International research on consumer behavior can be divided according to the following criteria (Glowik & Smyczek, 2011):
the type of information sources used in the research,
the character of the research goal and the information to be obtained,
the geographical range and sequence of the research,
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the type of international research project, and
the research orientation.
The criteria are neither entirely distinguishable nor sufficient, yet they have been proposed to somehow classify various types of international mar-keting research. The first three criteria are used to introduce the typology of all sorts of marketing research, whereas the remaining ones are used to pro-vide a classification of international studies.
Table 4.1. Division criteria and types of international research on consumer behavior
DIVISION CRITERION TYPE OF RESEARCH
Sources of information − desk research (indirect, secondary)
− field research (direct, primary) Character of the research
goal and the information to be obtained
− exploratory and explanatory research
− qualitative and quantitative research
Geographical range and sequence of the research
− research into a concrete oversees market
− independent multinational research
− sequential multinational research
− simultaneous multinational research Type of research project − comparative research
− interactive research Research orientation − ethnocentric research
− polycentric research
− comparative research
− geocentric research
− culture-synergy research
Taking into account all types of information sources, consumer behavior research can be divided into:
desk research, in other words, indirect secondary research and
field research, in other words, direct primary research.
Desk research consists of using all available internal and external (domestic and foreign) secondary sources of information (Proctor, 2005; Wright & Crimp, 2000). The whole research process can be managed from behind a desk, with a computer and the Internet at hand. Undoubtedly, such research constitutes a basis for extended international research projects. The principle “secondary sources come first, primary ones come second” is even more appropriate with respect to research conducted in a home country, as it helps researchers quickly and relatively cheaply become familiar with the specific character of a foreign market and prepares them for developing field research. Field research, in turn, comprises information gathered from primary sources. This information is ade-quate to a research problem. Field research requires application of special re-search tools that correspond to direct rere-search methods and techniques selected for a research goal (Moutinho & Evans, 1992; Schmidt & Hollensen, 2006).
In many cases, whilst designing international field research managers are unable to precisely define research problems and hypotheses, or even poten-tial information sources. At this juncture, it is necessary to carry out the so-called exploratory research which can be helpful in problem identification and in determination of directions for future analyzes. Exploratory research is useful when it is indispensable to comprehend the international specificity of studied phenomena and to determine the scope of information to be gathered.
This research is an introduction to the causal research (descriptive and cause-and- effect research) conducted on the basis of clearly defined information sources pooled in an orderly and systematic manner (Kędzior & Karcz, 2001;
Schmidt & Hollensen, 2006). The principal characteristics of the exploratory and causal research are shown in Table 4.2.
In terms of the character of obtained information, one can distinguish qual-itative and quantqual-itative research. The qualqual-itative research focuses on collect-ing information about the quality of studied phenomena and processes (mo-tives, attitudes, preferences, cultural conditions, etc.). It is usually conducted on small samples or consists in observing a small number of cases, thus allow-ing for an in-depth analysis of studied phenomena, yet, it cannot be used to form general opinions and make statistical analyzes (Malhotra & Birks, 2007;
Burns & Bush, 2010). The quantitative research is designed to gather data reflecting quantitative aspects of studied phenomena. This research uses standardized research methods and techniques and is carried out on numerous
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Table 4.2. Characteristics of exploratory and causal research
Criterion Exploratory research Causal research
Research goal general
situation recognition
detailed
verification of conjectures or support in selection of a problem solution variant Scope of indispensable
information
unclear strictly defined
Source vaguely defined clearly defined
Form of gathering
samples. After being statistically processed, the research results are standard-ized over the whole population under the research. It should be emphasstandard-ized that both types of research are not substitutable, but should be considered complimentary with each other (Malhotra & Birks, 2007; Burns & Bush, 2010).
With respect to a space criterion (geographical), apart from research into one foreign market when it is necessary to formulate an operation strategy for a single foreign market (regarded as vital in terms of the corporate global strategy), one can distinguish research conducted within three broader crite-ria (Kumar, 2000):
Independent multinational research (international) is research conducted independently across many countries, often by branches of one
corpora-tion (company) and budgeted locally. This research is not coordinated; and frequently, in spite of being related to the same problem, it is carried out by means of other research methods and techniques, which excludes the possibility of comparing results on an international scale.
Sequential multinational research (international) is research conducted sequentially in many countries. The research is introduced into one mar-ket, and then gradually extended into other markets. By learning from mis-takes, it is possible to modify various elements of a research project. An-other positive aspect of the research is the possibility of extending costs over a longer time period and reducing costs due to application of the same research tools (common costs at the preparatory stage of the research in all countries that are studied).
Simultaneous multinational research (international) is research that can be conducted simultaneously across all markets. This type of research re-presents one of the most complicated research forms as it requires simul-taneous engagement of considerable resources and excellent research co-ordination. Nonetheless, it provides comparable information that can be used in building operation strategies and in developing business opera-tions in international markets with respect to the synergy effect and prop-er allocation of resources.
In terms of a basic type of a research project, international research can be classified as follows (Churchill & Iacobucci, 2009):
Comparative research consists in comparing studied phenomena and pro-cesses, as well as the conditions of their occurrence, across many countries so as to be able to identify differences and similarities among them. Differ-entiation of markets may result either from existence of various political, economic, physical, social, cultural, and technological conditions or from inherent characteristics of consumers and organizations. Such research may be of a synchronic character, i.e., concerning the same time moment, or diachronic, i.e., referring to two or more time periods.
Interactive research focuses on studying interactions between individual as well as group subjects from different countries (cultures).This research is concerned with typical interactions that exist between people, organiza-tions, buyers and sellers, workers, and managers across various countries and cultures.
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It is also possible to distinguish different types of international research on the basis of the approach taken by researchers. Consequently, the research can be described as follows (Adler, 1983):
In ethnocentric research, researchers choose to work on the basis of theo-ries, patterns, and methods typical of a home country (In the case of coun-tries with rich research traditions, i.e., the USA, some researchers refer to this approach, a bit humorously, as „parochial research” - conducted from the perspective of one's own parish).
Polycentric research is concerned with description, explanation, and inter-pretation of the behavior of market subjects in different countries, both at the stage of designing and conducting the research and when analyzing and interpreting research results, with each country approached as a sepa-rate research object.
Comparative research focuses on identification of similarities and differ-ences between countries, and unlike polycentric research, ensures compa-rability of results.
Geocentric research is conducted from the perspective of transnational companies and is intended to identify similarities existing between coun-tries, thus allowing for standardization of a marketing strategy on a global scale.
Culture-synergy is concerned with cross-cultural interactions and focuses on examination of both similarities and differences in order to bring out ef-fective global, yet locally-tailored strategies (culture-sensitive).
There exists a possibility of combining different types of research (e.g., in-ternational comparative sequential quantitative research or qualitative poly-centric exploratory research), but some combinations occur extremely rarely.
ACTIVITY
What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative re-search? Give examples.
Outline what is meant by the following terms: continuous and ad hoc research, secondary research and primary research. Give examples of each.