A C T A U N I V E R S 1 T A T I S L O D Z I E N S I S
FO LIA LITTER A R IA A N G L IC A 3, 1999
P eter Barlow
CYCLICAL AND LINEAR ASPECTS
OF THE MEDIEVAL TIME-FRAME: DOES THE VIEW OF TIME WHICH PERVADES ENGLISH MEDIEVAL
RELIGIOUS DRAMA PRECLUDE THE FREQUENT CRITICISM THAI THE DRAMATISTS ARE GUILTY OF “NAIVE ANACHRONISM”?
A ny co n sid eratio n o f th e d ra m a tic use o f tim e in the E nglish M ystery Plays has to ap p ro ach the them e w ith a m edieval u n d ersta n d in g o f the n a tu re an d uses o f tim e. T h e application o f a m o d ern view o f tim e would only be relevant to the process o f staging the plays fo r a m o d e rn audience w ith its peculiar m ind-set. A n d while the pro sp ect o f grap p lin g w ith the problem o f enacting the plays on a m o d e rn stage is enticing, it is a task w hich could only com m ence after the task o f this p ap e r has been com pleted - th a t is, the discovery o f the plays’ ow n (original) tem p o ra l integrity. I shall be arguing th a t this is the case, and th a t the d ra m a tists are n o t “ guilty” o f naive anachronism . A s M a rtin Stevens says:
In our lim e, the text m ust finally be judged on whatever m eaning can validly be found in it by its best readers. M oreover, w e m ust be aware that what w e discover through erudite scholarship w ould often have been available in the perceptual set o f the m ost ordinary medieval spectator.1
A nd so, while the plays m ay now ap p e ar to be an interesting collection o f a n tiq u a ria n a , offering perh ap s delight in the unfam iliar alliterative verse- form s, the obscure archaism o f the dialect(s), and the naive prim itive religious beliefs, these were all a fam iliar p a rt o f th e m edieval au d ien ce’s experience. A nd in looking a t the use o f the ideas o f tim e in th e plays, m o d e rn assum ptions m u st be shed ab o u t the n ineteen th -cen tu ry scientific, exclusively linear view o f tim e, in favou r o f m edieval assu m ption s. T h e im plications o f the m edieval ch u rch ’s hegem ony were such th a t all intellectual
1 M artin Stevens, Four M iddle English M y ste ry Cycles (Princeton: Princeton U niversity Press, 1987), p. 226f.
activity was subject to the ch u rc h ’s theological and political world view - including its un derstan d in g o f tim e. A p a rt from its aim (in co m m o n with any pow erful o rg an isatio n ) o f increased pow er fo r itself, the aim s o f the church were the salvation o f its ow n m em bers and the conversion o f non-m em bers to the faith; its w orld view was th erefore subject to the achievem ent o f these tw o ends. T hese are evident from the c o n te n t o f the plays (the use o f typology being particularly relevant in this p ap e r) but I first w a n t to look at the idea o f the sanctification o f tim e w hich was one o f the purposes o f the liturgical calendar and o f the daily office o f the church.
T h e ch u rch ’s calen d ar treats tim e in tw o ways a t once. It condenses the celebration of the events o f the New T estam en t, and parallel w ith th a t, the O ld T estam en t, into a year-long cycle o f festivals, w hich is in tu rn condensed into a weekly cycle, each M ass being a new E aster celebration (in som e com m unities the weekly cycle is condensed again so th a t the whole h istory o f the w orld from creatio n to d o o m sd ay is liturgically re-enacted daily). A longside this, a linear sense o f tim e is also used, historically in the co m m em o ratio n o n saints’ days, and in a “ real-tim e” ap p lica tio n in linking festivals to the annual cycle o f the seasons. It w ould n o t be a strange concept for the m edieval audience to accept th e validity o f the figurative type in a play in the sam e way th a t C h rist could sh are his L ast S upper w ith people o f every age in the M ass. G iven such a sophisticated understan d in g of concepts o f time, th e charge against the m edieval d ram atists o f “ naive an a ch ro n ism ” looks unlikely. A n ach ron ism s, certainly. N aive? In com p ariso n , it is the m o d ern view, limited by n in eteenth-cen tu ry concepts o f Science and H isto ry w hich ap p ears naive.
A u e rb a c h , in co n sid erin g th e use o f a Jigura o r type in m edieval th o u g h t,2 com m ents on the idea o f com bining the theologically im p o rta n t figures o f A dam and Eve with the com m o n people o f th e tim e o f the p lay ’s p resentatio n by “ realizing] and co m b in in g ] sublim itas and hum ilitas."3 T h u s, “ T h is first m an -w o m a n d ialo g u e o f u niv ersal h isto rical im p o rt [,sublimitas] is tu rn ed into a scene o f sim plest everyday reality [humilitas]. Sublim e as it is, it becom es a scene in simple, low style.” 4 A iid d ra m a is the one art-fo rm which can effectively m ake the connectio n w ith th e present tense reality o f the audience: a d ra m a tic p erform an ce m u st tak e place in the present tense in relation to its audience - “ th e ‘n o w ’ o f com position and o f p erfo rm an ce on C orp us C hristi day in the m edieval to w n .” 5 F u rth e r, the developm ent o f the plays from their liturgical origins has involved
1 Erich Auerbach, M im esis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968), Ch. 7. 3 Ibid., p. 151.
4 Ibid., p. 151.
a tran slatio n into the vernacular, both in term s o f language and culture. T his is a logical developm ent from the immediacy o f im pact o f the discovery o f the em pty tom b in the Quem Q uaeritis? to the im m ediately id entifiable icons o f a co n tem p o rary v ernacular culture. T h e aim was n o t a historically realistic p o rtra y a l o f events as w ould be und erstood tod ay , b u t a spiritually tru e account. T h e aim is to save souls, no t to p ursu e a line o f scientific enquiry.
W ith Old and New T estam en t m ateria l hinging aro u n d a p ro p h e t’s play, p refig u ratio n is im p o rta n t to all Old T estam en t plays, an d is a stro n g idea, determ in in g in p a rt the “ choice” o f episodes to be d ram atised . T h e classic exam ple o f the figurative type in the m ystery cycle plays m u st be th e case o f Abraham and Isaac. In ad d itio n to the th em atic significance o f the actio n s o f the sacrifice o f Isaac, the C hester play co nn ects it w ith the M essianic prophecy linking C h rist w ith M elchisidec’s priesth o o d : his present to A b ra h am o f “ bread an d w yne” 6 is itself a figure fo r the L ast S upper, w ith the play on the subject later in the cycle, and th e E u ch a rist (this is the C o rp u s C hristi festival). M oreover, the inclusion o f th e M elchisidec them e w ould also serve to reinforce the au th o rity o f th e church. T h e m an y im ages an d them es in b o th the biblical story and the plays are seen to prefigure C alvary. A b rah am is a figure for G o d th e F a th e r, and Isa ac for Jesus, prefiguring Jesu s’ m eekness in accepting his fa th e r’s will:
Father, I am all readye T o doe your bydding m ekelie, T o beare this w ood [full] bow ne am I, A s you com aund m e.7
T h e w ood, o f course, becom es n o t ju st the firew ood o f th e original sto ry b u t a figure fo r the C ross w hich Isaac carries to th e place o f sacrifice; (a figure b o th o f later events in the history o f re d em p tio n b u t also o f th a t aspect o f the m ystery cycle which will be w itnessed by the audience later on th a t day). H ere is A u e rb a c h ’s sublimitas. In the earth in ess and p a th o s o f the follow ing dialogue betw een Isaac and A b ra h a m we find A u e rb a c h ’s hum ilitas, w ith Isa a c ’s p ra ctical req u ests fo r a b lin d fo ld an d a swift d isp atch , am o n g st m an y o th er tim e-occupying devices, and his co m fo rtin g his increasingly upset father, while also beginning to let his irrita tio n and im patience show (b u t w ho was it w ho was w asting tim e anyway?):
A mercye, father! Why tary you so? Sm yte o f m y head, and let me goe! I praie you, rydd me o f m y woe; For n ow 1 take my leave.8
6 Peter H appe, English M y ste ry P lays (London: Penguin, 1975), p. 136. 7 Ibid., p. 142.
T h e final m ajo r figure in the play is the sub stitute o f the ram , the significance o f w hich could n o t - w ith A b ra h a m ’s speech - be lost to the m edieval audience:
Sacrifice here to me sent is And all, lord, throughe thy grace. A horned wedder here I se, A m on g the breeres tyed is he, To the offred it shall be A n one right in thui place.9
T h is prefigures G o d ’s initiative in sending the lam b o f G o d to be sacrificed fo r o u r sins, and m ak es reference to the trad itio n th a t the episode occurred on the site o f the futu re C alvary.
K o lv e 10 offers a fram ew o rk o f the history o f red em p tio n into w hich the C o rp u s C hristi plays fit which he calls the Corpus C hristi protocycle. T his virtually parallels the m edieval “ Seven Ages o f the W o rld ” - C rea tio n ; T he F lo o d ; T h e P atriarchs; M oses and the F light from Egypt; T h e P ro p h ets; C h rist’s life and m inistry; D oo m sd ay . B ut K o lve has rightly add ed the “ C o rp u s C h risti - m o m e n t o f p e rfo rm a n c e .” T h e m ystery cycles are situated w ithin tim e at the m o m en t o f their perfo rm ance. Y et unlike any o th e r w estern d ra m a tic tra d itio n their very subject is the w hole o f time: h isto ry from beginning to end. E n actin g the end o f tim e is a som ew hat d a u n tin g prospect, and certainly the Y o rk M ercers’ Play o f Ju d g em en t D ay seems m o re to lend itself to spectacle, with a large cast, to m b s being ren t open, a few devils th ro w n in for good m easure, and the d am n ed fleeing to H ell. T h e ju d g em en t itself is based very accurately on M atth ew 25, 31-46, the m ain th ru st o f w hich is encapsulated in “ in so fa r as you did this to one o f the least o f these b ro th ers o f m ine, you did it to m e .” 11 It w ould be h a rd to find anachronism s in a play set in th e fu tu re (unless you view any play set in the future as a prim a fa cie exam ple o f anachronism ); and the p o in t o f figurative typology is th a t it uses accepted histo rical fact to ad dress a n o n-historical subject, so this to o w ould be o u t o f place in this play. B ut its use o f prophecy as the basis fo r its story was fa r from strange for the m edieval m ind. T h e play, being th e last in th e cycle, is the final im pression th a t the audience will be left w ith, and accordingly is a straig h tfo rw ard represen tatio n , theologically o rth o d o x , w ith no n e o f the h u m o u r which m ark s the action o f so m an y o f th e m ystery plays, b u t with, as I said above, spectacle, and the strong w arning o f the consequences of ignoring th e social n a tu re o f the gospel. T h e one ad d itio n al fa c to r which
9 Ibid., p. 150 (m y em phases). 10 Op. cit., p. 120.
allow s scope fo r h u m o u r or com m en t is the decision as to w hich ch a rac te rs jo in the saved and w hich jo in the d am ned. I can find no positive textual su p p o rt for the idea o f including P ilate am on g the saved - alth o u g h he is ch aracterised m uch less harshly in the Y o rk cycle th a n in the T ow neley. I m en tio n this because the re-enactm ent which I saw (1966) specifically “ sav ed ” Pilate. A t the tim e, I to o k this to be a m o d ern co m m ent, bu t have since discovered it to be a com m onplace o f m edieval ap o cry p h al legend.
B oth the above plays deal w ith tim e in a w ay which is foreign to the m o d e rn m ind set, b u t they d o n o t particularly fe atu re ideas w hich could bear the charge o f “ naive an ach ro n ism s” : in general th ere is sim ply no case to answ er. T h e Tow neley Second Shepherds' Play, how ever, certainly could face such a charge, as well as “ naive inconsistency of place” , w hich I shall consider as a function o f the sam e p hen o m en o n . T h e typology o f the sheep in C h rist’s crib I shall m en tio n only briefly, and to com m ent on its grim ly ironic touch which if insensitively staged could d egenerate into no m o re th a n farce, bu t again provides an excel lent exam ple o f the com bining o f sublim itas and humilitas. T h e com ic effects o f the play’s an achronism s also follow from this skilfully achieved co m b in atio n . T h e key facto r is the d ra m a tist’s use o f the v ern acu lar in depicting the shepherds. H is reasons fo r this seem to be tw ofold. F irstly, his u n d ersta n d in g o f the gospel is th a t it is p ro le ta ria n in its n atu re , so his depiction o f everyday people is designed to depict o rdin ary people in a positive light. Secondly, w hen it com es to W akefield - w ool co u n try - th e o rd in a ry people knew all a b o u t sh epherd s; n o t on ly could th e audience relate easily to th e subject, the d ra m a tist also knew th e subject inside o u t. T h e im plication underlying the charge o f naivete is th a t the w riter w as try in g to d ep ict Jew ish sh ep h erd s an d g o t it w ro n g . B ut th e re ’s no evidence a t all th a t he w as try in g to achieve a h isto rical a c c o u n t, especially as he could m o re effectively w rite th e s p iritu a lly pow erful plays which have com e dow n to the p resen t day. T h e use o f o a th s by “ o ure L ad y ” ,12 reference to the P a te rn o ste r,13 and o th e r m ed i eval C h ristia n p h ra ses re p ro d u ce d w ith v ary ing ac cu ra cy , reference to “ H o rb e ry ” (near W akefield)14 - all these serve to create a verisim ilitude designed to aid identification by the audience, as well as to celebrate an d en tertain . O th er com ic elem ents in the play - m isogynist h u m o u r, secrets k n o w n to the audience bu t n o t the ch aracters, the m usical in ep titu d e o f the sh ep h erd s - all serve to help th e d ra m a w ork fo r its
12 H appé, op. cit., p. 266, (line 19). 13 Ibid., p. 269 (line 104).
audience, as well as having th eir ow n significances, such as th e shep h e rd s’ singing prefiguring the angels’, and th e deceit o f th e lo catio n o f the stolen sheep echoing the deceit o f S atan in the redem ptive plan. T h e final n o te o f the play is the shep h erd s’ gifts - a figure fo r the m a g i’s gifts. In the co ntext o f the p lay ’s m essage th a t C h rist’s m ission includes the p re sen t tim e an d p resen t people, the sh e p h e rd s’ gifts a re a p p r o priately w ithin reach o f even the poorest people in Y orkshire. C herries, anachronistically unavailable in the m idw in ter o f the n arrativ e, are in season in June!
It is the sam e desire to achieve an im m ediacy o f im p act w hich leads to the references in the Tow neley H erod the Great to the (relatively!) local countries listed as being under H e ro d ’s sway:
From Paradise to Padua, to M ou n t Flascon, From Egypt to M antua, unto K em p town, From Sarceny to Susa, to Greece it abown, Both N orm andy and N orw ay low t to his crow n .15
This inaccuracy is sim ilar in som e ways to those o f th e Second Shepherds’ P lay, in th a t it is there to m ak e the story m o re im m ediate to its audience. B ut it achieves this th ro u g h a self-conscious g ra n d io sity b efittin g th e rend ering o f its subject, w hich was totally lacking in the ren derin g o f the shepherds. Sim ilarly grandiose is th e anach ro nistic claim o f M a h o u n as a cousin o f H ero d . Even allow ing this to m ean a kinsm an (in the loosest sense) an d a fellow -heathen, this is one anach ro nism for w hich I m ig h t be p re p are d to allow the charge o f naivete to stand . B ut while I believe th a t the audience could have accepted it at its face value, this was n o t its p u rp o se . T h e m edieval m ind w ould n o t h av e suffered an y q u alm s o f rem orse a t slandering Islam even if it had been conscious o f the slander: the im p o rta n t issue was the d ra m a tic effectiveness in p ain tin g H e ro d ’s ch a rac te r so th a t the audience’s souls were touched by th e theological p o in t o f the piece. T here are som e co n tem p o rary C hristian im ages in th e play, serving the sam e p u rpose as in th e sh ep herds’ plays o f presenting the play in an accessible idiom:
. . . epistles and grales. M ass, m atins . . , 1<s
A nd I am sure th a t the soldiers were depicted as the co m m o n soldiers w hich the audience would know well - m any having them selves served at times in their L o rd ’s arm ies. T h e suprem ely significant, and - to its speak er - unw itting, prophecy in the play is the statem en t that:
. . . if ye d o as I mean, He shall die on a spear.11
Its effect is heightened by its inclusion in a series o f episodes depicting a grandiose H erod and a bunch o f barely com p eten t soldiers w ho scarcely m anag ed to kill defenceless children.
M y title asks the question w hether, in the light o f the m edieval view o f time, the dram atists o f the m ystery cycles arc guilty o f naive anachronism . T h e answ er, as I ho p e I have show n clearly, is th a t they are neither guilty n o r, in the m ost p art, are th eir anachronism s “ n aiv e” b u t ra th e r, d elib erate and sophisticated d ra m a tic devices. Even w here they m ay have com m itted naive m istakes - such as the M a h o u n /H e ro d an ach ro nism - they were n o t guilty thereby, in the term s o f reference o f their ow n era.
Departm ent o f English Literature and Culture University o f Ł ódź
P eter Barlow
CY KLIC ZN E I L IN EA R N E A SPEK TY ŚR E D N IO W IE C Z N E J R AM Y C ZA SO W EJ: C ZY P O JĘ C IE C Z A SU , KTÓRY TAK PR ZEN IK A
AN G IELSK I RELIG IJN Y DRAM AT ŚR E D N IO W IE C Z N Y , W YK LU C ZA C Z Ę S T E O SK A R ŻE N IA D R A M A T U R G Ó W
O „N A IW N Y A N A C H R O N IZ M ”?
Zrozumienie anachronizmów w angielskim religijnym dramacie średniowiecznym rozpatrywane jest w zależności od aktualnego religijnego pojęcia natury czasu. U w ażam , iż ob ok figuralnych interpretacji (tzw. figur), Auerbach przyczyni! się d o w prow adzenia kon ceptów humilitas i sublim itas d o dramatycznej form y artystycznej, której nie m oża oceniać poprzez porów nanie, a zwłaszcza poprzez porów nanie d o późniejszej estetyki. A nachronizm y biorą swój początek nie z niew ied zy, lecz służą w ysoce wyszukanej form ie artystycznej, skoncentrow anej na efektywnej społecznej prezentacji prawd duchowych.
