Social factors consisting of various types of social groups, including reference groups or opinion leaders, are another group of socio-cultural determinants of consumer behavior. A group may be defined as two or more people who inter-act together and share some common attitudes and/ or behaviors. Generally speaking, people are naturally sociable. There is a strong desire amongst most people to form part of a group. This group may be a family, a department at work, or a social club (Solomon, Bamossy, Askegaard & Hogg, 2010).
DEFINITION
A GROUP may be defined as two or more people whom inter-act together and share some common attitudes and/or behav-iors. This definition is by no means comprehensive. It is perhaps easier to define a group in terms of its characteristics. A collec-tion of people which possess most of the characteristics listed are usually deemed to constitute a group:
– More than 1 person.
– Sufficient interaction between members.
– Perception of themselves as a group.
– A certain set of agreed/accepted values (called norms).
– Allocation of specific roles (different activities) to members.
– Social (affective) relations between members.
– Shared aims.
Most research work by psychologists and sociologists has shown that groups, specially references groups, exert a strong influence on the way we behave. Reference groups denote groups of people that constitute a reference point for comparisons and assessments of an individual's own opinion and behavior, as well as for the formulation of values and attitudes (Blackwell, Miniard & Engel, 2001).
From a marketing perspective, reference groups are useful in that they are influential in the formation of consumer behavior. A teenager may, for in-stance, decide to dress in a certain way because of the influence of his, or her, schoolmates. In this example the schoolmates are the reference group.
There are two general types of reference groups:
1) Normative groups – these are groups which shape the basic attitudes and behavior of an individual. The most prevalent normative group is the indi-vidual's family.
2) Comparative groups – these are groups which are used to compare and con-trast one's existing attitudes and behaviors.
Reference groups are frequently categorized on the following dimensions (Harris, 2010):
Ascribed versus acquired groups – ascribed groups are those to which an individual naturally belongs, e.g. gender, family unit. Acquired groups are those to which an individual actively seeks membership, e.g. health club.
Formal versus informal groups – a formal group is well-defined in terms of its structure and purpose, e.g. parliament. Informal groups are less struc-tured and exist primarily to fulfill a social function, e.g. a group of drinking 'buddies'.
Primary versus secondary groups – primary groups are usually small and associated with more personal contact, e.g. close friends, colleagues at work. Secondary groups are usually larger with communication which is generally less personal, e.g. colleges, large work groups.
ACTIVITY List 5 reference groups that you belong to. For each of these de-cide whether it should be classed as a normative group, com-parative group or whether it fulfills both functions.
There are two important reference groups to which an individual does not belong (Kotler & Keller, 2009):
1) Aspirational groups – these are groups which an individual likes to join, e.g. rock musicians, artists.
2) Dissociative groups – these are the groups in which an individual actively avoids a membership of, e.g. for some people the Hell's Angels motorbike club might be such a group, others might actively avoid working in the arms industry.
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ACTIVITY
Categorize the following groups on the dimensions: ascribed ac-quired, formal/informal, primary/secondary. Note whether they might also be aspirational or dissociative.
– Dance troupe,
– Local branch of political party, – Your college class.
From marketing point of view, informal, primary groups are of the most in-terest as they are likely to exert the most influence on an individual’s consum-er behavior. In addition, aspirational groups are the most important non-membership groups for the same reasons. Those groups affect buying behav-ior in a normative, informative, and evaluative way. The normative influence occurs when a group provides the individual with certain norms of behavior.
The informative influence is connected to guaranteed provision of credible information by a benchmark group with respect to buying decisions. The eval-uative influence, in turn, occurs when the consumer is aware of the values and attitudes accepted by a benchmark group and lets them affect him/her (Diller, Shedroff & Rhea, 2006).
In addition, one can distinguish influence exerted through roles, which means that each position occupied by the individual in society is related to a certain role. This role is restrained by acceptable and permissible behavior and has a concrete set of products/props, as well as is characterized by so-called group conformism. Group conformism is a change in behavior, attitudes, and opinions as a result of real or projected pressure from another person or a group of people (Evans, Foxall & Jamal, 2009). The influence of reference groups refers particularly to the choice of products, brands, preferences, ways of searching for information, sensitivity to economic factors, susceptibility to promotional activities, and so on.
ACTIVITY Watch 3 or 4 commercial breaks on TV and identify those where referent group appeal has been used. Identify which type of appeal.
Figure 9.1. Reference groups and their influence on consumer behavior
Source: Phipps & Simmons (2008)
When consumer join a group he/she must accept certain norms, which gov-ern the behavior of the group, and take on a certain role (whether it be active or passive). Norms may apply to any aspect of the behavior of the group. If you joined Greenpeace, the environmental action group, you would be expected to agree with their 'direct action" method of campaigning. You might also be ex-pected not to buy environmentally-unfriendly products, where alternatives were available, to avoid unnecessary car travel, and to vote for the Green Party. As a member of a local Greenpeace group you might also be given, or take on a num-ber of roles: as organizer of a door-to-door collection, as press officer and so on.
Norms commonly affect the following aspects of the group culture:
Physical appearance and dress.
Social and leisure activities (even when these are not the main business of the group).
Language and gestures used.
General opinions, attitudes and beliefs.
The way in which the group carries out its own business.
Roles within a group are decided, primarily, on how we see ourselves and what others expect of us. If we see ourselves are a leader we are likely to try for this role. Alternatively, if others see us as "leadership material' we are like-ly to be offered this role. Within any groups a number of role types commonlike-ly exists. Most roles inevitably fall into the first two categories:
Task roles – a member or members concerned with pursuing the goals of the group (often referred to as the members who 'get things done').
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Maintenance roles –a member or members concerned with keeping the group operational and efficient (these may be the group administrators or act as emotional supports for the group).
Comedy role – a member who is a joker or the willing butt of jokes.
Observer role – a passive observer of proceedings.
Deviant role – a member who constantly disagrees and challenges the group norms.
Specialist role – a member who is held as being a specialist in the tech-nical activities of the group.
Spokesperson role – a member who communicates the activities of the group to non-group members.
The way in which group members communicate with one another is im-portant to marketers. The direction and density of communication affects how quickly decisions are made, the satisfaction of group members and the quality of the decision. Study of communication patterns might also help you to mar-ket your products more effectively and efficiently. The sociometric method is the technique mostly used to determine communication patterns. Individuals are asked where they obtained advice or information on a certain subject or product and whom they provided with advice or information. Lines are then drawn on a diagram between circles representing the individuals involved to form what is called a sociogram. It might be that you wish to know how knowledge of a particular product spread within a community or how con-sumers found out about a special offer.
EXAMPLE
For instance, Afzal, Bev, Craig and Don all state that they bought a new book because of a recommendation from their mutual acquaintance Elise.
When such studies are undertaken, three common sociogram patterns emerge; circle, wheel and all-channel. These are illu-
strated below for a five person group. Each line represents a channel of communication, each dot represents an individual.
ACTIVITY How do you communicate within your class? Pick a subject which has been discussed at a recent break time and draw out a sociogram. Describe the various structures you discover.
Apart from reference groups, opinion leaders play another significant role as social determinants of behavior. Opinion leaders are people who informally, consciously, or unconsciously affect other people's motives, attitudes, and buy-ing decisions (in one or in many areas). Their influence is connected with non-formal communication, which is gaining more significance in current market conditions (Schiffman, Bednall, O'Cass, Paladino, D'Alessandro & Kanuk, 2008).
Within reference groups, there is still another vital factor, i.e., the family, which appears as the most potent primary reference group. A distinction should be made between the so-called family of upbringing and the family of procreation.
The latter, i.e., the spouse and children, exerts the most direct influence on a buyer's behavior, as it forms the most important social unit that buys goods and services. Other family factors determining consumer behavior include stage of family life cycle, so-called life transformations, arrangement of roles, model of decisions made in a family, and family demographic features, i.e., place of resi-dence, professional activity, personal composition, and so on.
ACTIVITY What demographic characteristics would you imagine an opin-ion leader in the following purchasing decisopin-ions might possess?
Who would you consult about purchasing Top 10 chart music?
Who would you consult about purchasing a violin?
Who would you consult about purchasing a sewing machine?
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