PE TRO LEUM PRO CESSES IN THE PALAEOZOIC AND ME SO ZOIC
STRATA BE TWEEN TARNÓW AND RZESZÓW (SE PO LAND):
2-D MOD EL LING AP PROACH
Magdalena WRÓBEL1, Pawe³ KOSAKOWSKI1 & Piotr KRZYWIEC2
1
AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy, Fac ulty of Ge ol ogy, Geo phys ics and En vi ron men tal Pro tec tion, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Po land, e-mail: wrobelm@agh.edu.pl
2
Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na tional Re search In sti tute, ul. Rakowiecka 4, 00-975 Warszawa, Po land Wróbel,M., Kosakowski, P. & Krzywiec, P., 2012. Pe tro leum pro cesses in the Palaeozoic and Me so zoic strata be tween Tarnów and Rzeszów (SE Po land): 2-D mod el ling ap proach. Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, 82: 81–97.
Ab stract: Twodi men sional mod el ling of hy dro car bon gen er a tion, ex pul sion, mi gra tion and ac cu mu la tion pro cesses in SE Po land be tween Tarnów and Rzeszów was car ried out for five source rock ho ri zons, i.e. the Or do -vi cian, Si lu rian, Mid dle De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ates, Lower Car bon if er ous clastics, and Mid dle Ju ras sic. Five cross-sec tions in the study area al lowed the re con struc tion of tim ing and range of pe tro leum pro cesses. The best source rocks re lated to the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian shales and mudstones reached “oil win dow” ma tu rity within the en tire study area and lo cally also reached the “gas win dow”. Gen er a tion of hy dro -car bons was ob served from all five source rocks, but the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks gen er ated two and three times more hy dro car bons than the Lower Car bon if er ous and Ju ras sic source rocks, re spec tively. Ex pul sion took place only in case of the Lower Palaeozoic source rocks, but the vol ume of ex pelled hy dro car bons dif fered across the area. Hy dro car bons mi grated from the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks to the Up per Ju ras sic (car bon ates) and Up per Cre ta ceous (sand stones) res er voirs or to the Up per Palaeozoic car bon ates in con nec tion with the em place ment of the Carpathian thrust belt dur ing the Mio cene. Faults formed main mi gra tion path ways and hy dro car bons ac cu mu lated in struc tural and strati graphic traps, lo cated in the vi cin ity of faults. In places, traps are as so ci ated with a deep Mio cene ero sion sur face. The on set of hy dro car bon gen er a tion took place dur ing the Neo gene, mainly the Mio cene, but in the north, gen er a tion and ex pul sion started ear lier – at the end of the Me so zoic.
Key words: pe tro leum pro cesses, 2-D mod el ling, Me so zoic, Palaeozoic, Tarnów–Rzeszów area, SE Po land. Manu script re ceived 29 May 2011, ac cepted 26 January 2012
IN TRO DUC TION
Re con struc tion (mod el ling) of hy dro car bon gen er a tion, mi gra tion and en trap ment within the Palaeozoic and Me so -zoic suc ces sion has been car ried out for the west ern part of the Carpathian Foredeep (Fig. 1). The geo log i cal sec tion of the Palaeozoic and Me so zoic strata in the study area, lo cated be tween Tarnów and Rzeszów (Fig. 1), is most com -pletely de vel oped and best pre served (Karnkowski, 1974; 1999; Myœliwiec et al., 2006; Oszczypko et al., 2006). The sed i men tary suc ces sion here be gins with Pre cam brian rocks, cov ered by Or do vi cian, Si lu rian, De vo nian, Lower Car bon if er ous, lo cally Tri as sic, Ju ras sic and Cre ta ceous strata. In the Rzeszów area, Me so zoic de pos its are ab sent. The Palaeozoic and/or Me so zoic suc ces sions are cov ered by the autochthonous Mio cene siliciclastics of the Carpathian Foredeep and, partly, by the fron tal part of the Carpathian fore land fold-and-thrust belt (Karnkowski, 1974; 1999; Myœliwiec et al., 2006; Oszczypko et al., 2006).
The 2D pe tro leum mod el ling car ried out along five re -gional cross-sec tions (Fig. 1) was aimed at re con struc tion of the depositional his tory of the se quence of rock units and as -sess ment of their prospectivity with re spect to pe tro leum exploration. Sim i lar 2-D mod el ling stud ies fo cused on the Outer (Flysch) Carpathians have been com pleted in this area by Maækowski et al. (2009). 1-D mod el ling stud ies of the Palaeozoic and Me so zoic pe tro leum sys tems have been pub -lished by Kotarba et al. (2003), Kotarba et al. (2004), Kosa-kowski et al. (2010), and KosaKosa-kowski and Wróbel (2011, in press). The in flu ence of the synsedimentary thrusts and folds on the re sults of 2-D pe tro leum mod el ling was pre sented by Kuœmierek et al. (2001). No re gional 2D mod el ling of pe tro -leum pro cesses for the Palaeozoic and Me so zoic sub stra tum of the Carpathian Foredeep in the Tarnów–Rzeszów area has been made so far. In ves ti ga tions pre sented in this pa per are the first pub lished at tempt at re con struct ing oil and gas gen
-er a tion, ex pul sion, mi gra tion and ac cu mu la tion in the Pala-eozoic and Me so zoic suc ces sion of this area. Re con struc tion of ba sin evo lu tion, ther mal changes and iden ti fi ca tion of the ef fec tive source rocks al lowed us to de ter mine the com po si tion and amount of gen er ated, ex pelled and ac cu mu lated hy dro car bons in each pe riod and their po si tion in the stratigraphic sec -tion. Ad di tion ally, the re sults of com pleted 2-D mod el ling study in di cated the di rec tion and rate of hy dro car bon mi gra -tion and pointed to ad di -tional pe tro leum prospectives.
GEO LOG I CAL SET TING
The study area is lo cated in the south ern part of Po land. The Carpathian Foredeep was formed as a flex ural ba sin dur ing the Mio cene em place ment of the Carpathian thrust belt (e.g., Krzywiec, 2001; Oszczypko et al., 2006). The base ment of this sed i men tary ba sin rep re sents the so-called epi-Variscan plat form that con sists of de formed Palaeozoic rocks and their Me so zoic cover (e.g., Oszczypko et al., 2006 and ref er ences therein).
Fig. 1. Geo log i cal map of the (A) top sur face of the Lower Palaeozoic af ter Bu³a and Habryn, eds. (2008) and Bu³a and Habryn (2011), (B) top sur face of the Me so zoic af ter Poprawa and Nemèok (1989)
The Palaeozoic and Me so zoic sed i men tary suc ces sion in this area is char ac ter ized by nu mer ous ero sional gaps, and con sists of Or do vi cian, Si lu rian, De vo nian, Carboni-ferous, Perm ian, Tri as sic, Ju ras sic and Cre ta ceous strata (Fig. 1) that are bur ied be neath the Mio cene infill of the Carpathian Foredeep ba sin and, partly, by the Carpathian thrust sheets. De tails of the geo log i cal struc ture of the Tar-nów–Rzeszów area were pre sented by Karnkowski (1974, 1999), Jawor and Baran (2004), Oszczypko et al. (2006), Bu³a et al. (2008), Bu³a and Habryn eds. (2008), Bu³a and Habryn (2011), Kosakowski and Wróbel (2011, in press), and Krajewski et al. (2011).
The old est struc tural el e ment of the crys tal line base -ment be longs to the Ma³opolska Block, with Kraków– Lubliniec Fault Zone as its west ern mar gin. The north ern mar gin of this block is com monly drawn along the Holy Cross Fault Zone (Bu³a et al., 2008; Bu³a & Habryn, eds., 2008). The sed i men tary cover of the Ma³opolska Block is di vided into three struc tural stages: Cal edo nian, Variscan and Al pine (Jawor & Baran, 2004). In the west ern part of this block, the Cal edo nian stage is com posed of Or do vi cian and Si lu rian for ma tions. The Cam brian for ma tions are not pres ent in the study area. The Or do vi cian and Si lu rian strata rest di rectly above the Ediacaran anchimetamorphic com -plex (Bu³a & Habryn eds., 2008). A hi a tus ex ists be tween the de pos its of the Cal edo nian and Variscan struc tural stages. The Variscan struc tural stage is formed by the ear li -est Lower De vo nian, and/or the Mid dle De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ate and Lower Car bon if er ous clastic com plexes (Jawor & Baran, 2004; Narkiewicz, 2007; Bu³a & Habryn, eds., 2008; Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011). Lo -cally, Me so zoic strata rest di rectly on Si lu rian de pos its.
The Perm ian–Me so zoic sed i men tary cover of the Al -pine struc tural stage is rep re sented by the Perm ian–Tri as sic com plex, the Mid dle Ju ras sic–Lower Cre ta ceous com plex and the Up per Cre ta ceous com plex. Their pres ent ar eal ex -tent and mu tual re la tion ships were de ter mined by multi-stage pro cesses of up lift and ero sion (cf. Krajewski et al., 2011). The Kimmerian and Laramian tec tonic move ments led to sig nif i cant ero sion of the Me so zoic cover and re duc tion in the ar eal dis tri bu tion of par tic u lar com plexes, es pe -cially the Perm ian–Tri as sic com plex (Jawor & Baran, 2004). The sec tion of the next struc tural com plex starts only with the Mid dle Ju ras sic for ma tions. The over ly ing com plex is most widely dis trib uted and con sists of Mid dle Ju ras sic, Up per Ju ras sic as well as Lower Cre ta ceous for ma -tions. The Up per Cre ta ceous for ma tions are sep a rated from the un der ly ing strata by an ero sional un con formity cor re spond ing to the Aus trian phase of re gional de for ma tion dur -ing Aptian and Albian times (Jawor & Baran, 2004; Kosa-kowski & Wróbel, in press).
IN TER PRE TA TION OF SEIS MIC DATA
In or der to pre pare five geo log i cal transects nec es sary for 2-D mod el ling, sev eral seis mic pro files aligned along five re gional transects have been in ter preted (Fig. 1). The re gional transects were as sem bled from seis mic pro files, ac -quired by Geofizyka Kraków Ltd. for the Pol ish Oil and Gas
Com pany (PGNiG S.A.). Sev eral wells that were drilled through the Outer Carpathian nappes and sub-Carpathian autochthonous Mio cene strata of the Carpathian Foredeep ba sin into the sub-Mio cene base ment were used to cal i brate seis mic data. In or der to tie depth well data (stra tig ra phy) to time seis mic data, time-depth ta bles were con structed us ing check-shot data avail able for se lected wells. Check-shot data and sonic logs have also been used for depthcon ver -sion of in ter preted seis mic ho ri zons and faults, in or der to cre ate depth geo log i cal pro files, used for mod el ling of the pe tro leum sys tem.
Palaeozoic and Me so zoic suc ces sions in the Zagorzyce area have been in flu enced by sev eral ep i sodes of sub si dence and up lift as so ci ated with ero sion (cf. Bu³a & Habryn, 2011; Krajewski et al., 2011). Palaeozoic and Me so zoic strike-slip move ments, gen er ally aligned along the Teisseyre–Torn-quist Zone, have been pro posed far ther to the north, within the Holy Cross Mts. and along the north-east ern bound ary of the Mid-Pol ish Trough (Lewandowski, 1994, 2003; Lamarche et al., 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003; Nawrocki, 2000; Gutowski & Koyi, 2007; Krzywiec et al., 2009). Hence, it seems prob a ble that within the study area Palaeozoic and Me so zoic strike-slip move ments might also have played some role in shap ing of the pres ent-day geo log i cal struc ture of the Carpathian sub-Mio cene base ment.
In the southwesternmost part of the C seis mic tran-sect, a deep palaeovalley that cuts through the Me so zoic and most of the Palaeozoic cover, is noted (cf. Krzywiec et al., 2009; Zubrzycka et al., 2009). This palaeovalley be longs to the sys tem of palaeovalleys formed due to the in ver sion of the Mid-Pol ish Trough that plunges to the south be neath the Carpathian Foredeep ba sin and the Outer Carpathians.
MOD EL LING OF HY DRO CAR BON
GEN ER A TION AND MI GRA TION –
METH ODS AND DATA
The mod el ling of pe tro leum pro cesses was car ried out us ing BasinModTM 2-D soft ware (BMRM 2-D, 2006). The meth od ol ogy was based on four ba sic steps (Wróbel et al., 2008; Wróbel & Kosakowski, 2010). The first step con sisted of con struc tion of a geo log i cal model in clud ing li -thol ogy of each ho ri zon and ba sin evo lu tion, es pe cially the range and the thick ness of eroded strata. The sec ond step was the es tab lish ment of a ther mal model, based on the his -tory of the change of the sur face tem per a ture and heat flow. The third step was the com pi la tion of geo chem i cal and phys i cal data mea sured in rock sam ples. The last step in volved cal i bra tion of the model and the se lec tion of cal cu la -tion op -tions.
For this study, five SW–NE trending cross-sec tions were used for re con struct ing pe tro leum pro cesses in the Palaeozoic and Me so zoic source rocks (Fig. 1). The A cross-sec tion is 45 km long and lo cated in the west ern part of the study area be tween Tarnów and Mielec. The B and C cross-sec tions are 31.5 km and 26.5 km long, re spec tively, and cover the cen tral part of the ana lysed area, from Dêbica to Sêdziszów Ma³opolski. The D and E cross sec tions, lo
-cated in the east ern part of the ana lysed area, near Rzeszów, are 16 and 19.6 km long, re spec tively (Fig. 1).
GEO LOG I CAL MODEL
The lithological model was cre ated from bore hole pro -files and in ter preted well logs. Lithological com po si tion served as in put for the mod els for each strati graphic for ma tion as a per cent age of sand stones, siltstones, shales, lime -stones, dolomites and evaporites. The old est Palaeozoic rocks pres ent are Or do vi cian in age (Bu³a & Habryn eds., 2008; Bu³a & Habryn, 2011).
The Or do vi cian strata have been pre served in a few ar -eas within fold, fold and block and block struc tures (Fig. 1). The dom i nant lithologies are car bon ates and fine-grained siliciclastics (claystones and mudstones) and some glauco-nitic sand stones (Bu³a & Habryn, 2008; Bu³a & Habryn, 2011).
Similarly to the Or do vi cian strata, the Si lu rian sec tion does not form a con tin u ous cover (Fig. 1). The Si lu rian is rep -re sented mainly by fine-grained clastics, e.g., claystones and mudstones (Bu³a & Habryn, 2008; Bu³a & Habryn, 2011).
The De vo nian and part of the Lower Car bon if er ous strata, known as the De vo nian–Car bon if er ous car bon ate com plex, are com posed of fine crys tal line dolomites with marls and lime stones. Some times the lime stones con tain thin claystone and mudstone interbeds as well as streaks (Bu³a & Habryn, 2008; Bu³a & Habryn, 2011). The Car bon -if er ous clastic com plex is the youn gest lith o logic-stratigra-phic unit of the Palaeozoic cover in the Ma³opolska Block. The rocks have been pre served within small de pres sions de -vel oped in block and fold struc tures (Bu³a & Habryn, 2008). This com plex is com posed of claystones and mudstones ac -com pa nied by fine- to me dium-grained sand stones.
The old est Me so zoic rocks are Perm ian strata rep re -sented mainly by con glom er ates and sand stones with claystones and mudstones in the up per most part of the sec tion. The Perm ian strata have been de pos ited in faultcon -trolled grabens, and their thick ness rarely ex ceeds a few tens of metres (Jawor & Baran, 2004). They are cov ered by the Lower Tri as sic var ie gated con glom er ates, sand stones and claystones (cf. Oszczypko et al., 2006; Krajewski et al., 2011). They are cov ered by the Mid dle Ju ras sic sand stones, dark clays and mudstones, some times lime stones. The Mid dle Ju ras sic suc ces sion is, in turn, cov ered by the Up per Ju -ras sic–Lower Cre ta ceous marly and lime stone se ries and by the Up per Cre ta ceous sand stones and car bon ates (Maksym et al., 2001; Zdanowski et al., 2001; Oszczypko et al., 2006; Krajewski et al., 2011).
Sev eral ero sional events vary ing in tim ing and ex tend -ing from the south west to the north east across the study area were in cluded in the geo log i cal model. Both the postSi lu rian and the postOr do vi cian ero sional events were as so ci ated with 200 m of ero sion. More over, 150–600 m of De vo -nian–Car bon if er ous strata were eroded (Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011). Tri as sic strata, amount ing up to 350 m of sec tion, have been al most com pletely eroded dur ing the late pe riod of early Ju ras sic times. From the late Cre ta ceous to the Mio cene, ap prox i mately 2,000 m of Ju ras sic and Cre ta
-ceous sec tion was eroded (Marek & Pajchlowa, 1997; Da-dlez et al., 1998). The as sessed thick ness of eroded strata was checked against the re gional ge ol ogy and ther mal pa -ram e ters (Kosakowski & Wróbel, 2011; Kosakowski & Wróbel, in press).
The ther mal con di tions and cal cu lated ki netic pa ram e ters were ap plied to the 2D mod els by in ter po la tion be -tween the bore holes, and were de scribed in de tail in the 1-D mod el ling pa pers by Kosakowski and Wróbel (2011, in press). The 2-D ther mal model is sim ply an in ter po la tion of pro file in for ma tion set in the wells such as heat flow and sur face tem per a ture. As in put for the 2-D ther mal model, the lit er a ture data in clud ing maps of the tem per a ture dis tri -bu tion and heat flow val ues cal i brated with tem per a ture logs were used (Majorowicz & Plewa, 1979; Majorowicz, 1984; Plewa, 1994; Karwasiecka & Bruszewska, 1997). Due to some dif fer ences in these val ues av er ages were used. Re gional changes in the pres ent heat flow val ues in the study area of the Ma³opolska block range from 50 to 40 mW/m2 (Majorowicz & Plewa, 1979; Belka, 1993a, b; Kar- wasiecka, 2001; Kotarba et al., 2004). Geo log i cal mod els of the Cal edo nian stage of de vel op ment pre pared us ing re sults of Narkiewicz (2002, 2007), Poprawa et al. (1997) and Poprawa (2006a, b) did not in di cate a sig nif i cant ther mal events dur ing this pe riod. Over heat ing oc curred dur ing Variscan orog eny, and dur ing Perm ian, Me so zoic and Ce -no zoic times the de pos ited strata un der went cool ing (Majo-rowicz, 1984).
GEO CHEM I CAL AND PHYS I CAL MODEL
The geo chem i cal char ac ter is tics of the Palaeozoic and Me so zoic strata in the Kraków–Rzeszów area pub lished by Wiêc³aw et al. (2011) and Kosakowski et al. (in press) formed the ba sis for dis tri bu tion of thick ness and orig i nal to tal or ganic car bon (TOCo) con tent along the crosssec
-tions used in the mod el ling. These au thors con cluded that ex cel lent source rocks were pres ent in the Or do vi cian, Si lu -rian and Mid dle Ju ras sic suc ces sions, whereas the Mid dle De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ates and the Lower Car bon if er ous clastics could be clas si fied as “fair” source rocks (Pe ters & Cassa, 1994). In the re gional ap proach, nec -es sary in 2-D mod el ling, the source rocks were put into the model as thin beds in the bot tom of each strati graphic ho ri -zon. The thick ness of ef fec tive Or do vi cian source rocks var ied from 40 to 140 m, and the TOCo con tent ranged from
1 to 2.5 wt%. The low est TOCo in the Or do vi cian source
rocks was found in the east ern part of the study area (the D and E cross-sec tions), and the high est in the west ern part (the B and C cross-sec tions). The Si lu rian source rocks had the same TOCo con tent along all the crosssec tions on av er
-age 3 wt%, but their thick ness var ied, from 40 m along the A, C and D cross-sec tions to 80 m along the B and E crosssec tions. The Mid dle De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er -ous car bon ate source rock was rather thin, not exceed ing 30 m, and the TOCo con tent var ied from 0.5 to 0.8 wt%. For
the Lower Car bon if er ous clastic source rocks the TOCo was
found to be 1 wt% on av er age, while the thick ness ranged widely, from few tens of metres to even 120 m.
Char ac ter is tics of res er voirs in clud ing the base ment of the Carpathian Foredeep were pub lished by Myœliwiec et al. (2006). Kosakowski et al. (2012) made a wide re search of po ros ity and per me abil ity in se lected res er voir rocks in the Kraków–Lubaczów area. The re sults of petrophysical anal -y sis re al ized b-y Kosakowski et al. (2012) and res er voir pro-perties in each gas and oil fields pub lished by Karnkowski (1999) and Myœliwiec et al. (2006) were the data base for phys i cal model used in the pre sented pe tro leum mod el ling.
The po ros ity of the Lower Car bon if er ous clastic rocks ranges from less than 1% to even 17%, with a me dian value of about 3%. It sug gests poor con di tions for ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons, but some ho ri zons were de fined as highly po rous. Higher po ros ity was ob served mainly in the Nosówka and £owczów wells (Kosakowski et al., 2012). Po ten tial res er voirs in the Me so zoic also showed vari able po -ros ity; the best be ing Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates. The Up per Ju ras sic strata showed po ros i ties from 5 to 16%. Good po -ros i ties were also found in the Up per Cre ta ceous strata (Kosakowski et al., 2012).
RE SULTS OF PE TRO LEUM MOD EL LING
The dif fer ences in the range of sed i men ta tion and ero sion of each geo log i cal ep och in the study area were sig nif i -cant enough to split the study Tarnów–Rzeszów area into three com part ments: the zone be tween Tarnów and Rop-czyce, which in cludes the A, B and C cross-sec tions, the zone lo cated south west of the Nosówka field, cov ered by the D cross-sec tion, and the area east of the Hermanowa zone where the E cross-sec tion is lo cated. The di ver si fied burial his tory in flu enced on pe tro leum pro cesses both in time and range. These three zones pres ent di ver sity of res er -voirs age, mi gra tion style and timing in the Tarnów–Rze-szów area.
Tarnów–Ropczyce zone
The Tarnów–Ropczyce zone was ana lysed through the A, B, C crosssec tions (Fig. 1). In this zone, sub si dence dur ing the Ju ras sic and Cre ta ceous times ex erted im por tant in flu ence on the mat u ra tion of the Palaeozoic and Mid dle Ju -ras sic source rocks.
The Or do vi cian source rocks along the B and C cross-sec tions reached late “oil win dow” ma tu rity (1–1.3% Ro) in
the late Ju ras sic, and in the late Cre ta ceous the ma tu rity increased fur ther to 1.3–2.6% Ro. The Si lu rian and Mid dle
De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ate as well as the Lower Car bon if er ous clastic source ho ri zons, pres ent in three cross-sec tions in this zone, reached the main phase of “oil win dow” ma tu rity (0.7–1% Ro) at the end of the early Ju ras
-sic. Later, their ma tu rity in creased to a max i mum of the 1.3% Ro in the most deeply bur ied parts of the cross-sec tion.
The Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks ana lysed along the C cross-sec tion un der went mat u ra tion prin ci pally dur ing the late Cre ta ceous, and at pres ent they have reached mid- to late “oil win dow” maturity.
The Or do vi cian source rocks were ex hausted and fully trans formed al ready in late Ju ras sic–early Cre ta ceous times.
The Si lu rian source rocks are pres ently ex hausted and fully trans formed. The main phase of mat u ra tion tran spired dur ing the early Cre ta ceous whereas dur ing the late Cre ta -ceous and the Palaeogene only a fur ther in crease in kerogen trans for ma tion ra tio amount ing to 10–20% took place.
The De vo nian–Car bon if er ous source rocks show sig -nif i cant spa tial vari a tion in kerogen trans for ma tion ra tio. Along the A cross-sec tion, kerogen trans for ma tion var ies from 60% in the south-west ern part to 80% in the northeast ern part. Along the B crosssec tion kerogen trans for ma -tion is only about 30%, whereas along the C cross-sec -tion the trans for ma tion ra tio ranges from 30% in the southwest -ern part to 80% in the north-east -ern part. The main phase of kerogen trans for ma tion in the De vo nian–Car bon if er ous source rocks took place in late Cretaceous times.
Pe tro leum pro cesses in Tarnów–Ropczyce zone
In the Tarnów–Ropczyce zone, the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks are the main sources of ac cu mu lated hy -dro car bons, con form able with the data of Wiêc³aw et al. (2011) that showed good pe tro leum po ten tial in these units.
The main phase of pe tro leum gen er a tion from the Or do -vi cian and Si lu rian source ho ri zons took place in the early Cre ta ceous with a mi nor re sump tion dur ing the Neo gene. The Or do vi cian source rocks along the B and C crosssec -tions gen er ated from 300 to 350 mg/g TOC of oil and from 70 to al most 200 mg/g TOC of gas (Fig. 2). The vol ume of oil gen er ated from the Si lu rian source rocks was sim i lar over the en tire Tarnów–Ropczyce zone and amounted to 350 mg/g TOC (Fig. 2). The vol ume of gas gen er ated from the Si lu rian source rocks ranges from about 70 mg/g TOC along the A and B cross-sec tions to even 190 mg/g TOC in the north-east ern part of the C cross-section (Fig. 3).
The hy dro car bon gen er a tion from the Mid dle De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ate and the Lower Car -bon if er ous clastic source rocks tran spired in the Neo gene, but the pro cess had al ready be gun in the Jurassic.
The gas prone kerogen pres ent in the De vo nian–Car -bon if er ous source ho ri zons gen er ated up to 100 mg/g TOC of oil along all the three cross-sec tions in this zone (Fig. 2). The vol ume of gas gen er ated from these source rocks is vari able. Along sec tion A, the vol ume of gen er ated gas amounted to ap prox i mately 80 mg/g TOC and along sec tion B it amounted to 30 mg/g TOC (Fig. 3). Along the C cross-sec tion, the Car bon if er ous source rocks gen er ated gas in amounts rang ing from 30 to 120 mg/g TOC (Fig. 3).
Pe tro leum gen er a tion from the Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks started at the end of the Oligocene and lasted to the end of the mid dle Mio cene. The amounts of oil did not ex -ceed 100 mg/g TOC whereas the amounts of gas ranged from 50 to 120 mg/g TOC (Figs 2, 3).
Ex pul sion took place al most ex clu sively from the Or -do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks along the A, B and C cross sec tions, and be gan in the early Cre ta ceous, with max -i mum ex pul s-ion -in the Palaeogene.
The max i mum vol ume of oil ex pul sion from the Or do -vi cian source rocks along the B and C cross-sec tions ranged from 0.0006 m3/m3 rock along the B cross-sec tion to 0.04 m3/m3 rock in the north-east ern part of the C cross-sec tion
Fig. 2. Amount of gen er ated oil along the A, B and C crosssec tions. Cr – Cre ta ceous, Cr3 – Up per Cre ta ceous, Cr1 – Lower Cre ta -ceous, J3 – Up per Ju ras sic, J2 – Mid dle Ju ras sic, T – Tri as sic, C – Car bon if er ous, D – De vo nian, S – Si lu rian, O – Or do vi cian. Some of the wells were pro jected onto cross-sec tions. See Fig. 1 for lo ca tion
(Fig. 4). The vol ume of gas ex pul sion along the B and C cross-sec tions ranged from 0.0007 to 0.1 m3/m3 rock, re -spec tively. The oil ex pul sion from the Or do vi cian source rock ap peared along the en tire in ter preted ho ri zon along the B crosssec tion, while along the C crosssec tion, the ex pul -sion was ob served al most ex clu sively in its north-east ern part. Ex pul sion of gas took place along the entire C cross-sec tion.
Along the A cross-sec tion, ex pul sion from the Si lu rian source rock took place with the same in ten sity along the en -tire ho ri zon. The vol ume of the ex pelled oil ranged from about 0.0005 m3/m3 rock along the A and B cross-sec tions, to 0.04 m3/m3 rock in the north-east ern part of the C crosssec tion (Fig. 4). The vol ume of the ex pelled gas did not ex -ceed 0.01 m3/m3 rock along the A, B and C cross-sec tions.
Mi gra tion of hy dro car bons was ex clu sively as so ci ated with the fault sys tem and the Carpathian Overthrust. Carpa-thian overthrusting changed the pres sure and tec tonic regi-mes, which al lowed hy dro car bon mi gra tion from the Lower
Palaeozoic source rocks to the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ate and the Up per Cre ta ceous sand stone res er voirs. Along all three cross-sec tions in the Tarnów–Ropczyce zone, hy dro car bons are ac cu mu lated in struc tural traps, e.g. faulted anticlines. Mi gra tion from the source rocks to the traps took place in the Miocene.
Along the A cross-sec tion, oil and gas from the Si lu rian source rock mi grated to the late Ju ras sic and late Cre ta ceous res er voirs fol low ing a short mi gra tion path way, about 5 km. Hy dro car bons ac cu mu lated in the up per part of the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates and in the lower part of the Up per Cre -ta ceous sand stones to cre ate the Jastrz¹bka S-tara oil field (Fig. 5). The vol ume of ac cu mu lated oil did not ex ceed 0.05 m3/m3 rock, and the vol ume of ac cu mu lated gas was less than 0.04 m3/m3 rock (Figs 5, 6).
Sim i larly to the A crosssec tion, oil and gas ac cu mu la -tions along the B cross-sec tion are as so ci ated with Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates and Up per Cre ta ceous sand stones. The ac cu mu la tion lo cated around the Brzezówka 24 well re
sulted from mi gra tion of hy dro car bons from Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks through a fault to the Ju ras sic-age res er voirs sealed by the Mio cene-age fill of a deeply in cised val ley. The vol ume of oil ac cu mu lated around the Brze-zówka 24 well reached 0.25 m3/m3 rock, and the gas ac cu -mu la tion did not ex ceed 0.04 m3/m3 rock (Figs 5, 6).
Ac cu mu la tions pres ent along the C crosssec tion re -sulted from pe tro leum mi gra tion from the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks along a fault sur face to the top of an an ti cli nal struc ture in the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates in the Góra Ropczycka 1K area. The max i mum vol ume of the ac -cu mu la tion of oil reached 0.11 m3/m3 rock, and the vol ume of gas amounted to 0.05 m3/m3 rock (Figs 5, 6).
In con clu sion, the main source rocks in the Tarnów– Ropczyce zone are Or do vi cian and Si lu rian shales, which reached the late “oil win dow” ma tu rity in late Ju ras sic–early Cre ta ceous times. The amount of gen er ated oil reached the max i mum of 350 mg/g TOC and gen er ated gas went up to 200 mg/g TOC. Along the C cross-sec tion, the ex pul sion from the Lower Palaeozoic source rocks amounted to 0.04 m3/m3 rock for oil and to 0.01 m3/m3 rock for gas. The mi gra tion of oil and gas took place dur ing the Mio cene, and re sulted in ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons in the Up per Ju ras -sic car bon ate and Up per Cre ta ceous sand stone res er voirs, form ing struc tural, an ti cli nal traps dur ing the Carpathian overthrusting. The amount of oil ac cu mu la tion ranged from 0.05 to 0.25 m3/m3 rock, and the gas ac cu mu la tion vol ume did not ex ceed 0.05 m3/m3 rock.
Nosówka zone
The Nosówka zone was ana lysed through the D cross-sec tion lo cated be tween the Czudec 1 and Kielanówka 12 wells (Fig. 1).
The ma tu rity of the Or do vi cian, Si lu rian and De vo -nian–Car bon if er ous source rocks in creased pro gres sively through the Palaeozoic and Me so zoic to reach the end of “oil win dow”. Dur ing the Neo gene, fur ther in creases in ma tu rity brought the Or do vi cian source rocks into the “gas win dow”. The Or do vi cian source rocks reached the early phase of “oil win dow” dur ing the early Car bon if er ous; whereas the Si lu rian and De vo nian–Car bon if er ous source rocks reached the same level of ma tu rity dur ing the Tri as sic. Dur ing the mid dle Ju ras sic, the Or do vi cian source rocks reached a ma -tu rity level cor re spond ing to 1–1.3% Ro in the northwest
ern part of the D crosssec tion, while the De vo nian–Car -bon if er ous source ho ri zons reached the main stage of “oil win dow”. At the same time, in the south-east ern part of the cross-sec tion, source rocks reached the early “oil win dow”. The Late Mio cene sub si dence caused a fur ther in crease in ma tu rity in the north east even to the “gas win dow” for the Or do vi cian source rocks, and to about 1% Ro for all source
rocks in the south-eastern part of the cross-section.
In the Or do vi cian, source rocks kerogen trans for ma tion reached 100% in the north-east ern part of the cross-sec tion, and about 80% in the southwest ern part. 60% of the Si lu rian source rocks trans formed as did De vo nian–Car bon if er -ous source rocks in the north-east ern part of the area. In the southwest ern part of the D crosssec tion, the trans for ma -tion ra tio of the De vo nian–Car bon if er ous source rocks did
not ex ceed 40%. Kerogen trans for ma tion took place mainly in the mid dle Ju ras sic times, but re sumed in the late Mio cene.
Pe tro leum pro cesses in Nosówka zone
Gen er a tion of hy dro car bons took place in two stages. The first tran spired dur ing mid dle Ju ras sic times in the north-east ern part of the D cross-sec tion, and the sec ond one dur ing the late Neo gene in the south-west ern part. The most gen er a tive source rocks were the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian shales. The vol ume of oil gen er ated from the Or do vi cian source ho ri zon var ied from 300 mg/g TOC in the southwest -ern part to 350 mg/g TOC in the north-east -ern part of the cross-sec tion (Fig. 7). The amount of gen er ated gas was 90 mg/g TOC on av er age (Fig. 8). The Si lu rian source rocks, which are pres ent only in the south-west ern part, gen er ated up to 200 mg/g TOC of oil and 50 mg/g TOC of gas (Figs 7, 8). The De vo nian–Car bon if er ous source rocks gen er ated max i mum of 100 mg/g TOC of oil and from 40 to 80 mg/ g TOC of gas in the north-east ern part (Figs 7, 8).
The ex pul sion took place at the end of the mid dle Ju ras -sic and the be gin ning of the late Ju ras -sic pe ri ods in the northeast ern part of the D crosssec tion and in the late Mio -cene in the south-west ern part. The Or do vi cian source rocks ex pelled al most 0.012 m3/m3 rock of oil and 0.004 m3/m3 rock of gas (Fig. 4). The Si lu rian source rocks ex pelled only 0.002 m3/m3 rock of oil, while the gas ex pul sion ex ceeded 0.004 m3/m3 rock (Fig. 4). In the north-east ern part of the crosssec tion, gas ex pul sion oc curred lo cally from the De -vo nian–Car bon if er ous car bon ate source rocks, how ever, it did not ex ceed 0.002 m3/m3 rock (Fig. 4).
Mi gra tion of oil and gas from the Or do vi cian and Si lu -rian source rocks re sulted in the oil and gas ac cu mu la tion in partly eroded car bon ate strata of early Car bon if er ous age. This mi gra tion event started at the turn of the mid dle and late Ju ras sic, but it was vol u met ri cally in sig nif i cant. The mi gra tion event that cre ated the pres ent ac cu mu la tions of oil and gas took place dur ing the late Miocene and the Pliocene times.
The oil ac cu mu la tion lo cated around the Nosówka 5 well reaches 0.15 m3/m3 rock, and was prob a bly sourced from Or do vi cian source rocks in the north-east ern part of the zone (Fig. 9). The gas ac cu mu la tion pres ent in the Car -bon if er ous car -bon ates was cre ated from the gas ex pelled in the northeast ern part of the crosssec tion from the Or do vi -cian and partly from the De vo nian–Car bon if er ous source rocks. A small gas ac cu mu la tion ex ists to gether with the oil field near Nosówka 5 well. The vol ume of the ac cu mu lated gas var ies from 0.015 m3/m3 rock in the eroded part of the cross-sec tion near Nosówka 5 well, to 0.04 m3/m3 rock near Nosówka 6 well (Fig. 10).
In sum mary, in the Nosówka zone, two main stages of pe tro leum gen er a tion took place: dur ing the Ju ras sic and dur ing the Neo gene. In the north-east ern part of the area, source rocks reached a high level of ma tu rity al ready in the Ju ras sic, whereas in the south-east ern part the main phase of pe tro leum gen er a tion was not reached un til the end of the Neo gene. As in the Tarnów–Ropczyce zone, pe tro leum ge-neration took place in the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks, and av er aged 350 mg/g TOC of oil and 70 mg/g TOC
of gas. The hy dro car bons were ex pelled al most ex clu sively from the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source ho ri zons. The oil ex pul sion did not ex ceed 0.012 m3/m3 rock and the gas ex -pul sion was about 0.004 m3/m3 rock. Hy dro car bons ac cu -mu lated in car bon ate strata of Car bon if er ous age, and the main phase of mi gra tion took place dur ing the Carpathian overthrusting. The vol ume of ac cu mu lated oil and gas did not ex ceed 0.2 m3/m3 rock.
Hermanowa zone
In the Hermanowa zone, the E crosssec tion lo cated be -tween Hermanowa 1 and Husów 42 wells was ana lysed (Fig. 1).
The Or do vi cian, Si lu rian and De vo nian source rocks in the Hermanowa zone reached a ma tu rity cor re spond ing to the main phase of pe tro leum gen er a tion mainly dur ing the
Mio cene, al though the lower part of the Or do vi cian source rocks suc ces sion reached “oil win dow” ma tu rity (cor re -spond ing to 0.5–0.7% Ro) as early as in the mid dle Ju ras sic.
Only the lower part of the De vo nian–Car bon if er ous source rocks reached the main phase of pe tro leum gen er a tion, whereas the up per part did not reach 0.7% Ro on the
matu-rity scale.
The trans for ma tion ra tios ranged from 15% for the Mid -dle De vo nian and the Lower Car bon if er ous, through 30% for the Si lu rian, to 80% for the Or do vi cian source rocks.
Pe tro leum pro cesses in Hermanowa zone
Pe tro leum gen er a tion and ex pul sion in the Hermanowa zone took place in the late Mio cene and the Plio cene. The Or do vi cian source rock gen er ated about 320 mg/g TOC of oil and 60 mg/g TOC of gas (Figs 7, 8). The Si lu rian source
Fig. 7. Amount of gen er ated oil along the D and E crosssec tions. T – Tri as sic, Ccl – clastic strata of the Car bon if er ous, CDcb – car -bon ate strata of the De vo nian and Car -bon if er ous, S – Si lu rian, O – Or do vi cian, Pcm – Pre cam brian. Some of the wells were pro jected onto cross-sec tions. See Fig. 1 for lo ca tion
rocks gen er ated 100 mg/g TOC for oil, and 20 mg/g TOC for gas (Figs 7, 8). The De vo nian–Car bon if er ous source rocks gen er ated al most ex clu sively gas that amounted to about 10 mg/g TOC, whereas oil gen er a tion was negligible (Figs 7, 8).
Ex pul sion did not take place in the Hermanowa zone; all the gen er ated hy dro car bons stayed in situ. The vol ume of oil ac cu mu la tion ranged from 0.01 m3/m3 rock in the Or do -vi cian to 0.012 m3/m3 rock in the Si lu rian source rocks (Fig. 9). The vol ume of gas ac cu mu la tion var ied from 0.0005 m3/m3 rock in the Up per Palaeozoic strata to 0.002 m3/m3 rock in the Lower Palaeozoic source rocks (Fig. 10).
In summation, in the Hermanowa zone the pe tro leum gen er a tion took place in the late Mio cene and the Plio cene, but did not re sult in any sig nif i cant hy dro car bon ac cu mu la -tion. Al though the ana lysed source rocks achieved ma tu rity from 0.7 to 1% Ro, and oil and gas gen er a tion from the Or
-do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks var ied from 120 to 380 mg/g TOC, there was no ex pul sion. The hy dro car bons were
ac cu mu lated in situ, and sat u rated the sand stone part of the Ordovician and Silurian strata.
CON CLU SIONS
Two-di men sional mod el ling of pe tro leum gen er a tion, ex pul sion, mi gra tion and ac cu mu la tion in the Tarnów– Rzeszów area in di cated that Or do vi cian and Si lu rian shales and mudstones proved to be the pri mary source rocks for ac cu mu la tions in this area. De pend ing on the ana lysed zone, they reached dif fer ent lev els of ma tu rity. The Lower Palaeozoic source rocks usu ally reached “oil win dow” ma -tu rity and only lo cally ex ceeded a ma -tu rity cor re spond ing to 1.3% Ro. Un der such ther mal re gime, the Or do vi cian and
Si lu rian source ho ri zons were to tally trans formed; only in the Hermanowa zone the trans for ma tion ra tio ranged from 30 to 80%. Gen er a tion of hy dro car bons took place from the end of the mid dle Jurasssic to the Palaeo cene, de pend ing on
the lo cal con di tions in the study area. In the Tarnów–Rop-czyce and Nosówka zones (north-east ern parts of the B, C and D crosssec tions), the main phase of pe tro leum gen er a -tion took place in the Me so zoic, but gen er a -tion re sumed in the Mio cene. More to the south (area cov ered by the south-west ern parts of the B, C, D and E cross-sec tions), the main phase of pe tro leum gen er a tion took place in the Mio cene, and have been at least partly as so ci ated with the fi nal em -place ment of the Carpathian thrust sheets. The amount of oil gen er a tion from the Up per Palaeozoic source rocks av er -aged 400 mg/g TOC. The Hermanowa zone noted the only ex cep tion with 300 mg/g TOC of gen er ated oil. Ex pul sion took place al most ex clu sively from the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks. The high est vol ume of ex pelled hy dro car -bons was ob served in the cen tral part of the study area (B, C and D cross-sec tions), where it ranged from 0.0005 to 0.04 m3/m3 rock for oil and from 0.004 to 0.01 m3/m3 rock for gas. Ac cu mu la tion of hy dro car bons in the res er voirs took place al most ex clu sively dur ing em place ment of the
Car-pathian thrust sheets. In the Tarnów–Ropczyce zone, the Up per Ju ras sic car bon ates and the Up per Cre ta ceous sand -stones show rather vari able po ros i ties. Lo cally, ho ri zons of 10% to 15% po ros ity oc cur that form a good res er voir level for the hy dro car bons ex pelled from the Lower Palaeozoic source rocks. Mi gra tion was as so ci ated with the Carpathian overthrusting and a sig nif i cant fault sys tem served as con -duits for hy dro car bons mi grat ing to the Up per Ju ras sic and Up per Cre ta ceous res er voirs. Ac cu mu la tion ranged from 0.05 m3/m3 rock along the A and B cross-sec tions (the Jastrz¹bka Stara and Brzezówka oil fields, re spec tively) to 0.14 along the C cross-sec tion (the Góra Ropczycka field). The Mid dle De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ates in the Nosówka zone, where the Me so zoic cover and the Lower Car bon if er ous clastic strata were eroded, serve as sec ond ary res er voirs. The 2-D mod el ling re vealed that in the Nosówka zone, hy dro car bons gen er ated and ex pelled from the Or do vi cian and Si lu rian source rocks mi grated through the faults to the Car bon if er ous car bon ates and the
vol ume of oil ac cu mu lated av er aged 0.15 m3/m3 rock, while the gas volume did not exceed 0.04 m3/m3 rock.
The Mid dle De vo nian–Lower Car bon if er ous car bon ate and the Lower Car bon if er ous clastic source rocks ana lysed in the Tarnów–Rzeszów area were not a sig nif i cant source of hy dro car bons. The amount of oil and gas gen er ated from those ho ri zons did not ex ceed 130 mg/g TOC. There was hardly any ex pul sion of hy dro car bons and the vol ume of mainly gas ac cu mu la tion was in situ, be cause the hy dro car -bons sat u ra tion did not exceed the expulsion threshold.
The Mid dle Ju ras sic source rocks stud ied in the Tar-nów–Rzeszów area (along the C cross-sec tion) gen er ated only 220 mg/g TOC of hy dro car bons de spite a good pe tro -leum po ten tial and ma tu rity in the main and late phases of “oil win dow”. Ex pul sion was not ob served, and most of the gen er ated hy dro car bons stayed in situ.
Fi nally, it should be stressed that one of very im por tant as sump tions for the com pleted 2-D mod el ling of gen er a tion and mi gra tion of hy dro car bons was the lack of strike-slip
move ments and as so ci ated lat eral dis place ment of the tec -tonic blocks. Tec -tonic wrench ing might have sig nif i cantly mod i fied sub si dence pat tern and mi gra tion paths for oil and gas; a thor ough as sess ment of the role of strikeslip move -ments would, however, require full 3-D approach.
Ac knowl edg ments
The re search has been fi nan cially sup ported by the Min is try of Sci ence and Higher Ed u ca tion re search pro ject No. UKRAINE/ 193/2006 and car ried out at the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy in Kraków and the Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na -tional Re search In sti tute in War saw. The au thors would like to thank Dr. Z. Bu³a and Dr. R. Habryn from the Up per Silesian Branch of the Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute for many help ful con sul -ta tions on the geo log i cal evo lu tion of the study area. Pawe³ Karnkowski and Jørgen A. BojesenKoefoed pro vided very con struc -tive re views, which were of great as sis tance in our re vi sions of this manu script. The time-depth con ver sion of in ter preted seis mic data has been car ried out by Prof. K. Pietsch and Dr. P. Marzec from Fig. 10. The vol ume of the gas ac cu mu la tion along the D and E cross-sec tions. See Fig. 1 for lo ca tion and Fig. 7 for ab bre vi a tions
the AGH Uni ver sity of Sci ence and Tech nol ogy, Fac ulty of Ge ol -ogy, Geo phys ics and En vi ron men tal Pro tec tion, and their help is also greatly ac knowl edged.
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