Folklore and National Culture : the Polish Example

Ryszard Górski

Folklore and National Culture : the

Polish Example

Literary Studies in Poland 8, 7-13

1981

Articles

R y sz a rd G ô rsk i

Folklore and N a tio n a l Culture.

The P olish Exam ple

Since the 2nd W o rld W a r th e re h as been a m an ifest increase o f in te re st in fo lk lo re . T h is in te re st c h a ra c te riz e s n o t o n ly th o se people w hose p ro fessio n involves stu d y in g folk tra d itio n , b u t also peo p le o f differen t social classes —b o th the in te llectu a l élite a n d the so-called p u b lic a t large, w ho p a rta k e s in m ass c u ltu re.

T h is is perfectly u n d e rs ta n d a b le in so cialist c o u n trie s, w hose policy o f social a n d p o litic al re fo rm s h as led to g reat ch an g es in the so ciety ’s a ttitu d e to w a rd s fo lk c u ltu re : it is now c o n sid e re d to be one o f th e m o re significant c o m p o n e n ts o f n a tio n a l c u ltu re . It plays an im p o rta n t ro le in sta te c ere m o n ie s >e.g. th e c e n tra l h arv est h om e in P o la n d ) a n d o th e r festivities o f a m ass c h a ra c te r, a n d it now receives official su p p o rt. F o lk lo re also goes to m ak e u p th e re p e rto ire o f m a n y so n g a n d d a n c e en sem b les a m a te u r a n d p ro fessio n al ones), it is p o p u la riz e d by n u m e ro u s b o o k s a n d by th e m ass m edia (ra d io , films, television).

In the p a st, fo lk lo re seld o m cro ssed the b o u n d a rie s o f the social g ro u p w hich h ad p ro d u c e d it a n d w hose needs it ratisfied. but now . as a resu lt o f th e ab o v e - m e n tio n e d fac to rs, it has e x ten d ed its scope o f influence a n d is p resen t in th e c u ltu re a n d c u sto m s o f those social g ro u p s w hich h ad p rev io u sly tre a te d it w ith reserve.

T h is p ro cess is c o n n e c te d w ith th e re v a lu a tio n o f o u r c u ltu ra l h e ritag e, w ith the se arch fo r lastin g a n d p ro g ressiv e tra d itio n s , w hich sh o u ld be re fe rred to a t th e p re se n t tim e in the co n v ic tio n th a t we sh o u ld n o t ig n o re th e rich ex p erien ce o f fo lk lo re w hen cre a tin g c o n te m p o ra ry c u ltu re .

-8 R y sza r d G ó rsk i

nal c u ltu re w hich grew u p in local, re g io n al c o n d itio n s, cu ltiv a te d its o w n n ativ e tra d itio n s c o n n e c te d w ith the life o f th e p eo p le, a n d w hich a t the sam e tim e w as ab le to a d a p t inflow ing m a te ria l to the n eeds o f a gi.ven c o m m u n ity in a p a rtic u la r tim e a n d space. T h is o p in io n becam e c o m m o n ly a c cep ted b o th by th o se w ho c re a te d fo lk lo re a n d by the g en eral public.

It w as lo o k e d u p o n as an a n tid o te a g a in st th e c o n tin u o u s sta n d a rd iz a tio n o f c u ltu ra l life, fo r in this age o f the scientific a n d tech n ical re v o lu tio n its v a rio u s d o m a in s show a ten d en cy to w a rd s un ificatio n a n d b eco m e u n ifo rm , a n d this is a th re a t to the u n iq u e c h a ra c te r o f each c u ltu re . T h is p ro c e ss is ty p ical o f the highly d ev elo p ed c o u n trie s o f W e stern E u ro p e a n d A m eric a, w here the e x p a n ­ sion o f in d u stry a n d u rb a n a g g lo m e ra tio n s has c a u s e d tra d itio n a l fo lk lo re to be p u sh e d aw ay to the sidelines o r to d isa p p e a r c o m ­ pletely. In this situ a tio n fo lk lo re h a d no ch a n c e o f e x e rtin g an y signi­ ficant influence o n th e ir lite ra tu re a n d a rt. T h e ir d e v e lo p m e n t ra n a lo n g d ifferen t lines th a n th a t o f e.g. the Slav c o u n trie s. T h is e n ta ile d serio u s c o n se q u en ce s a n d w as a t the ro o t o f the lack o f in te re st in fo lk lo re in w estern c o u n trie s. S om e c h an g es in this field, i.e. a slow revival o f in te re st in fo lk lo re, c o u ld be o b serv ed lately, at least in som e w estern circles. T h is is o b v io u sly a re a c tio n to the fa r-re ac h in g s ta n d a rd iz a tio n o f th e ir c u ltu re , to the d e g e n e ra tio n o f m ass c u ltu re , in o th e r w o rd s it is an act o f self-defence by going b ack to o n e ’s ow n folk tra d itio n s.

In P o la n d a n d in o th e r Slav c o u n trie s the c u ltu ra l pro cesses o v e r the last tw o c e n tu rie s have ta k e n a d ifferen t co u rse. P o la n d , a c o u n try w hich at o n e p o in t in h isto ry w as p a r titio n e d , d ep riv ed o f its in d ep en d en ce, a n d exposed to a d isc rim in a tin g policy o n the p a rt o f the p a rtitio n in g p o w ers, w as ab le to re ta in its n a tio n a l id e n tity ab o v e all th a n k s to the d e v e lo p m e n t o f its n a tio n a l lite ra tu re a n d a rt, the sa fe g u a rd in g o f the P o lish lan g u ag e, etc.

It b ecam e c le a r th a t th is k in d o f lite ra tu re a n d a rt c o u ld be c re a te d by re fe rrin g to th e so u rces o f folk tr a d itio n , a n d this w as to be o n e o f th e m ain p rin cip les o f the literary p ro g ra m m e o f P o lish R o m a n tic ism . O f co u rse in this c o n c e p tio n c o u n try p eo p le were c o n sid e re d to be th e c a rrie rs o f tra d itio n a n d o f n a tio n a l featu res. In th e 18th c e n tu ry F. S. Jezierski ex p ressed a sim ilar view w hen he w ro te th a t the low er classes “ m a k e o n e n a tio n differ fro m o th e rs,

h oik lore anil .N a tio n a l C u ltu re 9

ch erish th eir m o th e r to n g u e , keep u p o ld c u sto m s a n d follow an u n c h a n g in g w ay o f life.” W. B ogusław ski o p en ly a d m itte d th a t the P olish o p e ra lacked “ th a t w hich is d e a re st to every n a tio n [...] its n a tio n a l id e n tity .” a n d he h o p ed to achieve it by in tro d u c in g o n to the stag e “ th o se jo lly , rib ald C ra c o w boys, w ho sing while c u ltiv a ­ tin g the soil, a n d w hile fighting fo r it,” a n d also by re p ro d u c in g their c u sto m s, o p in io n s, feelings a n d am u se m e n ts. H is play. C u d m niem any,

c zy li K rakow iacy i górale i The A lleg e d M iracle, or Low landers and H ighlanders), is c o n sid e re d to be the best P olish vaudeville o f the

18th c e n tu ry , as it an sw ere d the n eeds o f the p eo p le a n d m ade use o f c o n te m p o ra ry events. It w as also a ttra c tiv e as a spectacle on stage th a n k s to w ell-chosen references to fo lk lo re. T h is is w hy m any a u th o rs such as J. N . K a m iń sk i, A. Ł a d n o w sk i. S. K rzesiń sk i, an d J. K. T u rsk i w ro te its “c o n tin u a tio n s ” at a later p erio d , fo lk lo r e , a n d in p a rtic u la r folk song, w as p re se n t n o t o nly in B o g u slaw sk i's w o rk s, b u t also in th o se o f o th e r w riters o f th e E n lig h ten m en t, such as F. D. K n ia ź n in a n d F. K a rp iń sk i.

K. B ro d ziń sk i c o n sid e re d the fo lk so n g a m o d el to be im ita te d , w hile A . M ickiew icz w ro te a so n g o f p ra ise in its h o n o u r, callin g it “ an a rk o f the c o v e n a n t betw een o ld a n d new er tim e s,” a g u a rd ia n o f n a tio n a l tra d itio n s a n d an in s tru m e n t h elp in g to re ta in n atio n a l id e n tity . M o st im p o rta n t o f all, M ickiew icz follow ed the litera ry p r o ­ g ra m m e o f R o m a n tic ism , w hich w as to c re a te a n a tio n a l lite ra tu re by re fe rrin g to folk so u rce s (see his Ballads a n d R o m a n ces, D ziady —

F orefathers).

M ick iew icz’s a c h ie v em en ts w ere to blaze a trail fo r the p oetic ex p e rim e n ts o f his c o n te m p o ra rie s a n d his successors, w ho lo o k ed fo r in sp ira tio n in fo lk lo re.

T h is a ttitu d e to w a rd s fo lk lo re c a n be seen in the w o rk s o f m ost o f the p o e ts o f the R o m a n tic p e rio d , a n d it can also be tra c e d in o th e r k in d s o f a rt, such as m usic, w here the n am es o f F. C h o p in an d S. M o n iu sz k o are sufficient evidence o f the e x ten t a n d the q u ality o f the a rtistic a c h ie v em en ts in th a t field. T h e literary a n d artistic w o rk s w hich w ere p ro d u c e d at this tim e w ere a c c o m p a n ied by th e o re ­ tical c o n sid e ra tio n s a n d g en e ra liz atio n s, w hich led to the fo rm u la tio n o f such in te re stin g c o n c e p ts o f a rt as th a t fo u n d in C . N o rw id 's

P rom ethidion. T h o u g h in la te r years lite ra ry p ro g ra m m e s a n d m a n i­

10 R y s z a r d G ó rsk i

a n d fo lk lo re , a n d w ere n o t q u ite so e n th u sia stic a b o u t it, fo lk lo re e n te re d fo r g o o d th e lite ra tu re o f th e 2 n d h a lf o f th e 19th a n d the b e g in n in g o f th e 2 0 th ce n tu ry .

E lem en ts o f fo lk lo re a re p re se n t in th e p o e try o f M . K o n o p ­ n ic k a a n d B. L eśm ian , in th e p ro se o f H . Sienkiew icz, E . O rzesz­ k o w a a n d W . S. R e y m o n t, w hile W y sp iań sk i in his p lay W esele ( The W edding) e m p lo y ed th e sam e fo rm o f p re se n tin g his c h a ra c te rs as th a t u sed in fo lk cribs.

T h e w ays th e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d a u th o rs d rew o n fo lk lo re a n d u sed it in th e ir w o rk s w ere different a n d th is w as a co n se q u e n c e o f th e ir ideological a n d a rtistic p rin cip les. F o r so m e o f th e m th is m e a n t u sin g folk verse m etres a n d th e m e th o d o f o rg a n iz in g m a te ria l w hich is used in fo lk lo re w ith th e a im to p re se n t a realistic im age o f th e social situ a tio n o f th e low er classes a t th e tim e ; fo r o th e rs, elem e n ts o f fo lk lo re w ere a m e a n s o f c h a ra c te riz in g c e rta in so cial g ro u p s a n d d ra w in g p sy ch o lo g ica l p o rtr a its o f th eir re p re se n ta tiv es. S om e e m p lo ­ yed th e d ra m a tic s tru c tu re s in tro d u c e d by fo lk th e a tre in o r d e r to c re a te p lay s p a ssin g a severe ju d g m e n t o n th e ir c o n te m p o ra rie s

(W esele), w hile o th e rs yet b o rro w e d fro m fo lk lo re w h en p e n e tra tin g

h u m a n c h a ra c te rs to sh o w m a n ’s m o st e le m e n ta ry o r b asic feelings a n d re a c tio n s (C h ło p i— The P easants).

W h en P o la n d re g a in e d its in d ep e n d e n c e in 1918, th e m o st im p o r­ ta n t ta sk c o n siste d in d e te rm in in g th e d ire c tio n a n d the w ays in w hich its n a tio n a l c u ltu re w as to d ev elo p in th e new p o litic a l reality . T h is issue a ro u se d th e in te re st o f w rite rs o f v a rio u s g e n e ra ­ tio n s a n d w as p re se n t in th e lite ra ry p ro g ra m m e s w hich w ere b ein g fo rm u la te d as well as in d iscu ssio n s n o t o n ly o f lite ra ry c h a ra c te r.

In th e lite ra ry p ro g ra m m e s o f the tim e, fo lk lo re w as co n ceiv ed as a n a r t w hich w as d irectly lin k ed w ith th e life o f c o u n try p e o p le a n d ex p ressed th e ex p erien ces o f th o se w ho w ere u n c o n ta m in a te d b y civ iliz atio n a n d lived in c o n ta c t a n d in h a rm o n y w ith n a tu re , as a c e rta in ty p e o f c u ltu re b a se d o n a n active p a rtic ip a tio n o f every m e m b e r o f th e c o m m u n ity , w ith o u t th e d iv isio n in to a u th o rs a n d c o n su m e rs, as a tre a s u ry o f n a tio n a l tra d itio n s a n d ag e-o ld a rtistic ex periences, w hich the official lite ra tu re a n d a r t w a n te d to m a k e use of.

T h e fact th a t fo lk lo re w as still o f in te re st in th e ir d ay w as stressed by S. Ż e ro m sk i a n d W . O rk a n . A lso, v a rio u s p o etic g ro u p s

F olklore a n d N a tio n a l C u ltu re 11

d re w o n so m e o f its a sp ects. T h e sam e c o u ld be o b se rv e d in m usic (e.g. K . S zy m an o w sk i) a n d p a in tin g (e.g. W . S koczylas, Z . P ro n a sz k o , T . C zyżew ski). In b o th these d o m a in s o f a rt th e a rtis ts w ere fa sc in a ­ ted b y fo lk m usic, w o o d c u ts, sc u lp tu re a n d p a in tin g .

T h is c o u ld also be said a b o u t the th e a tre in th e in te r-w a r p erio d . T h e spectacles sta g e d by R e d u ta , o n e o f th e m o st re n o w n e d P o lish th e a tre s o f th a t tim e, m a d e u se o f fo lk lo re . Its p r o d u c tio n s o f this ty p e, in p a rtic u la r o f the p a s to ra l, call to m in d th e g re a te st d ire c to r o f th e tim e, L. S chiller, w h o sta g ed several m e m o ra b le spectacles u sin g c o u n try a n d to w n fo lk lo re , such as B andurka a n d K ram z p io ­

se n k a m i ( The Song Vender). H e also p ro v o k e d a n in creased in ­

te re st in folk fo rm s b o th in a m a te u r a n d p ro fe ssio n a l th e a tre . J. C ie rn ia k tr ie d - to m a k e tr a d itio n a l fo rm s o f th e a tre (beliefs a n d ritu a ls) th e g ro u n d w o rk o f th e a m a te u r m o v em en t. M a n y ritu a ls w ere a d a p te d fo r th e stag e a n d a c te d o u t by p ro fe ssio n a l a c to rs, a n d th ey w ere very p o p u la r w ith th e p u b lic , p a rtic u la rly th e R ev ere n d W. S k ie rk o w sk i’s W esele na K urpiach (A W edding in the K urpie

R egion). F o lk lo re , as a n e le m e n t u se d to c h a ra c te riz e the m em b ers

o f a c e rta in social g ro u p , a p p e a re d in novels w h ich describ ed life in th e c o u n try . A s fo r p o e try , fo lk lo re in sp ire d J. K asp ro w icz, E. Z eg ad ło w icz, J. C zyżew ski, a n d o th e rs.

T h e p o e try o f th e w ar a n d N azi o c c u p a tio n (1 9 3 9 — 1945) is o f p a rtic u la r in terest. A s a re su lt o f e x c e p tio n a l a n d a b n o rm a l c o n d i­ tio n s, lite ra tu re h a d to go u n d e rg ro u n d , a n d w as to d ev elo p in co n sp ira c y d u rin g th e o c c u p a tio n . In these difficult “ years o f c o n ­ te m p t” it to o k u p o n itself th e re sp o n sib ility o f a c c o m p a n y in g the n a tio n , o f m o b ilizin g it to fight a g a in st th e o c c u p a n t, it k e p t u p the sp irit o f re sistan ce a n d h elp ed p eo p le to survive. P o e try w as ab le to p la y th is ro le o n ly by stay in g a n o n y m o u s a n d by b ein g p a ssed o n o ra lly , also it c o u ld be p u b lish e d in th e u n d e rg ro u n d illegal press o r by b a c k d o o r p u b lish e rs. A s a re su lt, its c irc u la tio n w as sim ila r to th a t o f fo lk lo re . Since it aim e d a t re a c h in g th e p u b lic a t large, a n d reflected th e g en eral feelings a n d ex p erien ces o f all P oles, it em p lo y ed th e m e a n s u sed in fo lk lo re , th e ste re o ty p e s a n d im agery. P o e try a n d fo lk lo re w ere in close c o n ta c t d u rin g th a t p e rio d , a n d they b o rro w e d fro m each o th e r.

In th e 35-year p e rio d since th e w ar, th e re la tio n s betw een lite­ r a tu r e a n d fo lk lo re h a v e been lively a n d v aried . T h e re is m u ch

evi-12 R y sz a r d G ó rsk i

den ce to show th a t w riters a re still very m u ch in te re ste d in fo lk lo re . F o r ex am p le. J. P rzy b o ś is the a u th o r o f Ja b lo n eczka (T h e L ittle

A pple Tree), a n a n th o lo g y o f P olish folk p o e try , w hich h a d tw o

ed itio n s: in 1953 a n d 1957. A n o th e r p o et, S. C z e rn ik , h a s d e v o te d several o f his w o rk s to folk songs, tales a n d beliefs, a n d h as also p u b lish e d a v o lu m e en title d P o lska e p ika ludowa I The Polish Folk

E pic) in the N a tio n a l L ib rary . In a tw o v olum e a n th o lo g y P oezja p o lsk a (Polish P o e try ), S. G ro c h o w ia k a n d J. M aciejew ski fo r the

first tim e in clu d ed folk p o e try . T h is is h o w they m o tiv a te d th e ir d ecisio n :

F olk poetry has lon g ceased to exist as the exp ression o f a separate cultural m ilieu. T o d a y it c o n tin u e s to thrive in ou r m ind s (and there a lo n e) as o n e o f the elem en ts o f living literary trad ition —an im portan t trad ition , w hich is p roved by the fact that fo lk lo re is a co n sta n t sou rce o f in sp iration for the m ost o u tsta n d in g rep resen tatives o f Polish poetry.

T h is in sp ira tio n ca n also be fo u n d in c o n te m p o ra ry lite ra tu re . F o lk lo re is a gold m ine fo r c h ild re n ’s b o o k s, w hich like to ta k e u p a n d d ev elo p v ario u s m y th s, legends, tales, etc. (e.g. D o b k iew iczo w a, P o ra z iń sk a , W o rtm a n ). Q u ite o fte n it also serves as a so u rce fo r th o se w ho p u t o n p u p p e t show s fo r c h ild re n . N o w a d a y s th ere is also a tre n d w hich co n sists in m a k in g new versions o f o ld folk tales w ritte n d o w n by a u th o rs in the p a st (e.g. H . Sienkiew icz, J. I. K raszew sk i, R. Z m o r- ski, B. L eśm ian). T h e idea is to p o p u la riz e these o ld tales.

A p a rt from large-scale spectacles (e.g. h arv est h o m e), w hich a re to a g reat ex ten t based o n fo lk lo re, it sh o u ld be said th a t c o n te m p o ­ ra ry th e a tre also has a liking fo r plays a n d sp ectacles w hich a re based on folk m otifs. T h e b est-k n o w n play w hich d ra w s o n tr a d itio n ­ al th e a tre is the O ld P olish H istoria o chw alebnym Z m a rtw y c h w sta ­

niu P a ń skim ia R e su rre c tio n play) by M ik o łaj fro m W ilk o w ieck o ,

b u t th ere have also been o th e r spectacles o f this k in d , e.g. D ziś

do C iebie p rzy jść nie m ogę (I C a n ’t S ee You Today) by I. K an ick i

an d L. B udrecki, b ased o n songs fro m the N azi o c c u p a tio n (in W arsaw alo n e it had several h u n d re d p e rfo rm an ces), th en th e re w as the folk m usical N a s z k le m alow ane (P a in te d on Glass) by E. Bryll a n d K. G a e rtn e r, a n d an o ra to ry by th e sam e tw o a u th o r s e n title d

Z agrajcie nam dzisiaj w szy stk ie srebrne dzw ony (L e t A ll Silver Bells Ring f o r Us Today). C o n te m p o ra ry p ro se also d ra w s o n c o u n try

F olklore an d N a tio n a l C u ltu re 13

o n ly to give a realistic p ic tu re o f a given g ro u p , b u t also to m ake use o f its lan g u ag e, its v o c a b u la ry , in o rd e r to refresh a n d enrich the style a n d la n g u ag e o f p ro se. E x a m p les o f this a re M . D ą b ro w s k a ’s

N a wsi wesele (T h e C ountry W edding), E. R e d lm sk i’s K onopielka,

an d m any o th e rs.

M uch o f c o n te m p o ra ry p o e try is also in sp ired by fo lk lo re. T his m ay be seen in the w o rk s o f p o e ts fro m p e a s a n t fam ilies (J. B. O żóg, T. N o w a k ), a n d also th o se o f o th e r social classes (J. H a ra sy ­ m ow icz). S om e p o e ts p o rtra y th e c o u n try , its la n d sc a p e a n d its w orld o f beliefs (e.g. O żóg), o th e rs try to fa th o m th e c h a ra c te ristic fe a tu ­ res o f folk p o e try , its w ay o f lo o k in g a t th in g s a n d describ in g reality (e.g. T . N o w a k ), o th e rs yet o n ly m a k e use o f c e rta in fo rm s w hich fo lk lo re h as m a d e p o p u la r, e.g. b a lla d s, folk songs (H a ra ­ sym ow icz).

T his sh o rt o u tlin e clearly show s th a t fo lk lo re is e v e r-p re sen t in c o n te m p o ra ry P o lish lite ra tu re , th a t it is very v a lu ab le in rec re atin g the w o rld o f c o u n try p eo p le, a n d h a s b eco m e an im p o rta n t elem ent o f n a tio n a l c u ltu re .