P ro b lem s of fa t-liq u o rs. W. S c h in d l e r (Collegium, 1928, 241—274).—Fat-liquors consist of small droplets, which, being electrically charged, repel each other and so prevent coalescence. They gradually lose their charge and then coalesce. The stability of the emulsion depends on th e conductivity, the size of the drops, the surface tension of the oil/aqueous dispersion medium, the difference in th e sp. gr. of the oil and th e medium, the viscosity of the latter, and the surface film which surrounds the oil drops. “ S tructural viscosity ” has been observed in some aqueous emulsions. The Brownian m ovem ent does n o t occur much in leather-trade emul
sions. Fat-liquors contain three phases, and give rise to four kinds of viscosity, viz. : (a) of the emulsion itself, (6) of the disperse-phase oil, (c) of the surface film surrounding the oil drops, and (d) of the dispersive medium. The structural viscosity of different sul- phonated oils tested was low a t p n 7-5— 9-5, above 9-5 it increased and then diminished again. Ammonia- neutralised sulphonated oils showed a much greater structural viscosity th a n those neutralised w ith soda.
Different sulphonated oils (neatsfoot, castor, cod) have been fractionated into five different products : a x, oc2, Pj, P2, and y. Of these, cq and y, being neutral, do not emulsify b u t have good fat-liquoring properties owing to their high viscosity ; a2 consists chiefly of free and oxidised fa tty acids of low viscosity, hence do n o t fat- liquor w e ll; (3 comprises oxidised fats, and the emulsent properties of sulphonated oils can be judged from th e am ount of p and its sulphur trioxide content. The speed of fat absorption by leather is greatest a t the commencement of th e fat-liquoring. Soap solutions and soap-m ineral oil emulsions are absorbed more slowly and incompletely th an m ixtures containing sulphonated oils. Additions of m ineral oil or untreated fa tty oil increase th e speed of absorption b u t n o t the to tal am ount absorbed. Sulphonated oils are absorbed more quickly and in greater q u an tity th a n is neutral oil from emulsions. E very emulsent has its own optimum Pii value, which is higher for soaps th an for sulphonated oils. Increase in p a diminishes the size of the oil drops, and the fa t absorption-tem perature curve is thereby flattened. Increase in tem perature causes increased fa t absorption b u t diminished stability.
D. Woodroffe. [S od iu m ] su lp h id e sta in s on w h ite h id e. G. W.
S c h u l t z (J. Amer. L eather Chem. Assoc., 1928, 23, 356—361).—Frigorífico hides rarely show these stains.
Hides limed for 48 hrs. in a lime liquor w ithout sulphide and then p u t into a sulphide-lim e solution show no stains.
Soaking in an alkaline liquor (0-75% sodium hydroxide) prevented sulphide stains. The stains are not caused by the presence of iron. They are more prevalent on badly cured hides(especially green-salted domestic hides), and increase in intensity and extent as hides are kept in the cured sta te ; during such increase the evidence of salt stains increases also. I t is concluded th a t the blue stain w ith sulphide is probably caused by some decom
position product of the hide. D . W o o d r o f f e . T an n in g of m a rin e an im al sk in s. C. Z ié g l e k (Cuir techn., 1927, 19, 2—7, 28—29 ; Chem. Zentr., 1927, II , 1921— 1922).—The raw skins are preserved by salting repeatedly, or by immersion in brine for 8 days.
Before tanning the skins are soaked in a 0-2— 1%
solution of sodium hydroxide and then treated with hydrochloric acid to remove the scales. Pancreatic preparations are used for bating th e skins, after which for chrome tannage they are treated with ammonium chloride and tanned by the tw o-bath chrome process.
Acid liquors m ust be avoided in the vegetable tanning process as the skins are very susceptible to acids. Chest
n u t, quebracho, gambier, and oakbark are used on them. Only small skins are chamoised.
D . Woodroffe. E lectr o -o sm o se tan n in g. L. P o i l a k (Gerber, 1926, 52, 174—175, 205—206 ; Chem. Zentr., 1927, II, 1922).—Colloids are electrically charged and are pre
cipitated by oppositely charged colloids, electrodes, or diaphragms. In electro-osmose tanning the hides are arranged in th e liquors between two electrodes separated by diaphragms. The current of electricity charges the pelts positively and renders them b etter capable of absorbing th e negatively charged tannin. About 0-1—
0-125 kw.-hrs. a t 100 volts (max.) is necessary for 1 kg.
of sole leather. Prelim inary tannage is done in normal liquors w ithout electricity, and the tannage is com
pleted in drums. Osmotic tannage curtails the tim e of tanning and increases the yield of leather.
D . Woodroffe. T annin con ten t of A lask an M ountain h em lo ck bark ( T s u g a m e r te n s ia n a ) . P. B. D a v id s o n and E. C. Sh er r a r d (J. Amer. L eather Chem. Assoc., 1928, 23, 371—372).—The average of eight analyses of the oven-dry bark w a s: tans 12-21%, non-tans 9-18% , insolubles 5-42% . D . W o o d r o ff e .
Pa t e n t s.
T an n in g m a te r ia ls. R. A l c a l a i (B.P. 281,292, 23.11.27. Belg., 23.11.26).— An aqueous solution of a suitable vegetable tanning m aterial containing 9— 13%
of tannin is mixed w ith a solution of a normal chromium salt and an aluminium salt, insulficient to cause tanning itself. N eutral salts, e.g., sodium chloride and/or sulphate, m ay be added to the m ixture. The m ixture m ay result in a precipitate which is then separated and used for tanning w ith or w ithout a vegetable tanning m aterial.
D . Woodroffe. C om p osition for treatin g h id es and sk in s . H.
D o d g e (U .S .P . 1,680,136, 7.8.28. Appl., 18.1.28).— A
B r itis h C h e m ic a l A b s tr a c ts —B .
764 Cl. XVI.— Ao b i c u l t o s k.
m ixtu re o f form aldehyde, n itre, sodium bicarbonate, and sod iu m su lp h a te is claim ed . F. G'. Cro sse.
P roduction of w h ite p a rch m en t. F Zn i d a r i c
(A ustr. P. 106,854,19.1.26).—D ep ila ted h id es are treated for a b o u t 1 i hrs. w ith a so lu tio n con tain in g arsenic trisu lp h id e an d sod iu m chloride, th en w ith an aqueous so lu tio n prepared from anhydrous alum and d ilu te sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid, and are finally
stretch ed and dried. L. A . C o le s .
T re a tm en t of so y a b ea n s. 0 . J o h n s o n , Assr. to I. F. La u cks, In c. (U.S.P. 1,680,264, 7.8.28. Appl., 27.5.24).—Juice is extracted from the mass obtained by soaking the beans in w ater a t n o t above 71°, grinding the m oist beans, and adding w ater a t 71° or less and an alkali. A base for an adhesive is obtained by separating the oil from the juice, adding a curding agent, and re
moving m oisture from the curd. J . S. G. Thomas. P rotein co m p o sitio n . M. L e v in (U.S.P. 1,675,181, 26.6.28. Appl., 15.9.27).—An adhesive binder containing extending agents to prevent deterioration and hardening is made by mixing glue, glycerol, water, and hydrol (the motlier-liquor of d 1-39— ] -54 resulting from the pro
duction of sugar by the livdrolysis of starch).
F. R. En n o s. M anufacture of con d en sation products containing su lp h u r [tanning a g e n ts]. 0 . S p e n g le r and A.
ThOrm, A^srs. to I. G. F a r b e n in d . A.-G. (U.S.P.
1,682,434, 28.8.28. Appl., 3.5.26. Ger., 28.5.25).—
See B.P. 252,694 ; B., 1927, 373.
XVI.— AGRICULTURE.
S ign ifican ce of h y d ro g en -io n con cen tration for th e cy c le of n itrogen tran sform ation in the so il.
C. Olsen (Compt. rend. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg, 1928, 17, No. 8, 21 pp.).—Culture experiments show th a t ammoni
fying organisms are active w ithin the ra n g e p H 3-7— 9-0 with an optimum value between p n 7-0 and 8-5. In acid soils nitrification begins a t p n 3-7, increasing in activ ity to the maximum a t value p n 8-3 and declining again to the upper lim iting value jhs 8-8. In general, between p s 4-0 and 8-0 the rate of nitrification is greater than the rate of ammonification, and the la tte r process controls the former. Nitrifying organisms appear to exist in very acid soils, although remaining inactive until the p n value is adjusted. In some cases re-inoculation is necessary. Air-drying of soils does not exterm inate nitrifying organisms, which, may therefore be distributed in dust from one locality to another.
A. G. Po lla rd. E ffects of lim e sto n e and hyd rated lim e on b io c h em ica l a ctiv ities in acid s o ils . H . D o r s e y (Con
necticut Storrs Sta. Bull., 1926, 141, 113—163).—
Ground limestone gradually reduces the acidity of an acid soil for 6—8 w eeks; hydrated lime acts rapidly, the acidity rising after 2—3 weeks for S weeks. U n
treated soil shows fluctuations in acidity which are reflected in treated soil. Jones’ test is preferred, and accords w ith the hydrogen-ion test. The ammonifying and nitrifying power of acid soils is increased by lime
stone. C h e m ic a l A b s t r a c t s . A ction of a lk a li. S o il m o istu r e . M. D. T hom as and D. S. J e n n in g s (U tah Agric. E xp. Sta. Bull., 1926,
No. 198, 65— 68).— On addition of sodium salts to soil the sodium replaces calcium, magnesium, and potassium in th e silicate complex, yielding a soil p artly im per
meable to water, and alkaline in reaction. In w et clay soils treated with sodium salts considerable defloccula- tion was induced. Chemical Abstra cts.
E ffects of n itrates on the co m p o sitio n of the potato. W. P. H e a d d e n (Colo. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull., 1928, No. 325, 1—96).—-Excess of n itrate is toxic to potatoes, decreasing the yield and cooking q u a lity ; the phosphate is decreased and the potash increased.
Chemical Ab str a c t s. T r an sform ation of n itrogen in rice s o il. G.
J a n s s e n and W. H. M e t z g e r (J. Amer. Soc. Agron., 1928, 20, 459—’176).—The nitrate, nitrite, and ammonia in flooded and unflooded soils under greenhouse condi
tions, treated with green manure, ammonium sulphate, or sodium nitrate, and untreated soils, were determined.
The n itrite content was never significant. Half the soils were uncropped, and the others cropped to rice.
Chemical Abstr a c t s. S oil reaction and n itrogen fixation . P . C. K r is h n a (J. Amer. Soc. Agron., 1928, 20, 515—518).—The am ounts of nitrogen fixed increase progressively with decreasing acidity of soils, e.g., 3-0 mg. a t p n 5-2—5-9, 3-6—4-7 mg. a ty » n 5 '9 —7 • 65. No correlation between numbers of bacteria and nitrogen fixation or soil reaction, or between soil reaction and disappearance of dextrose, was observed. Chemical Ab stra cts.
Effect of green m an u res and crop resid u es on so il reaction . W . G. S a c k e t t , A. K e z e r , I. W . F e r g u son , and J . C. W a r d (Colo. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull., 1928, No. 324, 1—31).—Green (barley) manure slightly in
creased the p n of a silt loam containing 3 • 2% of calcium carbonate, b u t green manures, crop residues, and com- merical fertilisers were n o t effective in changing the p n of a soil rich in calcium carbonate from 7-7 to 6 • 0.
Chemical Abstr a c t s. T h eo ry of g ro w th factors [of s o ils ]. E. A. M it- s c h e r l i c h (Z. Pflanz. Diing., 1928, 7B , 345—352).
0 . Lemmermann and . P. Hasse (Ibid., 352—361).—
Adverse criticism of the theory (notably th a t of Gerlacli and of Lemmermann) is discussed and the constancy of growth factors reaffirmed.
The technique of the Mitscherlich m ethod is criticised.
The dilution of the soil w ith sand introduces secondary factors w ith the system, and results are vitiated as the additional factors are not wholly incorporated in the calculation. Evidence is p u t forward to discredit the constancy of the growth factors. A. G. Polla rd.
W ie ssm a n n ’s m eth o d for d ete rm in in g the n u trien t con ten t of so ils b y p ot e x p e r im e n ts. K.
M a iwa l d (Z. Pflanz. Diing., 1928, 7 B , 370—381).— The Wiessmann method (B., 1928, 279) is examined. The physiological effects of the mixing of soil and sand on p lan t growth are n o t fully considered in the original method. The growth curves in sand and on soil diluted with sand are not strictly comparable for the purpose of calculating the correction factor. The n u trien t con
ten ts of the soil necessitate a different point of origin for the soil-sand growth curve. F urther, th e effect of th e added fertiliser salts on the physical and chemical
B r itis h C h e m ic a l A b s tr a c ts —B .
Cl. XVII.— Sd o a k s; St a r c h e s ; Gu m s. Cl. X V III.— Fe r m e n t a t i o n In d u s t r i e s. 7 0 6
conditions of different soil types m ay be such as to make comparison of the growth curves of little value.
A. G. Pollard. C ellu lose in s o il. W in o g r a d s k y .—See V.
Pa t e n t s.
M anufacture of m ix e d or com p lete fe r tilise r s.
I. G. Fa r b e n in d. A.-G. (B.P. 292,068, 2.6.28. Ger., II.6.27).—Mixtures of two or more mineral acids, e.g., nitric, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids, are atomised by ammonia or gases containing it. Portions of the acids m ay be replaced by their ammonium salts, and salt« of fertilising value, e.g., potassium salts, m ay be added in solution or in suspension. L. A. Co les.
M anufacture of h ig h -g ra d e fe r tilise r s. J . Y.
J o h n so n . From I. G- F a r b e n in d . A.-G. (B.P. 295,477, 25.6.27).—Potassium chloride solution is treated with ground fluorspar, precipitated silica from a later stage of the process, and hydrochloric acid to yield a precipi
ta te of potassium fluosilicate and a solution of calcium chloride. The precipitate is digested w ith ammonia, which regenerates the silica for further use and yields a solution of ammonium and potassium fluorides, which is then caused to react w ith the solution obtained by dissolving raw phosphate m ineral in the minimum of nitric acid. Calcium fluoride is thus precipitated aud returned to th e first stage, and a solution of potassium and ammonium nitrates and phosphates is produced from which a high-grade fertiliser is obtained by evapor
ation. A. II. Pow ell.
M anufacture of m ix ed fe r tilise r s [containing a m m o n iu m n itra te]. J . Y. J o h n so n . From I. G.
F a r b e n in d . A.-G. (B.P. 295,825, 5.8.27).—Non-caking mixed fertilisers are prepared by mixing solid salts of fertilising value w ith ammonium n itra te solution containing a t least 92% of ammonium nitrate, m ain
tained a t a tem perature high enough to keep i t fluid for a sufficient tim e for the greater part, of the w ater to evaporate during the mixing operation. L. A. C o le s .
S o lu tion s for treatin g g rain . I. G. F a r b e n in d . A.-G., Assees. of G. Osv ald(G.P. 447,601,2.12.25. Swed., 20.8. and 3.10.25).—The solutions contain formaldehyde or its polymerides, together with alkali hydroxides, car
bonates, bicarbonates, acetates, borates, phosphates, sulphites, hyposulphites, alkaline-earth hydroxides, ammonia, ammonium salts, aliphatic or arom atic amines, tanning agents, etc., with or w ithout the addition of m ercury compounds, e.g., mercuric cyanide, mercury salicylate, or mercuri-compounds of phenols, carboxylic acids, or sulphonic acids. L. A. Coles.
F u n g icid es for the treatm en t of se e d s. I. G.
F a r b e n in d . A.-G. (Austr. P. 107,003, 7.1.25).—Solutions are used containing alkali-soluble, complex, organic m ercury compounds and cyanides or ferrocyanides, e.g., 60 pts. of potassium ferrocyanide per 100 pts. of sodium mercuri-/>-cresoxide. L. A. C o le s .
M aterial for co m b a tin g plan t p e sts. I. G.
Fa r b e n in d. A.-G. (G.P. 448,371, 10.3.25).—A ctivated, highly porous m aterial, e.g., charcoal or silica, impreg
nated with carbon disulphide is used. L. A. Co l e s. [H ot-w ater p ipe s y s te m for] d ry in g of h ay, str a w , etc. C. L y o n (B.P. 295,482, 4.7.27).
N itro g en com p ou n d s (F.P. 622,266). D icalcium phosphate (B.P. 293,942).—See V II.
XVII.— SU G A RS; STARCHES; GUMS.
F orm ation of in cru station on evaporators [of b eet-su g a r fa cto ries]. V. S t a n e k and P . P a v l a s (Z. Zuckerind. Czechoslov., 1928, 52, 545—560).—
Incrustation form ation in beet-sugar factories depends largely on the n atu re of the heating surface. Thus, on brass polished bright th e percentage of incrustation and of suspension were 97-7 and 2-3, and on rough brass 94-6 and 5-46. Similarly, a copper-plated surface gave 67 -3 and 32-7, and one which had been tinned 51-3 and 48-7. Calcium carbonate present as aragonite formed centres for the crystallisation of the calcium carbonate separated from a beet juice which had been over-carbonated ; but calcium carbonate added in the amorphous form merely adhered to the heating surface, increasing the am ount of the scaling. On the other hand, fine carbons (particularly “ N orit ” ) acted favourably in diminishing the am ount of th e scaling. A weak electric current between the heating surface and an electrode placed in the liquid exerted an unim portant, though detectable, effect. J. P . O g i lv i e .
D eterm in ation of the degree of a cid ity (pH value) of su g a r s. P. H onk? and P. C. N i c o l a (Arch. Suikeririd.
Nederl.-Indie, 1928, 36, 0—13).— In determ ining the Ph value of sugars, 20 g. were dissolved in 30 c.c. of neutral water, and 10 c.c. of this solution w ith 0-5 c.c.
of indicator compared with the standard tubes in the usual way. Values from 5-4 to 6-6 were found for various Ja v a plantation white (1927) sugars, those made in sulphitation factories being, in general, less acid than those made by carbonation. A D utch semi
refined beet sugar gave p u 6 -6 5 ; French beet sujrar (1925 campaign) 5-20, and a sample of refined sugar 6-40. I t was found th a t th e pn generally falls as the concentration of the sugar solutions examined is
increased. J . P. O g ilv ie ;
D eterm in ation of alcoh olic extractive in gu m b enzoin. T. N . B e n n e t t and C. F. B ic k f o r d (J. Assoc.
Off. Agric. Chem., 1928, 11, 386—388).—The m ethod given in U.S.P.X. is unsatisfactory as the drying of the alcohol extract a t 110° involves the loss of certain constituents, notably benzoic acid. Five alternative methods were tried, of which th e simplest and quickest, which is also accurate, consists in extracting 2 g. of the sample, placed in a tured thim ble, w ith 95% alcohol containing ab o u t 0-5 g. of sodium hydroxide for 5 firs, in a continuous extraction apparatus. The thim ble is dried, weighed, aud the alcoholic extractive plus w ater is calculated by difference, the latter being determ ined by the xylol distillation m ethod.
F. R. Ennos. B a sic lead a cetate. Som jier.—See V II.
XVIII.— FERMENTATION INDUSTRIES.
P ro tea se and a m y la se of A sp e rg illu s oryzae K. O shijla (.J. Coll. Agric. Hokkaido Im p. Univ., 1928, 19, 135—243).—Amylase an d protease are obtained on synthetic an d natural culture media simultaneously and in optim al q u an tity after two
B r itis h C h e m ic a l A b s tr a c ta —B .
7GG Cl. X IX .— Fo o d s.
days’ growth ; on artificial culture media a m ixture of casein or peptone and starch or dextrose is a stim ulant. Amylase and protease arc extra-cellular after sporulation ; different species of Aspergillus show variation in activity of th e enzyme. The protease is more stable a t neutrality and 40° th an trypsin, is most resistant to heat a t p u 6-4, has optim al activity a t 50° and p n 5-2—5-3, and digests n atural proteins and peptones. The amylase is m ost active a t p n 4-8—5-2, and most stable tow ards heat a t p n 6 - 4 ; it retains its activity below 40° a t neutrality. Its action is inhibited by sodium chloride and by alcohol.
Unlike th a t of th e protease, the reaction velocity follows th e unimolecular formula. Chemical Ab str a c t s.
A m y la se content of raw grain and its u tilisa tio n in grain d istille r ie s. S t a i g e r (Chem.-Ztg., 1928, 69, 679—680).—By modifying the process of mashing, the am ount of amylase in rye and wheat is sufficient to saccharify completely th e starch present in the corns.
No m alt requires to be added and the corn does not require to be germ inated. The diastatic power of barley is much lower and complete saccharification is rarely obtained w ithout added m alt. If the worts, obtained by saccharifying th e raw grain with its own amylase, are ferm ented, the resulting brandy is of a m ild nature an d th e content of fusel oil is low. The process is economical, saving both tim e and fuel, owing to the omission of the custom ary cooking of th e raw
grain. C. R a n k e n .
Pa t e n t s.
Y east stim u la n ts and p rocess of u sin g th em . T. B. Wagner (U.S.P. 1,680,827, 14.8.28. Appl., 2.6.23. Renewed 13.1.28).—A m ixture of amylaceous m aterial an d the dried, soluble constituents of corn steep w ater is added to dough. F. G. Cla rk e.
P rod u cin g a d ia sta tic product. K. W o o y e n a k a and T . O k ociii, Assrs. to T a k a m in e F e r m e n t Co.
(U.S.P. 1,680,926, 14.8.28. Appl., 9.1.23).—A suitable culture medium is im pregnated w ith a solution of sodium salicylate and fluoride, sterilised by steaming, and treated with dilute m ineral acid. The mass is inoculated with spores of Aspergillus oryzas and
incubated. B. F o ll m a n .
P rep aration of y e a st. G. 0 . W . I I e ij k e n s k j o ld , Assr. to A k t i e b o l a g e t B a s t a (U.S.P. .1,680,043, 7.8.28.
Appl., 6.2.26. Swed., 28.3.25).—See F .P . 614,037 ; B „ 1927, 921.
C ollecting in organ ic p o ta ssiu m sa lt, betaine sa lt, and g lu ta m ic acid from w a ste liquor produced in d istillin g alcohol from ferm en ted b e e t'm o la sses.
Y. Takayama(U.S.P. 1,681,379,21.8.28. Appl., 12.1.27).
- -See B.P. 288,390 ; B., 1928, 424.
M ineral o ils from peat e tc . (B.P. 270,349).— See II. F ats fro m cacao b ean s (U.S.P. 1,680,943).—
See X II. C urds into ch eese (U.S.P. 1,676,121).—
See X IX .
XIX.— FOODS.
F at d eterm in ation in m ilk and cr e a m confec
tio n ery . II. B a r s c h (Chem.-Ztg., 1928, 52, 659).—
An im proved procedure, based on th e m ethods of Gottlieb and Rose (cf. von Gahrtz, Pharm . Zentr., 1927, 68,177— 179) an d of K uhlm ann and Grossfeld (B ., 1926,
252) for th e determ ination of fa t in confectionery is proposed, adopting trichloroethylene as solvent for the
fat. E. Lew k o w itscii.
. D eterm in ation of m ilk so lid s in m ix ed feed s.
A. B. D a v is (J. Assoc. Off. Agric. Chem., 1928, 11, 410—'417).— The various m ethods available are sum marised. The qualitative tests depend on the identifi
cation of lactose or casein, or on the microscopic appear
ance of the feed. In th e quantitative methods lactose is determ ined by Fehling’s solution after ferm entation w ith yeast or treatm en t w ith basic lead acetate, or from the to ta l reducing power combined w ith the yield of insoluble osazones. The percentage of milk solids is calculated by means of a lactose-m ilk solids
ance of the feed. In th e quantitative methods lactose is determ ined by Fehling’s solution after ferm entation w ith yeast or treatm en t w ith basic lead acetate, or from the to ta l reducing power combined w ith the yield of insoluble osazones. The percentage of milk solids is calculated by means of a lactose-m ilk solids