining information through internet, companies are giving priority to this channel, ignoring or diminishing the frequency of the use of traditional channels like TV, magazines and newspapers. Some of the companies still use tourism fairs.

The Uacari Hotel bases its communication strategy on word-of-mouth.

Study of the Consumers

The sample is mostly composed by woman, aged between 25 to 34 (36%) and 18 to 24 years old (23%). In terms of income, 19% belongs to class A and 15% of the individuals have a low income level probably because there is also a high number of students in this sample (30%). 31% of the respondents is attending some graduate course, 28% is graduated and 27%

is pos-graduated.

It was performed a descriptive analysis of the questionnaire whose main results are reproduced as follows:

- Most part of the respondents refereed that they are very concerned with environmental issues.

- In relation to the lodgings, 58% of the individuals manifested concern with the environmental aspects of the same ones. The aspect more cited was “to have an efficient water management system” and “to use renewable energies”.

- A significant part of the respondents referred do not knowing any environmental accreditation entity, which shows a lack of information about the issue.

- 36% of the respondents said to prefer hotels with environmental accreditation and 31% always prefer the socially responsible companies.

- Most individuals (91%) had already listen about ecotourism, but only 55% practiced some connected activity, namely, trekking, nature walks, rappel and observation of animals and plants.

- The type of ecotourism more practiced is: Adventure, Recreation, and Flora and Fauna/Aquatic.

- The motivations more common were “like the nature” and “contribute to the environmental conservation”.

- The website is the more used mean to keep informed and buy tourism products.

Next, the results that will allow us to answer the research questions previously defined, will be presented.

Q5. Is there any relation between individuals’ environmental concern and their behaviour concerning ecotourism? To measure the individuals’ environmental consciousness level, a group of questions connected with the ecological awareness was analysed. The respondents were divided into two groups: the more environmentally conscious (they have got 4 or more points in the set of seven questions, in which yes= 1 and no= 0) and the less environmentally conscious (they have got 3 or less points). The scores resulted of the sum of the number of “yes” selected in the scale provided.

The results, using the chi-square test, show that there is no statistical significance

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(0,709), for a significance level of 0,05. This is, the variable environmental consciousness is not relevant to differentiate the individuals regarding to the practice of ecotourism. Observing the statistical correlation between these variables, through the correlation coefficient, the conclusion is that the association is not relevant (- 0,039) (Table 1).

Table 1. Level of environmental consciousness versus Practice of ecotourism Do you practice some ecotourism activity?

Yes No Total

Less environmentally

conscious 14 11 25

More environmentally

conscious 41 27 68

Total 55 38 93

Correlation coefficient Sig.

Q6. Is there any relation between the ecotourism practice and the concern with the conditions offered by the hotels? Observing Table 2, it is possible to say that there is a significant relation (0,001) between the variables “environmental concern with lodgings” and the “practice of ecotourism activities”. As the correlation coefficient shows, there is also a strong association between the two variables (0,99).

Table 2. Environmental concern with lodgings versus Practice of ecotourism activities

Q7. Will the ecotourists give preference to the hotels with environmental accreditation? It is possible to say that the relation between the individuals that practice ecotourism and the preference for accommodation establishments that have environmental accreditation is significant (0,004). However, the correlation between the variables is low (0,347) (Table 3).

Do you practice some ecotourism activity?

When you stay in a hotel, does its ecological orientation concern you?

Yes No

Total

Yes 40 14 54

No 15 23 38

Total 55 37 92

Correlation coefficient Sig.

0,99

0,001

Table 3. Preference for environmentally accredited accommodation versus Practice of ecotourism activities

Do you practice some ecotourism activity?

Do you prefer hotels with environmental accreditation?

Yes No

Total

Yes 28 7 35

No 4 2 6

Indifferent 23 29 52

Total 55 38 93

Correlation coefficient Sig.

0,347 0,004

Q8. Will the ecotourists prefer socially responsible enterprises? By observing the significance value of 0,016, it could be confirmed that individuals practicing ecotourism prefer companies involved with cause related marketing and the ones that are socially responsible. However, the correlation between the two variables is low (Table 4).

Table 4. Preference for socially responsible companies versus Practice of ecotourism activities

Do you practice some ecotourism activity?

Do you prefer socially responsible companies?

Yes No

Total

I don’t know what that means 0 1 1

Never 0 2 2

Sometimes 32 29 61

Always 23 6 29

Total 55 38 93

Correlation coefficient Sig.

- 0,326 0,016

Q9. Will the ecotourists’ demographic profile be relevant to differentiate the individuals that practice ecotourism from the other individuals? In this case a bivariate analysis was undertaken, in which various cross-tables were carried out, between the variables

“practice of ecotourism” and “demographics” (Table 5). Regarding to the significance of the demographic characteristics in the differentiation of the two groups, a Pearson’s test was performed, and allow us to say that statistical significance exists just in the case of the variable age. However the correlation coefficient presents low values for all variables.

These results seem to differ from the ones achieved by Wearing e Neil (2009) that

refer that ecotourists usually exhibit higher incomes. However the results are according with

the ones of the research performed by EMBRATUR (1994), in the Brazilian market,

concluding that the ecotourist is characterised by a high cultural and educational level.

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Table 5. Correlation Coefficient and Significance

Conclusions

Analysing this research it was possible to conclude, through the case studies analysed, that the companies have environmental concerns and well established practices that are not only respected by them but also by the guests. These companies employ local residents, contributing this way to increase the economic development of the region where they operate.

Another aspect that was possible to verify was the implementation of several projects towards the local community social development.

However, besides the environmental concerns demonstrated by the hotels, it was possible to state that only some of them have already environmental accreditation. Another conclusion was that the majority of the hotels usually do not perform market research in order to deepen the knowledge about their costumers, which can constitute a serious barrier to achieve a really sustainable action. As Dinan and Sargeant (2000) state, sustainable companies need to focus its actions on those costumers that are not only economically attractive but also likely to adopt sustainable behaviours.

In what regards communications and place decisions, it was possible to verify that these companies rely heavily on internet and word-of-mouth to promote their ecotourism products. This is according to the results of the research performed by the CMIGreen (2009):

the best way to target ecotourists is precisely word-of-mouth; also, social networks such as facebook, twitter and blogues are of extreme importance for the ecotourism buying behaviour.

Regarding consumer market, ecotourism seems to be a familiar term for most respondents. However, this tourism is not promoted or communicated enough. The market of the environmental tourism practitioners has been gradually growing due the increase of the environmental concern in the last years. The environmental consciousness is present in these respondents and the relation between environmental consciousness and practice of a more sustainable tourism is significant.

This way is it is possible to estate that hotels should continue their good practices on environmental preservation as tourists value their practices when they choose where to stay.

On another side, this kind of hotels should promote more the information about their practices and even educate tourist about ecotourism in internet, since the tourists lack some more information and mainly use internet to search for this information.

As future research, we can indicate the exploration of the knowledge about the ecotourists’ attitudes and behaviours, as well as the research of the firms that are working in the lodging industry. To do this it is necessary to interview more hotels, and other agents of the sector. Concerning the demand side, we intend to inquiry the ecotourist during the period of travel, this is, realise an in loco fieldwork which allow us to understand the characteristics that can be relevant for the study of their attitudes and behaviours. The aim would also be to increase the size of the sample, since this time its dimension was considered a limitation.

Sig. Correlation Coef. N

Gender 0,312 -0,105 89

Age 0,045 0,109 89

Monthly income 0,367 -0,155 89

Level of education 0,146 0,107 89

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