S. V. Schoukhardine
ON PERIODIZATION OF HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY
In o rd er to approach scientifically th e com prehension of th e d evel opm ent of science an d technology as w ell a s to d ra w pmoiper conclusions, it is necessary to 'establish a scientifically-,grounded periodization. P ro fessor Olszewski is .perfectly rig h t w h en saying th a t th e qualitative changes in th e developm ent of science a n d technology should serv e as a startin g p o in t for establishing th e periodization.
Professor Olszewski un d ertakes in h is le ctu re th e ta sk of w orking out the principles o f periodization for th e h isto ry of 'particular sciences an d p articu la r domains of technology as w ell as fo r w orks concerned w ith th e universal h isto ry of science a n d th e universal h istory of technology. We should like, first of aill, to em phasize th a t a u niversal periodization for all kinds of histaricoHtechnical an d historico-scientific investigations is not .possible. A lthough th e d e p a rtu re positions; of th e periodization m ay be common, none th e less th e approach to th e solution of problem s reg ard ing th e 'concrete investigations o u g h t to b e different.
We are not able to 'concur w ith th e le c tu rer’s affirm atio n th a t 'both in th e history of p articu lar sdemoes a n d in th e h isto ry of p a rtic u la r domains of technology th e processes a re going o n analogically alth o ug h — as Professor Olszewski rem arks it — th e re ex ists a difference “as reg ards th e m aterial elem ents”.
It is to .be said th a t — w h en determ ining th e m ain periods in th e developm ent of p articu la r sciences — decisive should be, a s it seem s to. us, th e great: discovery w hich rep resen ted a q u alitativ e difference w ith reg ard to th e level o f science in th e previous period. Thus, fo r instance, the discovery by D. I. M endeleev of th e periodical law of elem ents underlies a n ew 'period in th e developm ent of chem ical science (let us say to th e point: no t only of chem ical science). He discovered th e objective law of n atu re. A nd it is n o t a question of w h en a n d w ho recognized th a t discovery, since th e v ery fact of th e law ’s discovery commenced a q u alitatively d iffere n t p eriod in th e developm ent of th e given science. T hat is w hy it seem s to u s th a t th e concept of p arad ig m brought fo rw ard by Professor T. S. K u h n can n o t be utilized for ORGANON, 1864
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constructing th e periodization in th e h istory of science, still m uch less in th e history of technology.
The creation of a new design, th e invention of a new m achine are not to be reg ard ed .as th e com m encem ent o f a n ew period since techno logy does m a tte r only w hen it has found a p ractical application, this m eaning how ever no t sim ply application, b u t a w ide expansion as well. F urth erm ore we w ill shortly dw ell on our ideas regarding th e periodiza tion in th e field o f th e h isto ry o f technology. That question w as analysed b y u s m ore precisely in o u r book The Foundations of the H istory of Technology
I t is firs t of all necessary to dw ell on th e question w h at so rt of principles are to be applied w h en choosing th e periodization in th e w orks concerned w ith th e u niv ersal h isto ry of technology. T hat question is one of th e miootest and — as P rofessor Olszewski rig h tly pointed it ou t — one of th e m ost complex since “th e distinguishing of qualitative changes ■characterizing th e w hole of science a n d of technology is far m ore difficult”.
T h e experience of creating a H istory o f Technology 2 shows th a t it is possible to find a periodization explaining w ith scientific v alid ity th e developm ent of technology as a whole. I t is notorious th a t th e fundam en tal thing in th e developm ent of hum an society is th e production of m ate rial w ealth. Technology is being created and applied ju st for th a t very purpose. That is w hy — w hen choosing th e basis for th e division of th e universal history of technology in to qualitatively d iffere n t periods — one m u st proceed fro m th e fact th a t th e technological epochs divide a fte r th e m eans of labour m ade use of by men. We, consider it proper th erefo re to ta k e -the in stru m en ts of lab o u r a n d th e k in d o f en erg y most w idely sp read a t a given period as a basis fo r th e periodization. In proceeding from those considerations, w e have divided th e developm ent of universal technology in to seven periods 3.
True, people m ay re to rt — as th e au th o r of th e le ctu re does — th a t “th e developm ent of production tools, an d th u s th e technological progress, precedes changes in economic aind social relations, th e form er being th e m a in factor to provoke those Changes”. As a m a tte r of fact, th e historical m aterialism teaches th a t th e productive forces (as w ell as th e ir elem ent — technology) of a subsequent period begin arising and form ing still in th e previous period. However, th e y do n o t y et determ ine th a t period, th ey in ten sify th e contradictions a n d evidence th a t the relations o f production do n ot correspond to th e ch ara cter of productive
1 С. В. Ш у х а р д и н , Основы истории техники. Москва 1961, pp. 99—148. 2 А. А З в о р ы к и н , Н. И. О с ы о в а, В. И. Ч е р н ы ш е в , С. В. Ш у х а р - д и н , История техники. Москва 1962 (A. A. Z v o r y k i n е, N. I. O s m o v a ,
V. I. T c h e r n y s h e v , S. V. S c h o u k h a r d i n e , H istory of Technology). 3 Оощраге ithe contribution of Professor Zvorykine to the discussion on pe riodization during this Symposium.
O n P erio d iza tio n of H isto ry of T echn ology 255
forces. It its o nly a fte r th e victory o f th e n ew economic basis th a t con ditions arise in w hich th e n ew technology can be m ade u se o f on a la rg e scale.
Accordingly, in th e aforesaid! book H istory of Technology w e h av e 'Singled o u t in to special ch ap ters those inventions a n d [discoveries th a t h ad become a basis fo r th e technological progress in th e following period o f th e developm ent of technology, b u t d id n o t p la y a n y decisive role w ith in th e stretch of tim e u n d e r review . Thus, for instance, th e period ranging from th e e n d of th e X V IIIth cenitury to th e seventies of th e X lX th cen tu ry w as characterized b y th e follow ing im p o rtan t inventions: th e first com bustion engines, th e Bessem er a n d M artin processes of steel m anufacture, th e discoveries in th e field of electricity, a n d so on. In th e space of tim e rang in g fro m th e seventies of th e X lX th c e n tu ry up to 1917 th e re w ere invented: th e aeroplane, th e radio, th e telephone and others. These inventions ‘how ever d id n o t d eterm in e th e technology of the period in question, b u t th e y underlie th e technological progress of o u r tim e.
G reat em phasis h as been p u t in Professor- Olszewski’s le c tu re o n th e working out of th e periodization for w orks concerned w ith th e history of p articu la r dom ains of technology. One m ay fu lly ag ree to th e le c tu rer’s statem en t th a t “th e new technology arises w h en th e prece dent one has attain e d best technical a n d economic indices, i.e. w h en it loses th e possibilities of fu rth e r developm ent”. By w ay of illu stratio n , th e au th o r po in ts o ut th e developm ent of th e iro n m etallurgy. Professor Olszewski how ever does no t speak about wihat is to be tak en as th e beginning and th e end of each period. In w h at h isto ric a l' period, for instance, was being em ployed th e (blast furn ace w orking on Charcoal an d w a te r energy? To determ ine such chronological lan dm ark s is ju st th e hardiest thing.
We are of th e opinion th a t th e vast em ploym ent of determ in ed te ch nological m eans in production, a n d n o t th e first practical realization, is to be regard ed as th e beginning of a n ew period in th e developm ent of a p articu lar dom ain of technology. In o th e r w ords, the v ery m om ent in w hich the specific w eight of th e new technology w ith in th e production has grow n considerably is to be reg ard ed as th e beginning o f a n ew period.
W hen establishing th e periodization of th e energetics, th e following question w ould be in place: w h a t k in d of p eriod is being igone th rough by the presen t-d ay energetics — a oompilex one o r a n atom ic one (according to th e periodization of P rofessor K om federatov4)? I believe th a t th e p ecu liarity of th e p resen t-d ay energetics; consists in th e p rio rity
4 Compare: И. Я. К о н ф е д е р а т о в , К вопросу о периодизации истории техники (I. J. K o n f e d e r a t o v , То the Problem of Periodization of H istory of
Technology). "Вопросы Истории Естествознания и Техники” ("Problems of Hi story of Science and Technology”), vol. 4, 1957.
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use o f therm al and hydraulic energy a s a prim ary one, a n d of th e electric en erg y as a secondary one, owing to w hich th e period itself has received th e nam e of com plex energetics. However, th e atomic energy, although in use, does not y et determ ine th e pow er balance.
We w ill try , a t last, to exam ine th e problem s connected w ith th e establishm ent of periodization w hen stu d y in g th e history o f particu lar technological m eans '(instrum ents of labour, machines, w orking m ethods a.s.f.). In order to clearly rep resen t th e principles to be assum ed as a basis for choosing the periodization, let us exam ine first of all the stages of transition from the old technology to th e new one, the stages of cre ation of p articu lar machines or w orking methods. As is generally known, technology its constantly transform ed, it does n o t stan d still, th ere goes on th e process of replacing th e old technology by a new one, an d th e new one — by a new est one. W ithout th a t, th e production of m aterial w ealth cannot subsist n o r develop.
In th e production process m en a re being confronted w ith such or o th er technological problem s, th e [solution o f w hich involves th e inven tion of various machines, w ays o r m ethods of w ork. Technology, ju st as o th e r n a tu ra l .and social phenom ena, is characterized by in tern al con tradictions, th e elim ination of w hich leads, o n th e one hand, to th e perfection of technological m eans being .used alt a given moment, and on th e o th e r hand, to th e in vention of n ew m achines. E very machine, instrum en t of labour, w ay o r m ethod of w ork hav e th e ir positive and negative aspects, th e ir shortcom ings which re s tra in th e raising of labour p roductivity as w ell ais th e attain m e n t of b e tte r param eters, an d w hich do n ot ensure a fu ll w orking safety n o r a high q u ality o f production. The developm ent o f technology is bound up w ith a constant a n d u n in te r ru p te d elim ination of those shortcom ings in search of ever n ew solu tions for th e technological problem raised.
How is going on, however, th e replacem ent o f th e olid technology by th e new one, What (kind of cycle is possible here? At first, on th e basis of a long experience of m en a n d as a re su lt o f em ploying th e previously discovered laws of n atu re, a new principle for solving one o r another technological ta sk is being suggested. T here follows th e elaboration of th e design of machine, of instrum ents of labour, th e creation of produ ction technology. A t times, th e re a re sim ultaneously w orked o u t th e theoretical foundations of a given question. Thereupon, th e experim ental p a tte rn is being tested, a t first in lab o rato ry conditions, a n d th e n b y ind u stry itself. O n finding th e te sts to be successful and a fte r elim inating the revealed shortcomings, th e design is being elaborated and introduced into production,
The beginning of th e introduction of th e n ew technology is cha racterized by th e fact th a t in th e said period a .coexistence betw een th e new technology a n d the old one is taking place, th e n ew technology
being still in germ, th e old one how ever occupying a dom inant position an d carrying a considerable w eight w ith in th e production. The new technology is being introduced, in an obstinate stru g g le betw een th e new and th e old.
B ut th e new, th e advanced, th e progressive has to gain victory over th e old, th e outliving. So- it is; th e n ew technology at last sup p lan ts th e old one. Men realize both technical and economic m erits of th a t new technology. F rom th a t v ery day a new developm ental period of th e given technological m eans begins — the period of th e ir em ploying in pro duction.
In th e process o f,th a t em ploym ent th e new technology is being m ore an d m ore p erfected an d modernized. How is th e beginning of th a t n ew period in th e developm ent of technology to be determ ined? A g reat role should be played b y qu an titativ e d ata showing th e specific w eight of th e new technology in production.
It musit be borne in m ind th a t at th e v ery tim e w h e n th e replacem ent o f th e old (technology by th e n ew one is going on (and this can sometimes be a question of a ra th e r long period) a n d w hen the o ld m eaus an d th e n ew ones have approxim ately equal technical p aram eters and yield analogous results, it is th e economic consideratioms th a t a re the fu n d a m en tal1 criterion for choosing one o r an o th er ty p e of machine.
L ater on, a fte r th e new technological m eans have been perfected, the experience of operation accum ulated, and the production technology im proved, th e re occurs a definitive extrusion of the old technological means. The victory of th e new technology o ver th e old one does n o t m ean th a t th e form er no longer develops; on th e contrary, th e introduction of th e new technology in to production fosters the elim ination of th e existent shortcom ings and the form er’s rap id perfection. W ithout alterin g th e principle, people achieve th e im provem ent of all param eters of th e new technology employed. S ubsequently how ever even this n ew tech nology is no m ore capable of satisfying th e needs o f production, its possibilities are becoming exhausted. There begins th e cycle of th e new technology being replaced by th e new est one. It is to b e n oted th a t th e new technology is being replaced b y th e new est one a t a m om ent w hen th e form er has reached th e peak of its development.
Thus, th e machines, th e in stru m en ts of labour, th e ways a n d m e thods of w ork go in th e ir developm ent thro ug h th e following periods: th e b irth of th e idea, the w orking o ut of th e first design (method), th e testing of th e first patterns, th e bringing of th e 'design to th e sta te of efficiency, its introducing in to production, th e vast em ploym ent in pro duction, th e replacem ent by a new technology. True, this is only a ge neral schem e o f th e developm ent of technological m eans; w hen stu d y in g the concrete dom ains of technology, the said schem e can be subject to some alterations.
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