Ap r i l
1946.
A B S T R A C T S .
PAGE Oi l f i e l d Ex p l o r a t i o n a n d Ex
p l o i t a t i o n.
Geology :... ... ... ... 91 A
D rilling ... ... ... 94 A
P roduction ... ... ... 95 a
Oilfield D evelopm ent ... ... 100 a
C
Tr a n s p o r ta n d St o r a g e . . . 1 0 1a Re f i n e r y Op e r a t i o n s.
Refineries a n d A uxiliary R e finery P la n t ... ... 1 0 5 a
D istillation ... ... ... 10 7 a
A bsorption an d A dsorption ... 1 0 8 a
C rack in g ... ... ... ... 1 0 8 a
Isom erization ... ... ... 1 1 1 a
Special Processes ... ... 1 1 2 a Pr o d u c t s.
Chem istry an d Physics ... ... 1 1 2a
Analysis an d T esting
PAGE 1 1 4 a
Crudo Oils 1 1 4 a
Gas 1 1 5 a
E ngines Fuels ... 1 1 5a
L ubricants 1 1 5 a
A sphalt, B itum en an d T ar i i e a
Special H ydrocarbon Pro d u cts 1 1 6 a
D erived Chemical P ro d u cts 1 1 8a
Coal, Shale an d P e a t 1 1 9a
Miscellaneous P ro d u c ts... 1 2 0 a
En g i n e sa n d Au t o m o t i v e Eq u i p-’
m e n t . . . . .. . .. . .. 1 2 1 A
Mi s c e l l a n e o u s ... •... ... 123 a
Bo o k s Re c e i v e d... 126 a
A U T H O R IN D E X .
The num bers refer to th e A b stract N um ber.
Acker, M. M., 398 Alfrey, T., 395 Andrescn, 3C H ., 348,
349
Arnold, P. M., 386 Aschner, E., 381 Barnes, K . B., 341 Barr, L. V., 312 Bissel, E . S., 378 Boguslavskaya, N. A.,
406
Brown, G. G., 385 Clason, C. E., 339 Coulson, Y. M., 373 Courtney-Pratt, J . S.,
423 Cox, E. A., 402 Davis, W. J ., 355 Dickey, P . A., 348, ^49 Doty, P., 393, 395 Dunham, G. S., 387 D’Yakova, M. K., 417 Eilerts, C. K., 342 Everett, H . J ., 378 Eagin, K. M., 356
Farris, B. F., 340 Frediani, H . A., 398 Galstaun, L. S., 390 Gavin, H . J ., 403 Gilbert, C. L ., 411 Glasgow, A. K., 401 Glicher, S., 392 Good, E. M., 397 Green, E . H ., 402 Greensfeldcr, B. S., 397 Grosse, A. V., 399 Ilagestad, J . S., 357 Halfpenny, L. C., 3'Jl Heiligmann, B. G., 396 Hendricks, N. V., 428 Hersberger, A. B., 396 Hess, II. A., 352 Hindin, S. G., 399 Ives, G. O., 321, 362 Jackson, J . S., 408 Jones, P. J ., 343-317,
350
Jones, W. B., 322 Kaufm an, II. S., 393 Killingsworth, B. B., 410
Koenig, E . A., 367 Kunkel, J . H ., 405 Laitinen, H . A., 400 Lechthaler, C. 1L, 388 Lee, J . A., 404 Logan, L. J ., 333 McAllister, E. W „ 351 McTce, A. K., 335 Meyer, L. J ., 353 Mokievskii, V. B., 406 Mudd, O. 0 ., 371 Nelson, W . L., 382, 383 Newton, B. H ., 387,
389 -
Oberfell, G. G., 412 O’Brien, A. S., 400 Payne, J . W ., 388 Pew, A. E ., 426 Pirson, S. J ., 359 Pugh, B., 424, 425 Ilalph, H . D., 409 Bebinder, P. A., 406 Beid, J . C., 396 Bidley, C., 119
Bossini, F . D., 401 Bushton, J . H ., 378 Senatoroll, N. K., 384 Sheals, V. A., 370 Shimp, H . A., 389 Short, E. n . , 351 Shrewsbury, B. D., 337 Simpson, T. P ., 387 Sm ith, B . V., 342 Spencer, W. D., 418 Squires, F ., 368 Steinitz, E . W., 407 Streiff, A. J ., 401 Stuart, A. H ., 374, 375 Sung, H . C., 385 Telang, M. S., 394 Tuck, D. M., 376 Tuck, M. S., 393 Tudor, G. E ., 423 Vige, H . H ., 397 Yinson, C., 380 Wawzonek, S., 400 W hite, B. E ., 385 Williams, J . M., 366 Williams, N., 358
Oi l f i e l d Ex p l o r a t i o n a n d Ex p l o i t a t i o n.
G eology.
322. Alabama : its Geology and Oil Prospects. W . B. Jones, Oil W kly, 14.1.46, 120 (7), 51.— I n N o rth ern A labam a is a Palæozoic area w ith C am brian to Carboniferous beds.
T he oast-contral area consists o f crystalline rocks, m ostly pre-Cam brian, while the C oastal P lain h ad Cretaceous an d T e rtia ry beds resting on Palæozoic a n d crystalline rocks.
I
9 2 a ABSTRACTS.
T he southw estern term inus of th e A ppalachians plunges b en eath th e C oastal P lain beds as a series of deeply eroded, sharply folded anticlines, sep arated b y b ro ad synclines.
T his region docs n o t seem likely to produce oil or gas. F la t or gently w arped Pahco- zoics m ake up th e Tennessee Valley, th e P la te a u region, a n d th e W arrior coal-field.
In 'th o n o rth are M ississippian asphaltic lim estone .(Gasper) a n d sandstone (H artselle).
T he B angor lim estone has crude in cavities, an d all th ree horizons aro po ten tial p ro ducers a t d ep th . Tho P cnnysylvaninn holds possibilities. A b o u t 75 wells have been drilled in th is area, nil having h ad oil- or gas-showings. Small am ounts of gas have been produced. Cretaceous beds lap on to th e preceding area. T hey h ave oil an d gas possibilities. Subsurfaco stru c tu re is m a s k e d ; geophysics an d core-drilling will bo required to decipher it.
I n th e so u th eastern p a r t of th e S tate T ertiary beds occur, and theso give ad eq u ate cover for p o ten tial oil an d gas horizons, such as tho Tuscaloosa an d E u taw . Tho H atchetigbeo anticline lias provided a n oilfield on its southw est flank. Piercem ent- ty p e salt-dom es are to bo expected in th e w estern p a r t o f tho region, an d salt-beds or plugs h ave been encountered in two deep wells. The Jack so n an d B ethel faults m ay be duo to differential sottling or to breaks along tho steep m argin o f a n old shoreline.
I n southw estern A labam a th ere aro Mioeono an d Q u atern ary beds.
The first producing well o f th e G ilbertow n field w as com pleted in 1944. A to ta l of 24 producers yield a b o u t 1800 b rl/d a y of 19-gravity oil. P ro d u ctio n is along a fault- plane in th e Sefma chalk a t a b o u t 2800 ft, or in th e E u ta w sands a t ab o u t 3400 ft.
T he E u ta w sand is ra th e r tig h t. U ltim ately th e field m ay yield 4000-5000 b rl/d ay . G. D . H .
323. New Oil-field Apparently Assured in Venezuela Greater Oflcina District. Anon.
Oil W kly, 17.12.45, 120 (3), 71.— Tho N ipa 1 w ildcat 51 m l n orthw est o f th e W est G uara field, an d n o rth o f Oficina, w as drilled to 9080 ft. On p erforating a t 7125- 7135 f t it flowed 320 b rl/d a y of 41-6-gravity oil, th ro u g h a -&-in choke. Tho G .O.R.
w as 10,500.
T a c a ta 1, in M onagas, 3 m l w est of th e Capacho discovery, has to sted sa lt w ater a t 7960-7970 ft. I n tho T ascabana 1 w ildcat, 8 m l n o rth of Oficina, a te s t a t 7960- 7970 f t is rep o rted to have given 3,000,000 cu f t o f g as/day, w ith some d istillate and salt w ater.
Tho L a Ceiba 1 w ildcat, 19 m l n o rth e a st of th e S an ta R osa field, is coring below 9250 ft. A num ber o f interesting sands wore found above 8500 ft.
Tho th ird well in tho new M ara field o f n orthw est Venezuela has flowed over 1000 b rl/d a y , from th e Cretaceous a t a b o u t 6600 ft. G. D. H .
324. West Guara (Venezuela) Field Development. G. O. Ives. Oil W kly,3 .12.45, 120 (1), 16 (In tern atio n al Section).—W est G uara is in tho G reater Oficina area. I t w as discovered by slim-hole stru ctu ro drilling, after seismic w ork h ad indicated tho presence o f an anom aly. T he field w as opened in Ju n o 1942. B y O ctober 1944 tho production was 1,400,000 b rl/m o n th . T he field is now fairly well defined b y 97 p ro ducers an d one d ry hole. 29 wells are triplo-zono producers, an d m an y dual-zone producers will bo converted to triple-zone wells. Tho o u tp u t in theso triple-zone com pletions is 450-500 b rl/d ay /san d . The field covers 3500 acres. 39 sep arate sands have been tested , a good p roportion o f th em extending over th e whole field. Oil gravities range 8-57°, th e 57° oil being black an d flowing w ith G .O .R .’s o f 450-800 on a J-in choke. Tho to p oil is 20°-gravity; th e n dow n to 6250 f t tho g rav ity is 43-53° ; below 6250 ft th ere is a decrease dow n to 8-10° a t 7900 ft. . F o r oils lower th a n 30°
th e g ra v ity m ay v ary as m uch as 10° w ith stru c tu ra l position.
T here is a m ajor fau lt on th e so u th running N .E.-S.W . Tho th ro w is a b o u t 450 ft, an d dow nw ards on th e up-dip side. Tho field is 71 km long an d a b o u t 14 1cm wide.
Tho basem ent is a b o u t S000 f t deep. T here is n a tu ra l flow from th e Mioceno producing sands. A 5400-ft well m ay p en etrato 12-14 sands, w ith a com bined effective thickness o f 185-250 ft.
D rilling conditions are alm ost ideal. R igs are skidded from location to location.
G. D- H .
A BSTRACTS.
325. Production Indicated ior Northwestern Colombia. A non. Oil W kly, 14.1.46, 120 (7), 70.—A fter failing to produce from deeper horizons, F loresanto I is sw abbing oil from 620-650 ft. F loresanto 4 is testin g showings encountered in drilling to 1504 ft.
G. D . H . 326. Conflicting Reports Received about Shell’s Wildcat in Eastern Ecuador. Anon.
Oil W kly, 10.12.45, 120 (2), 28.— Shell’s V uano 1 te s t is 80 ml so u th east o f Q uito, near A rajuno. Some reports suggest t h a t tests h ave given satisfactory am o u n ts of oil, while others re p o rt oil-sliows w hich are n o t very encouraging. T he to s t is east o f th e Andes, 500 m l n orthw est o f th e Ganso Azul field o f P eru . T his produces from th e Lower Cretaceous a t 1174 ft on a stru ctu ro 16 m l long an d 7 m l wide, w ith 3600 ft o f
closure. G. D. H.
327. Shell Abandons’Test in Oriente o£ Ecuador. Anon. Oil Gas ./., 5.1.46, 44 (35), 44-.— Shell h as abandoned 1 V uano a t a b o u t 5300 ft. I t lies so u th east o f Quito.
E cau d o r produced 668,051 brl of oil in th e th ird q u a rte r of 1945 ; th e corresponding
figure for 1944 w as 749,943 brl. G. D . H .
328. Chilean Test W ell Points to End of Petroleum Imports. A non. Oil Gas J„
12.1.6, 44 (36), 60.—The Spring H ill to st well, n o rth of Tiorra del Fuego, is reported to h ave a daily production of 2000 cu.m . I t s d ep th is a b o u t 7400 ft. G. D. H . 329. Province of Drenthe in Holland Holds Interest. A non. Oil W kly, 10.12.45, 120 (2), 65).—Prospecting is going on in th e region o f Schoonebek an d Coe V orden, Province o f D renthe, H olland, w here th e G erm ans drillod th ree tests. I n Ju n o one well w as producing 260 b rl/d a y from a d ep th o f 2500 ft. G. D. H . 330. Oil Reported Discovered in Upper Part of Austria. Anon. Oil W kly, 3.12.45, 120 (1), 50 (In tern atio n al Section).— Oil is reported to h ave been discovered a t Pergorn, 18 m l S.E . o f Linz. I t is n ear W eis H e a th , w hich has yielded n a tu ra l gas. G. D. H . 331. Good Producer Reported on West Caspian Coast. A non. Oil W kly, 10.12.45, 120 (2), 65.— A 3750-brl well has been com pleted a t M ahach-K ala on th e w est coast
o f th e Caspian. ^ G. D. H .
332. Discovery of New Field in Russia is Indicated. Anon. Oil W kly, 14.1.46, 120 (7), 70.— An oil well yielding 170 m. to n s /d a y is reported in a new discovery in th e general area of K rasnokam sk (Soverokamsk fiold). G. D. H . 333. Oil and China’s Future. L. J . Logan. Oil W kly, 3.12.45, 120 (1), 37 (In te r
n atio n al Section).— T here is m uch prospective oil-bearing lan d in China, for th ere are large expanses o f co u n try w ith favourable sedim entary conditions, m an y anticlines a n d evidences o f oil. W u Su, in northw est Sinkiang Province, w as th e first com m ercial oil-field discovered in China, 25 producing wells were drilled, obtaining 49 to 52- g ra v ity oil from a b o u t 4800 ft. This field is w est o f Tihwa.
The Y um en field of n o rth w est K an su Province lies betw een Y um en an d K iayukw an.
T he field was opened in 1939. T here are 26 producing wells in a proved area of 3000 acres. P ro d u ctio n is 21,000 b rl/d ay . The 38-gravity oil comes from th e Cretaceous a t a b o u t 1350 ft. Oil seepages led to th e discovery.
Tho R ed B asin is favourable from th e po in t o f view o f oil occurrence. T here are m an y anticlinos an d m an y brine wells th a t have yielded sm all am ounts o f oil an d gas from Cretaceous, Jurassic, a n d Triassic form ations a t shallow depths. T he P erm ian an d perhaps th e O rdovician an d C am brian m ay havo b e tte r oil possibilities. 4 ml southw est of Chungking a gas-producer was com pleted in a Lower Triassic lim estone a t 3300 ft. T he pressure w as 1200 lb/sq. in. 60 m l to th e n o rth a n o th er stru ctu re m arked b y oil- a n d gas-seeps has provided a high-pressure gas producer in th e Triassic.
I n Kweichow Province th ere are oil-im pregnated Perm o-Triassic beds 10 ml, so u th east of K w eiyang. A P erm ian seepage has been found in Chekiang Province, below Shanghai.
E v en in th e m ost prom ising areas there has been little drilling. G. D. H .
A BSTRACTS.
334. Australia’s Deep Test Reported at 6765 ft. Anon. Oil W kly, 24.12.45, 120 (4), 70.— W estern P etro leu m ’s te s t a t Nelson, V ictoria, is rep o rted to h av e reached 0765 ft.
N ew equipm ent is to bo considered for F ren ey K im berley Oil’s te st, w hich was
suspended a t 4271 f t in 1942. G. D. H .
335. Oil in the Arctic. A. R . McTee. Oil W kly, 3.12.45, 120 (1), 3 (In tern atio n al Section).— A t U m iat, A laska, a well has been drilled to 1816 ft, a n d 4 sep arate sands h ave been m et, each o f w hich shows enough oil to encourage fu rth e r drilling. I t is hoped to continuo tho well to 7000 ft.
Tho problem of tra n sp o rt, housing, a n d drilling in th e A rctic are described in fair
detail. ' G. D. H .
D rillin g .
336. New Mechanical Rotary Drilling Rig. Anon. Petrol. Engr, Dec. 1945, 17 (3), 130.— A now m echanical rig is described a n d illu strated w ith photographs an d a layout plan. A few of th e rig’s specifications follows : (1) D epths of 10,000 f t w ith 4J-in drill pipe are reco m m en d ed ; (2) 3 engines w ith a com bined in p u t o f 750 h.p. m ay be u s e d ; (3) th e rig is ra te d a t 750 h.p., 7500 ft-lb to r q u e ; (4) m u ltip le-stran d chain drives enclosed in dust-proof, oil-bath housings are supplied. V -belt drives are also en clo sed ; (5) th e transm ission u n it has 3 forw ard an d 1 reverse s p e e d ; (6) T he rig has high- an d low-speed drives from th e lineshaft. These drives com bined w ith th e transm ission speeds give a to ta l o f 6 forw ard an d 2 reverso speeds to tho drum , a n d 3 forw ard an d 1 rovorse to th e ro ta ry ta b l e ; (7) th e d ru m sh aft is 7 |-in d ia m e te r; tho lineshaft is 6-J-in in diam eter, an d th e ro ta ry co u n tersh aft is 61-in in d ia m e te r; (S) all clutches are controlled b y com pressed air, a n d are o f in tern al expanding design. Tho low d ru m drive is equipped w ith a m ulti-jaw emergency c lu tc h ; (9) tho h o ist is equipped w ith a 24-in b y 32-in special alloy steel d rum w ith 10-in b y 16-in b rakes th a t are w atercooled, torque equalized, micro-sensitized, a n d havo an area o f c o n tac t of 2170 sq. in. The coefficient of holding pow er is estim ated to be 69 to 1. A few
o perating d a ta are given. A. H . N.
337. Deep Sea Drilling. R . D . Shrew sbury. Oil W kly, 10.12.45, 120 (2), 33-36.— A proposed design for building a “ Shrew sbury Colum n ” in th e form o f pressurized doep- sea cham ber sealed against th e sea a n d drilling deep wells from th# b o tto m o f tho sea is described. M any of th e ideas are still in th e form ulative stage, b u t diagram s an d probable estim ates an d solutions for tho various problem s raised are presented.
A. II . N.
338. Field Safety Programme Developed by American Association of Oilwell Drilling Contractors. Anon. Petrol. Engr, Dec. 1945, 17 (3), 88.— T he A m erican A ssociation of Oilwell D rilling C ontractors have called a conference on safety in drilling, an d havo launched a m o n th ly bulletin, S a fe ty H in ts on D rillin g , an d published a book, Safely M anual fo r Rotary D rilling and Procedure fo r Operating F ield S a fety Programme.
Among th e safety h in ts on drilling, tho drilling con tracto rs are advised to follow th e rules listed : (1) provide safe drilling equipm ent and tools ; (2) safeguard all m a c h in e ry ; (3) place no new m achinery or equipm ent in oporation unless full a tte n tio n has been 4 paid to its safety an d crew s tra in e d to uso i t ; (4) p lan an d arrange all drilling operations w ith careful a tte n tio n to s a f e ty ; (5) m a in ta in a system of rig, equipm ent, an d tool inspection to discover correctible h a z a rd s ; (6) m ain tain safety-m inded su p erv iso rs;
(7) tra in , educate, a n d stim u late its em ployees to follow safe m ethods o f w ork an d to ta k e a sincere in te re st in th e safety o f them selves an d th e ir fellow -w orkers; (8) investigate each a n d every accident to determ ine how b est to p rev en t a re c u rre n c e ; (9) m ake full a n d p ro m p t rep o rt to th e p roper au th o rities o f all cases of injury.
A. H . N.
339. Cement Substitutes for Elimination of Water. C. E . Clason. Oil W kly, 10.12.45, 120 (2), 54.— T he need for a seal w hich is a tru e solution a n d n o t a suspensoid or colloidal dispersion in certain cases is explained. C ertain p a te n te d m aterials called R esinite Seal h ave been used successfully. R esinite Seal o f one typo is p articu larly suitable fo r p u re sandstone form ations w ith a range in bottom -hole tem p e ra tu re of from 70° to 220° F . T his p ro d u ct h as been used in th e E a s t Texas W oodbine sand w ith
ABSTRA C TS.
m arked success in plugging off bottom -hole w ater w here th e average form ation tem p eratu re is 145° F . O ther applications h ave heen m ade in th e T alco-Paluxy sand a t 156° to 162° F . M any jobs have also been done in Pennsylvania, O klahom a, K ansas, W est Texas, a n d Illinois. T he equipm ent in use consists o f a dum p bailer tru ck , a special dum p bailer such as is used in gypsum cem ent work, a n d in some places, w here needed, a w inch line. M easuring lines, etc., an d o th er devices com m on to bottom -hole w ork are also used. R a p id portab le m ixers an d containers are p a r t of th e setup. T his resin in its sot condition has a n u ltim a te compressive stren g th of from 12,000 to 15,000 Ib/sq. in. T he tensile stren g th is from 5000 to 9000 lb. These stren g th s are fa r g reater th a n is actually necessary to accom plish th e desired effect. I n b o th fluid a n d solid phases, th e sp. gr. is 1*201, w hich is 10-02 lb/gal. (U.S.). A. H . N.
340. Determining Minimum Cement Waiting Time. R . F . F arris. Oil W kly, 7.1.46, 120 (6), 30. Digest o f Paper presented before A m erican Institute o f M in in g and M etal
lurgical Engineers.— To determ ine w h a t stren g th th e cem ent should havo to support w hatever a m o u n t of casing w eight m ig h t be applied to it, lab o rato ry determ inations were m ade w ith pieces of 51-in outside d iam eter casing, each set in cem ent inside of 95-in outside diam eter pipe. Five-foot lengths o f pipe were used in each case, and sta n d a rd cem ent slu rry weighing 15-6 lb /gal w as poured into th e annulus o f each u n it to a h eig h t of 4 ft. The lengthw ise bonding stren g th of th e cem ent to th e casing was determ ined a t various tim e intervals by m easuring th e force w hich h ad to bo applied to th e end of th e 51-in pipe to m ove i t w ith respect to tho outside o r 9$-in pipe. E ach tim e th e bonding stre n g th of th e cem ent in th e annulus w as tested , observations were also m ade of tho stren g th o f th o cem ent b riq u ettes an d th e progress tow ards tho initial a n d final sot. These d a ta are show n graphically. W hen these d a ta are used to calculate tho vertical length o f casing represented b y a w eight equal to a given bonding stren g th , it is found t h a t a given length o f cem ent, having reached a relatively low tensilo stre n g th a t th e beginning o f its final set, can su p p o rt th e w eight of 100 to 200 tim es t h a t length o f uncom ented casing.
Two m ethods o f predicting cem ent stren g th s aro described in some detail.
A. H . N.
341. Special Diamond Coring Records Nearly 100 per cent in Lime Formations. K. B.
B arnes. Oil Gas J .; 24.11.45, 44 (29), 98-101.— D uring th e la st few m onths experi
m e n ta l coring of oil-productive lim estones an d dolom ites has been done w ith diam ond
faced core b its a t four wells, w ith th e recoveries being 8Ef-S% o f 57 ft cored, 96-5% of 347-5 ft, 81-1 % o f 60 ft, an d 97-5% of 40-5 ft. F urth erm o re, th e wells all were in
“ h ard to core ” form ations an d territo ry . 400 to 500 diam onds totalling 60 to 100 c arats m ake u p tho facing 6f th e special core-heads. The diam onds are cast in place, ra th e r th a n being individually inserted an d sot in tho facing. A steel “ b lan k ” is m ade to comprise tho u p p er p a r t of th e h ead an d th e joint. Tho b lan k is th e n sus
p ended in a fem ale m ould in w hich th e individual stones h av e been positioned by hand, an d th e m a trix m etal ^an alum inium -bronzo alloy) poured in. T his casted bond form s tho diam ond crown. The tool is illu strated together w ith its characteristics. Con
census o f those engaged in th e four te s ts w as th a t diam ond coring is useful in special situ atio n s w here th e fragm ental, vugular, or erratic porosity in limes h as to bo cored w ith a lig h t w eight scraping action to a tta in high recoveries, a n d whore for special geological a n d reservoir s tu d y purposes tho cost is w arranted. The w ork also proved th a t diam ond coring could be satisfactorily accom plished a n d high recoveries o btained w ith o u t th e uso o f hydraulic feeding equipm ent and w ith sta n d a rd ro ta ry tools, p ro vided th e equipm ent w as in good m echanical condition an d norm al w orking ratings
n o t exceeded. A. H . N.
P ro d u c tio n .
342. Measuring Distribution of Liquids in Flowstring of a Gas-Condensate Well.— C. K.
E ilerts, R . V. Sm ith, an d V. L. B arr. Oil G a sJ., 15.12.45, 44 (32), 91.— Tho B ureau of Mines, in co-operation w ith th e N a tu ra l Gasoline A ssociation o f A m erica an d th e A m erican Gas Association, is investigating m eans o f p re v e n tin g th e serious corrosion to w hich some hi^h-pressure, gas-condonsato wells in th e G ulf Coast area are subject.
Samples in tho fluid from these wells ore being studied in tho lab o rato ry to ascertain th e n a tu re of th e corrosion an d to find inhibitors th a t will m inim ize its effects. A lloys
9 0 a A B STRA CTS.
are being com pared as to com position, fabrication, an d resistance to corrosion for the purpose of finding econom ically feasible m aterials for m aking equipm ent to be used on th e wells. W ate r lias an im p o rta n t rôle in gas-condensate well corrosion, an d portab le equipm ent h as been constructed an d used in th e field to m easure tho distrib u tio n of w ater in th e tu b in g of a flowing well. T he a m o u n t o f w ater presont a t a given p o in t in th e fiow-string is significant because it m ay control rates o f corrosion an d also d e te r
m ine th e effectiveness of inhibitors. Tho sam pling an d analyzing of th e analyses of h ydrocarbon liquid/gas ratios a n d o f w ater liquid/gas ratio s are given graphically.
Liquid w ater w as found in a certain m inim um ra tio th ro u g h o u t th e strings.
A. H . N 343. The Optimum Rate of Production. P a r t 13. P . J . Jones. Oil Gas J ., 24.11.45, 44 (29), 102.—L e t th e per-well ra te o f pro d u ctio n be uniform during a period of develop
m en t. T hen th e ra te of developm ent of a reservoir is equal to th e ra te o f increase o f tho ra te o f production. R ates o f developm ent v a ry w idely as betw een reservoirs from a slow initial ra te up to a com paratively fast initial rate. A slow initial ra te of develop
m e n t m ay bo represented b y ra te s o f p roduction p roportional to cum ulative recovery.
A rap id initial ra te o f developm ent m a y be represented b y ra te s o f developm ent inversely p roportional to tho ra te o f production. Tho ra te s of developm ent foim d in p ractice are likely to full betw een tlieso tw o lim its. T he characteristics o f several ty p es of developm ent program m es as to ra te s o f production a n d cum ulative recovery are illu strated graphically. A fixed n um ber of rigs a n d a uniform per-well rig tim e represents a uniform ra te of developm ent, uniform ly increasing ra te s o f production.
The procedure for estim ating tho p resen t value of tho production accum ulated during a period o f developm ent is illu strated b y an exam ple for uniform ly increasing ra te s of
production A. H . N.
344. The Optimum Rate o£ Production. P a r t 14. P . J . Jones. Oil Gas J ., 1.12.45, 44 (30), 87.— T he reserve recoverable before th e ra te o f p roduction from reservoirs s ta rts declining defiends on th e in itial well-producing cap acity , tho ra te of decline of w ell-producing capacity, an d on tho ra te o f production. O ther things equal, th e initial woll-producing cap acity depends p rim arily on th e n u m b er o f wells drilled. T he decline o f well-producing cap acity depends on producing an d operating m ethods. The reserve recoverable before pro d u ctio n s ta rts declining w ith a fixed nu m b er of wells an d given producing an d operating m ethods varies w ith tho ra te o f p roduction from reservoirs. Tho slower th e rato of production, th e higher tho reserve recoverable before production s ta rts declining. These p oints are illu strated graphically, a n d by e x am ples. In tho case o f oil reservoirs, th e drilling o f a com paratively largo n um ber of wells m ay cost m ore, as a rule, th a n injection o f gas or w ater. Tho drilling of a com p a ra tiv e ly large n um ber o f wells does n o t increase th e barrels o f u ltim ately recoverable oil. I t incroases w ell-producing cap acity and th e fraction of a fixed in itial oil reserve, w hich is recoverable before th e rato o f p roduction sta rts declining. T he foregoing considerations m ay influence optim um ra te s o f p roduction through investm ents,
operating expenses, o r size o f reserve. * A. H . N .
345. The Optimum Rate o£ Production. P a r t 15. P . J . Jones. Oil Gas J ., 8.12.45, 44 (31), 105.— D eclining ra te s o f p roduction m a y bo classified according to ra te s of depletion. T he ratio of producing rato to reserve is th e ra te of depletion. T his ratio , th e ra te of depletion, m a y bo either uniform or variable. A declining ra te o f pro d u ctio n p roportional to reserve is a uniform rato o f depletion. A declining ra to o f production n o t proportional to reserve is eith er a n increasing, or a decreasing, ra te o f depletion.
This article is lim ited to uniform ra te s o f depletion. The following characteristics for uniform ra te s o f depletion are illu strated graphically an d b y exam ples : (a) R atos o f p roduction ; (b) cum ulative recovery ; (c) am iual ra te o f decline ; (d) average annual ra te o f decline ; (e) average a n n u al declino ; (/) reserve factors ; a n d (g) th e n um ber o f years roquired to accum ulate a reserve a t various ra te s of depletion. U niform rates of depletion will bo used la te r fb estim ate th e optim um ra te o f p roduction for th e reserve recoverable a t declining ra te s o f production. A. II. N.
\
346. The Optimum Rate o£ Production. P a r t 16. P . J . Jones. Oil G u sJ ., 15.12.45, 44 (32), 116.— D eclining ra te s o f p roduction m ay bo accom panied b y increasing, uniform , or decreasing rates o f depletion. Cycling operations a n d pressure m ainten-
ABSTRACTS. 9 7 a
unco p rojects are usually conducted a t increasing ra te s of depletion. Tho rato of depletion, a t th e tim o th e ra te of p roduction from a reservoir s ta rts declining, is equal to th e ratio o f cum ulative recovery a n d tho p ro d u ct w hich results w hen reservo is m ultiplied b y tho n um ber of years during w hich th e recovery w as accum ulated. I f th e subsequent rates o f depletion are uniform , th is ratio is also equal to tho prospective ra te o f production declino. B u t if th e subsequent ra te s o f depletion are n o t uniform , th e prospective ra te s of p roduction declino are variable. V ariable ra te s o f deplotion are eith er increasing or decreasing ra te s of deplotion. This article defines th e lim iting ra te s of p roduction w hich represent increasing ra te s o f deplotion. Tho optim um rato o f p roduction for increasing ra te s o f depletion is different from th e optim um ra te of production for increasing ra te s o f depletion. F o r th is reason, it is desirable to define tho ra te s o f production which represent increasing rates of depletion. A. H . N.
347. The Optimum Rate oi Production. P a r t 19. P . J . Jones. Oil Gas J ., 5.1.46, 44 (35), 60.—Economic lim its depend on producing a n d operating m ethods. Tho offect of economic lim its on estim ates o f optim um ra te s o f production from reservoirs to be doveloped m ay bo neglected as a rule. Howover, estim ates of optim um ra te s of gas, o r w ater, injection into p a rtly depleted oil reservoirs should be m ado in term s of economic lim its as a rule. I f a n economic lim it is o f th e order 1% or higher o f tho ra te of p roduction a t a given tim e, estim ates o f reserves a n d o f irrespective ro tes or production are likely to bo ittbre accurate if m ade in term s o f economic lim its.
These considerations aro illu strated b y exam ples. A. H . N.
348. The Behaviour of Water-Input Wells. P a r t I I I . P . A. D ickey an d K . H . A ndreson. Oil W kly., 3.12.45,120 (1), 14. Paper presented before A m erican Petroleum Institute.—I n th is p a r t tho plugging effects o f suspended an d dissolved m a tte r an d of organic grow ths on in p u t well behaviour are detailed. I n general it is found th a t m aterials of sm allest diam eters are o f g reatest plugging effect. Selective plugging is discussed, tog eth er w ith th e results o btained w ith tw o p a te n te d m ethods. T he use of ftno suspended m a tte r in a carrier fluid is found effective in certain selectivo plugging
operations. A. H . N.
349. Behaviour of Water-Input Wells. P a r t IV . R . A. D ickey a n d K. H . A ndresen.
Oil W kly. 10.12.45, 120 (2), 43. Paper presented before Am erican Petroleum Institute.
— I n th is p a r t tho phenom enon o f form ation ru p tu re or “ b reak th ro u g h ” is discussed.
Tho critical pressure a t th e sand faco ranges betw een TO an d 1-7 p s i/ft of d ep th in th e northw estern P ennsylvania an d eastern Illinois fields. V alues for o th er fields also fall w ithin th is range, although thero is insufficient inform ation definitely to establish th e range for each of them . The range of critical pressures cited applies to depths betw een 260 a n d 2075 ft. Critical pressures v ary from well to well, an d in one area (east of R ixford) in th e B radford field th e critical pressures oppear to be abnorm ally low, an d of th e order o f 0-9 p si/ft of d ep th or less. A pparently th e critical pressure is lower in th e early life o f a well th a n it is a fte r a considerable volum e o f w ater has been injected into th e surrounding sand. If, after a b reak th ro u g h has occurred, th e pressure is reduced below th e critical value, som etim es tho well resum es its norm al w ater-in tak e ra te , b u t, if tho critical pressure lias been exceeded for several days or weelm, th e \yells usually do n o t resum o th eir previous w ater-in tak e rates, b u t continue to tako w ater a t a high rate, w hich fluctuates in a n irregular m anner. B reakthroughs aro alm ost alw ays followed b y th e appearance of w ater in one or moro neighbouring oil-producing wells w ithin a few days, an d tho w ater passes quickly from one well to another. B re a k throughs are characterized b y definite increases in in jectiv ity indices. The increase in th e value o f th e index is never gradual, an d th e graphs of th e pressure-input p o in ts are stra ig h t lines w ith sharp discontinuities. Tho m echanism o f ru p tu re an d its effects
are detailed. A. H . N.
350. The Optimum Rate of Production. P a r t 17. P . J . Jones. Oil Gas J ., 22.12.45, 44 (33), 63.— T he p roduction characteristics for increasing ra te s o f d e pletion are review ed in th is article. T he ra te s of production an d cum ulative recovery corresponding to increasing rates o f depletion are illu strated graphically an d b y exam ples. T he ra te of production decline increases for increasing rates o f deple
tion. Tho average an n u al ro te of production decline an d th e average aim ual decline
9 8 a ABSTRA C TS.
of p roduction increase for increasing ra te s o f deplotion. Tho significant characteristic o f increasing ra te s o f depletion is th e increase o f : (1) th e ra te o f d eclin e; (2) th e average an n u al rato of declino; an d (3) tho average an n u al declino. T he value of properties a n d th e advisability o f additional in v estm en t in reservoirs depend on th e prospective ra te s o f production decline. T he rato o f p roduction decline m ay increase ab ru p tly for increasing ra te s o f depletion. A. H . N.
351. Lake Creek Cycling Project Example of Applied Engineering Technique. E. H . S hort, J r . Oil Qas J ., 1.12.45, 44 (30), 04.— T he field is producing from seven zones by m eans of single, dual, an d triple com pletion wells, some o f w hich are used as injection wells. A diagram of a peg-m odel illustrates th e com plexity of th o problem , an d th e p ap er discusses some engineering aspects o f th e production of tho various zones.
A. H . N.
352. Mobile Unit Provides Individual Well Data. H . A. Hess. Oil W kly, 17.12.45, 120 (3), 66-67.— A portable u n it incorporating a separator, oil motor, gas m etor, an d • an au to m atic sam pler for salt-w ater determ ination has been perfected an d placed in m ass production b y a H ouston concern. Tho u n it is described. A. H . N.
353. Determining Weighted Average Bottom-Hole Pressure in East Texas Field. L. J.
Meyer. Oil Gas J ., 1.12.45, 44 (30), 67.-—T read o f reservoir pressure w ith pro d u ctio n is a very im p o rtan t relationship in a n y pool. Because of tho large area, n um ber of wells, an d reserve of tho E a s t Toxas field, p robably m ore bottom -holo-pressure tests an d in terp re tativ e studies of pressure d a ta h ave been m ade th ere th a n in an y o th er single field. This p ap er p resented th e d etailed procedure for th e determ in atio n o f th e w eighted average bottom -hole pressure of th e E a s t T exas field as conducted b y th e E ngineering D e p a rtm e n t.’ Oil an d G as D ivision o f th e R ailro ad Commission o f Texas.
The formula) used are derived, an d ty p ical tables o f d a ta an d results are given.
A. H . N.
354. Application of Laboratory Data on Phase Behaviour to Evaluation of Condensate Reserves. E . W . M cAllister. Petrol Engr, Deo. 1945, 17 (3), 90.— A lthough th e phenom enon, o f retrograde condensation has been recognized in lab o rato ry w ork for m an y years, th ere is still considerable lack o f th e specific inform ation required properly to re-estim ate th e petroleum p ro d u cts t h a t w ould bo recovered from a condensate pool produced b y straight-pressure depletion. T his is due to th e lack o f lab o rato ry eq u ip m e n t suitable for ru n n in g condensation or phase behaviour experim ents on sam ples involving a change in com position w ith decrease in pressure. T his experim ent involves w ithdraw ing portions of th e sam ple in th e gas phase, causing each increm ent of pressure decrease a n d determ ining tho com position o f th e portions o f sam ples w ith d raw n an d rem aining. A t present, nearly all laboratories are equipped to ru n phase behaviour experim ents involving no change in com position o f th o sam ple an d showing only th e indicated relative volum e of liquid condensed w ith change in pressure an d w ith o u t determ ining th e com position of th e liquid so condensed. Such d a ta are su itab le only for determ ining th e pro d u cts to bo recovered a t th e dew -point pressure or above, w ith a n indication o f th e m agnitude o f th e ra te o f liquid condensation t h a t m ay occur in tho reservoir w ith pressure drop in th e retrograde region. E xam ples of experim ents w ith co n stan t com position aro illu strated an d thoir results aro discussed.
Tho discussion involves graphical studies, an d th e original p ap er should bo consulted
lo r m ore details. A. H . N.
355. West Edmond Salt-Water-Disposal Plant Initiates Service to Member Operators.
W . J . D avis. Petrol. Engr, Dec. 1945, 17 (3), 106.— D etails o f a n organization of com panies for salt-w ater disposal from th e ir respective fields are described. The design a n d operation of th e p la n t are discussed. A m ongst tho hydrodynam ical principles o f th e settling p la n t th e following h ave been found to bo valid rules for design : (1) th a t a particlo 001 m m in diam . is tho sm allest particle th a t can be econom ically rem oved w ith o u t th o add itio n o f a c o a g u la n t; (2) t h a t th e falling ra to of such a particle in still w ater is 0-005 ft/sec ; (3) th a t a continuous-fiow settlin g basin, properly baffled, is as effective in rem oving suspended m a tte r as a series o f in te rm itte n t settlin g b a s in s ; (4) offective settling m ay be accom plished w hen th e m ean velocity through tho basin does n o t exceed 3 tim es th e falling velocity of th e p article to be
A BSTRACTS. 9 9 a re m o v e d ; (5) th a t tho incom ing a n d outgoing velocity o f th e fluid flowing th ro u g h tho basin can be as high as 25 tim es th e m oan perm issible v e lo c ity ; (6) th a t th e detention timo in a rectangular basin m u s t be 3 tim es longer th a n in a circular basin in w hich rad al flow is m aintained, to allow for end c u rre n ts; (7) t h a t tho w orking level of th e fluid in a settlin g basin should n o t bo less th a n 5 f t in order to insure quiet fluid, or moro th a n 15 f t in d ep th , to insure m axim um economical operation.
M echanical an d oth er operating details are given. A. H . N.
356. Oil Yield/Acre-Foot may Guide Well Spacing. K . M. Fagin. Petrol. Engr.
Dec. 1945, 17 (3), 72.— R easons for keeping am ple records o f field operations aro detailed. A lthough th e m ain purpose o f developing those significant field-wide facts m ay bo to enable th e operator to forecast th e probable fu tu re recovery from a now reservoir and th e m ost effective and profitable woll-spacing program m e by com parison w ith tho probable u ltim ate recovery p er acre foot in older producing resorvoirs w ith sim ilar characteristics, th e operator m ay use tho facts in m an y oth er w ays, such as ; (1) to determ ine w hether or n o t he is depleting th e aero feet of producing form ation u n d er his leases as rapidly as th e average acre foot in tho field is being d e p le te d ; (2) to guide tho p rep aratio n o f estim ates of recoverable oil reserves u n d er his leases for ta x or ap p raisal purposes; (3) to provide him self w ith a condensed h istory o f th e develop
m en t an d production progress o f tho field t h a t will give clear an d am ple w arning of im pending operating difficulties th a t require budgeting, such as tho need for installing pum ps, th e need for p reparing for w ater encroachm ent, tho need for rem edial w ork on tho wells, as well as th e feasibility of pressure m aintenance, ropressuring, or w ater- flooding. A looseleaf ledger is described for those purposes. A ty p ical field production d a ta sheet is reproduced an d m an y of th e item s included on tho sheet are discussed.
A. H . N.
357. Annulus Method oi Locating Water in Oil Well. J . S. H agestad. Petrol. Engr, Dec. 1945, 17 (3), 198.— T he determ ination o f th e en try of w ater into a well is usually done on a sta tic well. Tho p ap er describes m ethods for determ ining w ater e n try in a producing well w ith o u t stopping it. I n th is m ethod tho tu b in g of a pum ping well is raised an d a bailer is used to place electrolytes a t different points of tho well, th e bailer being low ered betw een th e tu b in g an d th e casing. D etection o f th e electrolyte in tho oil being pum ped places th e p o in t of en try of tho w ater. Typical cases are described.
/ A. H . N.
358. Selective Acidization Procedures at Carthage Field Result in Great P rod u ctivity- Larger Ultimate Recovery. N . W illiams. Oil Gas J ., 22.12.45, 44 (33), 56-57.—
Thrco of th e four producing horizons o f tho C arthage gas-field in P anola C ounty, E a ste rn Texas, consist of oolitic lim estone form ations in w hich acid tre a tin g o f wells is a factor in developing m axim um productive capacity. Since well p o ten tials are a basis for allocations of allowable production, incentive is given for establishing th e greatest productive capacity possiblo w hen com pleting wells. This has led to an acidization race am ong some operators in w hich relatively large volum es o f acid h ave been utilized in m an y cases in a tte m p ts to increase th e perm eability o f producing form ations.
L ately, however, th e adoption of m ethods by w hich moro effective placem ent of tho acid can bo attain ed , ra th e r th a n increasing th e volum e, is receiving th e consideration o f operators. T he general procedure, involving a squeeze cem entation, is described, tog eth er w ith some interesting v arian ts used w hen p articu lar conditions requiring th em are m e t in a well. O f in terest in connection w ith squeezing practices in th is field is tho recen t use o f plastic in several wells. I n one well th is m aterial w as used ex
clusively, replacing cem ent n o t only for th e initial “ cem enting ” of th e production casing string, b u t also for a succession o f squeeze jobs. I t s use is expected to prove especially advantageous in squeezing tho in terv al betw een th e Gloyd w ater sand an d th e H ill zone, os these upper form ations aro extrem ely unconsolidated and do n o t hold up, m aking it difficult to obtain a good cem ent job. W ith a b o u t 200 gal. o f plastic squeezed into t h a t in terv al satisfactory results h ave been realized. P ackers are also
used. A. H . N.
359. Engineering Approach to Oil Reservoir Controls. S. J. Pirson. Oil W kly, 31.12.45, 120 (5), 22.— Scientific reservoir control presupposes th e existenco of jeason- ably accurate forecasting m eans of th e expected perform ance o f a field u n d er existing
1 0 0 a ABSTRA C TS.
or preasaum ed conditions. I t is necessarily p redicated upon th e know ledge o f n a tu ra l as well as artificial recovery m echanism or “ drives ” w hich are fundam entally three in num ber— viz. w ater drive, segregation drive, an d depletion drive. T he various drives aro tho object of m odifications resulting from p a tte rn flow, dips, connate w ater satu ratio n , viscosity) variations, ra te s o f form ation flow, a n d sand heterogeneity. The various recovery m echanism s have th e ir specific degree o f u ltim a te recovery. - A ccord
ingly, it is p e rtin e n t to gaugo tho degree of effectiveness of each m echanism in a field in order to p red ict th e u ltim ate recovory. To th is end tho concept of a “ D rivo In d e x ” is introduced, an d it is show n how such a n index m ay be com puted for each ty p e o f drive from tho m aterial balance eq u atio n for either a cu rren t pro d u ctio n practice or an y presum ed ra te of w ithdraw al. As a result, th e recovery program m e m ay be engineered so as to favour one or m ore ty p es o f drive in order to secure m axim um recovery th ro u g h tho prescription of th o m ost efficient ra te of production. Formulas are derived an d presonted for w ater-drivo index (W .D .I.), segregation drive index (S.D .I.), and depletion-drive index (D .D .I.). E xam ples are given to illu strate th e use
o f these indices. A. H . N.
360. W ell Pulling Costs Cut by Time-saving Rack. A non. Oil W kly, 24.12.45, 120 (4), 49.— D etails o f a tu b in g rack a n d o f a n o th er for rods used to kninimize tim o of
pulling are given. A. II. N .
O ilfield D ev elo p m en t.
361. 25,800 Completions Probable for 1945. A non. Oil W kly, 17.12.45,120 (3), 65.—
The results of drilling in U .S.A. during tho first 11 m o n th s of 1945 indicate th a t tho y e a r’s to ta l com pletions will n u m b er a b o u t 25,800 wells, including 400 old wells deepened.
I n N ovem ber th e com pletion rato w as 531 p er week. T he O ctober figure w as 501 p er wcok. 23,711 wells were com pleted during th e first 11 m o n th s o f 1945. Texas com pletions wore 20% above tho 1944 level, Louisiana com pletions 38% , O klahom a com pletions 29% , an d Colorado com pletions 80% .
A tab le sum m arizes tho U .S. com pletion results b y S tates for N ovem ber, 1945, an d
for tho first 11 m o n th s of th o year. G. D. II.
362. Venezuela. G. O. Ives. Oil W kly, 3.12.45, 120 (1), 12 (In tern atio n al Section).—
D uring th e week onded O ctober 13, Venezuela produced a n average of 969,600 b rl/d a y , th u s exceeding th e previous p eak o f 965,000 b rl/d a y in th e week ended A ugust 13, 1945. Tho bu lk of th e o u tp u t w as from th o M aracaibo Basin, w here th e flush p ro d uction occurs 1-12 km offshore. A well is to be drilled in 90 f t o f w ater on a con
cession in th e centre o f tho lake.
Q uiriquire produces 50,000 b rl/d a y , a n d tho single field extending w estw ard from Ju sep in through M ulata, M ari, an d S a n ta B a rb a ra to Travieso, gives 129,000 b rl/d ay . I n th e G reater Oficina area are Oficina, Leona, E a s t G uara, W est G uara-G uico, an d Y opales, all producing from sands o f th e sam e age, a n d of sim ilar s tru c tu ra l ch a ra c te r
istics. T he accum ulation is due to norm al faulting, an d Oficina itself h as a t least a dozen blocks. Tho G reater Oficina area produces 100,000 b rl/d a y , th e bu lk (2,000,000 b rl/m o n th ) com ing from W est G uam ’s 3500 acres, while Oficina gives 1,250,000 b rl/m o n th from 12,275 acres. '
A 16-in pipelino ru n s from Oficina to P u erto L a Cruz, an d a 16-in line from th e Ju se p in area to th e sam e term inal. A 12-in lino from th e S a n ta B a rb a ra field ends a t Chauro. Thore is a 10-in line from Ju sep in to C aripito, a n d 8-in a n d 10-in lines from Q uiriquire to Caripito.
Tho San Jo a q u in , Guario, E l R oble, S an ta A na, R incon, an d S a n ta R o sa fields are anticlinal or dom e stru ctu res, w hereas th e Ju sep in group is basically a series o f stra ti- grapliic tra p s w ith faulting, being form ed b y th e w edge-out of th e Miocene a n d oth er sands ag ain st th e n o rth e rn coast range o f m ountains. P ro d u ctio n is largely from th e Miocene in th e San Jo a q u in area, w hile deep wells ro u n d S a n ta R o sa an d E l R oble have prospected tho Eocene w ith o u t y e t establishing im p o rta n t production. T his area produces 26,000 b rl/d a y , San Jo a q u in providing a b o u t h a lf tho to ta l. 225 km to th e w est is th e L as Mercedes field, w hich lacks a n outlet.
L agunillas, Cabim as, T ia Ju a n a , a n d Mene G rande are th e principal producing areas o f th e 'L a k e M aracaibo region. T heir cum ulative p roduction to tho beginning of
ABSTRA C TS. 1 0 1 A A ugust 1945 was 2,346,141,340 brl. A t tho beginning o f A ugust Lagunillus w as p ro ducing a t tho ra te of 285,000 b rl/d a y . P roduction is from tho Miocene an d Eocene, m uch of th e offshoro production being from th e Eocene.
U n til early 1945 tho relatively u n im p o rtan t fields o f L a P a z an d L a Concepcion produced from th e Eocene. E arly in 1944 U pper Cretaceous p roduction w as e sta b lished a t 4446 ft, a b o u t 1500 f t below th e deepest Eocene pay. T he initial well gave 800 b rl/d ay , an d a la te r well w hich reached 5397 ft, gave 4000 b rl/d a y . I t is hoped th a t th is form ation will produce elsewhere in th e M aracaibo B asin below th e Miocene an d Eocene, although it m ay lie boyond th e reach o f presen t drilling techniques in m ost o f tho area. Crotaceous production h as been found 33 km n o rth o f L a Concepcion a t 6011 ft.
V enezuela is capable of producing a million barrels of oil per day. G. D. II.
363. Argentina Production Declines 5-6 Per Cent. A non. Oil Gas J ., 22.12.45, 44 (33), 46.— I n th e first six m o n th s o f 1945 A rgentina produced 11,569,832 brl o f oil.
G. D. H . 364. Production in Ecuador Drops in Third Quarter oi 1945. Anon. Oil W kly,
14.1.40, 120 (7), 70.—I n th e th ird q u a rte r of 1945 E cuador produced 668,051 b rl of oil, 80,891 brl less th a n in th e corresponding period o f 1944, b u t 15,868 b rl moro th a n in
tho second q u a rte r of 1945. G. D. H .
365. Iranian Oil Production Hit New Record in 1944. Anon. Oil Gas J ., 22.12.45, 44 (33), 46.— I n 1944 tho Ir a n oil p roduction w as 87,102,955 brl. Gael) S aran produces ab o u t 15,120,000 b rl/y ear. A gha J a r i began producing in 1944. G. D. H .
Tr a n s p o r t a n d St o r a g e.
366. Pumping Various Products through the same Pipeline System. J . M. W illiams.
Oil Gas J ., 22.9.45, 44 (20), 197.— New operating problem s w ere created in th e early 1930’s w hen tho first p ro d u cts pipelines were constructed, since th e y n a tu ra lly differed from a crudo-oil system in o perating details an d in th e ir use for several grades. As a resu lt o f experim ental w ork carried o u t m ainly b y K eystone Pipelino engineers, it w as possible in 1940 to pum p 8 grades of gasoline, 2 grades of kerosino, 2 grades of furnace oil an d 1 grade o f gas-oil, w ith each grade individually delivered read y for uso to tho m ain term inal points on th e line. T his article discusses th e th eo ry involved and th e results obtained in tra n sp o rtin g a wide range of products through tho sam e tru n k - lihe system .
F luid m otion through pipes is shown to depend to a largo e x te n t on tho value of th e
Z ) VS
expression (known as th e R eynolds num ber) — ■ w hen D — pipo diam eter, V — velocity o f th e fluid, 8 = density o f tho fluid an d p. = its viscosity. T he change from stream line to tu rb u le n t flow tak es place when th is expression is equal to approx 2000, a n d tho length of th e contam ination stream w here one liquid follows a n o th er in a pipeline is proportional to th is q u a n tity .
Much o f th e experim ental w ork described w as carried o u t using a 400-ft system of J-in glass tu b in g w here tho liquid boundaries were alw ays under inspection an d th eir behaviour could be correlated w ith t h a t expected from theoretical considerations.
Samples could also be ta k e n from various points on th e lino an d exam ined for th e ir e x te n t of contam ination. C ontam ination curves aro given showing interface ch a ra c te r
istics o b tain ed w ith various m ix tu res of grades using b o th th e m in iatu re rig an d 8-in
pipe some 500 miles in length. T. M. B. M.
367. Pipeline Coatings Tested ior Dielectric Strength. E . A. K oenig. Oil Gas J ., 22.9.45, 44 (20), 303.— A description is given of tho application o f protective coatings to pipelines, tho b est coatings to apply, an d th eir testing by m eans of m easurem ents of dielectric strength.
T he necessity o f coating pipelines is stressed, an d th e adv an tag es o f carrying o u t tho coating process by m achine is discussed. Good bonding w ith m an y prim ers is lim ited by slight traces o f m oisture, dust, grease, an d light ru s t films, an d therefore too m uch stress can n o t be p u t on clean pipe. P in holes an d air bubbles are often form ed in a h o t coating application, an d m ay be sealed over in th e pipe coating w hich w ill appear
ABSTRA C TS.
satisfactory. The use o f a porous typo w rapping such as Fiberglass assists in rem oving somo o f theso defects, an d sam ples prep ared in th e la b o ra to ry 'b y dipping sheets o f this m aterial in tho m olten coating showed a n increase in breakdow n voltage (in volts per mil) as tho thickness of th o sam plo decreased indicating u niform ity of tho dielectric m aterials, and th e high com patibility of th e coating an d th e Fiberglass. F ield tests subsequently showed th e superiority of th is m aterial, an d a 10-milo length of this coating on a pipe inspected a fte r 6 years w as found to be in excellent condition.
Fiberglass h as since been used for th e pro tectio n of new an d reconditioned lines varying in diam eter from 4 to 24 in and o f to ta l length 120 miles. T. M. B. M.
368. Rustless Pipe for War and Peace. F . Squires. Oil Gas J ., 4.S.45, 44 (13), 70.—
D etails are given o f investigations m ade b y tho Illinois Geological Suvey to find superior corrosion-resistant pipe m aterials. T he m o st satisfacto ry m aterials were found to be : (1) coal-tar p itch w ith a binder o f m acerated p ap o r a n d wood fib re ; (2) cem ent w ith binder of asbestos fib re s; a n d (3) b o th p lain an d reinforced plastics. F ibre pipes m ade o f 75% coal-tar p itc h a n d 25% m acerated p ap er an d wood fibres are m an u factu red in th ree grades for electric conduit w ork ; th e second-grade pipes, haying a b u rstin g pressure o f 220 p.s.i., wero joined to g eth er in different w ays an d subjected to m echanical an d corrosion tests. T apered ends driven in to oppositely tap ered couplings provide lines suitable for surface g rav ity lin e s ; th read ed pipes in threaded stainless steel or p lastic couplings give non-corrodible lines suitable fo r surface lines an d eem ented-in casings for shallow wells. Theso lines, howevor, sag im der th e ir own w eight an d are susceptible to shocks from different sources w hich cause crazing and subsequent w eakening. These fau lts can be corrected b y either cem ent lining or inside reinforcem ent w ith coiled wire an d com ont lining. Theso m ethods increase th e resist
ance to b u rstin g a n d m ake th em suitable for surface pressure lines.
The m ethod of m an u factu re o f asbestos-cem ent pipes o f 200 p.s.i. b u rstin g pressure is described ; th e y are used for electric conduits, vent-pipes, an d w ater-m ains. Sec
tions of these pipes were coupled up witfi seven kinds o f jo in ts, w hich are described an d discussed. T heir testin g is described an d th e results are given an d discussed. T hreads o f tho asbestos-cem ent pipes aro b est c u t b y m eans of a grinding w h e e l; 4 th read s on each pipe end are recom m ended. R u b b er of fabric-graphite gaskets can bo used.
P ipes m ade o f highly com pressed cem ent reinforced w ith glass fibres (term ed
“ glasscrete ” ), on testin g w ould n o t w ith stan d shock an d suddenly applied loads.
A sbestos-cem ent pipes m ay be th read ed by grinding, an d joined b y stainless steel or p lastic couplings to form a line stro n g enough to provide p ractical pressure surface lines, an d m ay be cem ented in a casing in wells o f considerable d e p th for salt-w ater disposal. T rials w ith asbestos-cem ent pipes joined b y plastic couplings either alone or reinforced b y glass fibres or m etal are described. Tho results show th a t th e form er were v ery successful, an d th a t m etal reinforcing o f plastics has given very prom ising results.
I t is an ticip ated th a t g reat im provem ents m ay ariso from fu rth e r w ork in these
directions. W . II. C.
369. Alaskan Highway Oil Pipeline. A non. Engineering, 5.1.45, 159, 1.— Tho p ip e
line w as co n stru cted to p erm it tho d irect d istrib u tio n of fuel oil a n d gasoline to th e A laskan H ighw ay a n d to airfields along th e route. Tho previous ro u te necessitated a long sea passage for ta n k e rs w hich, a p a rt from curtailm ents duo to b ad w eather, ■was vulnerable to subm arine a tta c k b y tho Jap an ese, who succeeded in destroying m any ships.
T he schem e w as designed to relievo th e su pply position b y running a pipolino from tho existing oilfields a t N orm an W ells to W hitehorse, 600 miles aw ay, a n d th e n earest accessible p o in t on th e H ighw ay. T his necessitated crossing th e Mackenzie M ountains, 5000 f t high. Climatic conditions w ere severe, ranging from 70° F below zero in w inter, to 90° F in sum m er.
T he N orm an W ells crude is paraffinic, a n d of such q u a lity th a t it m ay be used w ith o u t refining as a diesel fuel. A sm all refinery a t N orm an W ells supplied th e gasolino necessary for th e construction w ork. Subsequently a new refinery w as established a t W hitehorse w ith a cap acity o f 3000 b rl/d a y , crude being delivered v ia th e pipeline from N orm an Wells.
T he pipeline from th e refinery followed th e H ighw ay w estw ard to F airb an k s (600 miles) an d eastw ard to W atso n L ake (300 miles). T here w as also a branch line to
ABSTRACTS. 1 0 3 A Skagw ay, w hich could bo used to supply tan k o rs from W hitehorse or in reverse to supply gasoline shipped from o th er sources to F airb an k s, W hitehorse, an d W atson L ake.
Pum ping-stations are provided a t approxim ately 50-ml intervals th ro u g h o u t tho system o f 1000 m is to ta l length. Tho pipe v aried in diam eter according to th e section a n d service from 2 to 6 in diam eter. L engths o f from 30 to 40 ft aro electrically welded together.
W ork on tho pipeline w as sta rte d in 1942 an d com pleted in 1944. T he contractors h ad to overcom e m any n a tu ra l an d clim atic obstacles, th e supply of m aterials and equipm ent presenting m an y difficulties. A full description o f th e construction of th is pipeline appeared in “ Engineering Nows R ecord ” d ated M ay 18, 1944.
C. D. B.
370. High-Pressure Gasoline Cable-type Pipelines under the English Channel. V. A.
Shoals. Oil Gas 22.9.45, 44 (20), 205.— T he historical events loading up to tho construction of th e pipelines under th e channel aro discussed, as well as th e m ethods em ployed for its m anufacture.
Tho idea was conceived b y A. C. H a rtle y o f th e A nglo-Iranian Oil Co., an d an experim ental 2-in lino designed an d b u ilt b y Siemens w as installed for te s t in th e B ristol Channel in D ecem ber 1942. As a result o f those tests, an d in anticip atio n of D day, several B ritish m anufacturers s ta rte d to build 3 in pipe in 1943, an d in 1944 four A m erican m anufacturers wore selected to assist in its m anufacture. T he design of tho cable is given, an d details as to th e alloys used noted. The pipe w as ex tru d ed in 2300-ft lengths on special largo-diam otor re e ls ; photographs of tho p la n t used are reproduced. T he splicing process used for joining th e lengths tog eth er is described, w hich operation took a b o u t 2 hours for each jo in t.
Tho first com plete pipelines wore laid from tho Islo of W ight to Cherbourg, a n d later from Dungoness to Boulogne, distances of 06 an d 29 miles respectively, tho pipe being shipped in lengths of 35 an d 70 n au tical miles. Tho tra n sp o rt an d shipping arran g e
m ents o f th e cable from th e U n ited S tates aro given, an d photographs o f tho gondola cars used are included.
D etails o f th e results of endurance te s ts aro listed, an d in operation tho lines h a d a v ery amplo facto r of safety. A to ta l o f 12 lines o f H A IS cable pipe an d 8 lines o f 3-in welded steol (H am el typo) were installed, an d approxim ately 1,000,000 gal o f gasoline wore pum ped th ro u g h th e lines daily.
T . M. B. M.
371. Technique for Determining Installation of Cathodic Units. O. C. M udd. Oil Gas J ., 22.9.45, 44 (20), 201.— Tho article discusses tho m ethod used for placing correctly th e direct-current cathodic corrosion-preventing devices on pipelines as well as th e correct location of insulating flanges.
Two gasoline-driven 2'5-kw, 50-amp, 50-volt generators (to develop up to 75 am p w ith corresponding voltage decrease) m ounted on pneu m atic-ty red trailers aro used.
A n anode is inserted in th e soil 300 to 400 f t from th e pipelino, to a d e p th o f 4 to 5 ft w ith electrolyte solution. T he positive term inal o f th e generator is connected to th is an d tho negative to th e pipeline, operating th e u n it a t th e desired cu rre n t o u tp u t for 4-5 h r to polarize th e ad jac en t pipe surface. P ip e to soil p o ten tial m easurem ents aro th en m ade along th e line by a copper su lp h ate half-cell electrode, progressing aw ay from th e u n it connection a n d continuing beyond th e p o in t o f m inim um requirem ent to m ake sure t h a t tho lim it o f effective p rotection has been passed. Tho second u n it is con
nected up sim ilarly a t a distance from tho first of approxim ately th ree tim es tho length of line found u n d er effective p rotection (0-25 v min). B o th u n its are th e n operated sim ultaneously for 4-5 hr, while pipe-to-soil p otentials aro ta k e n from generator to generator to find if protection is complete. Insufficient pro tectio n betw een u n its requires m oving tho second nearer th e first a n d repeating th e te s t, while over- protection is n o t only uneconom ical b u t m ay cause dam age ; 2-5 volts is th e m axim um allowable pipe to soil potential. A fter an intervening section is found to bo sa tis
factorily protected, m easurem ents ore continued beyond th e second u n it b y tr a n s ferring the first generator to a new position.
Tho spacing betw een these locations has been found to v ery greatly w ith th e n atu re o f th e soil.
The d istribution o f galvanic anodes, p rotecting only isolated corrosive sections,
