Advanced Development and Applications of RFID in Airports - Geavanceerde Ontwikkeling en Toepassingen van RFID met betrekking tot Vliegvelden

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Delft University of Technology

FACULTY MECHANICAL, MARITIME AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Department Maritime and Transport Technology

Mekelweg 2 2628 CD Delft the Netherlands Phone +31 (0)15-2782889 Fax +31 (0)15-2781397 www.mtt.tudelft.nl

This report consists of 32 pages and 0 appendices. It may only be reproduced literally and as a whole. For commercial purposes, only with written authorization of Delft University of Technology. Requests for consult are only taken into consideration under

Specialization: Transport Engineering and Logistics

Report number: 2017.TEL.8099

Title: Advanced Development and Applications of RFID in Airports Author: P.B. Noordhoek Hegt

Title (in Dutch)

Geavanceerde Ontwikkeling en Toepassingen van RFID met

betrekking tot Vliegvelden

Assignment:

Literature

Confidential:

No

Supervisor:

Dr. Ir. Y. Pang

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Delft University of Technology

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL, MARITIME AND MATERIALS ENGINEERING

Department of Marine and Transport Technology

Mekelweg 2 2628 CD Delft the Netherlands Phone +31 (0)15-2782889 Fax +31 (0)15-2781397 www.mtt.tudelft.nl

Student: P.B. Noordhoek Hegt Assignment type: Literature Supervisor (TUD): Y. Pang (TU Delft) Creditpoints (EC): 10

Specialization: TEL

Report number: 2017.TEL.8099 Confidential: No

Subject: State of the Art Development of RFID Technology (in TEL)

The application of RFID technology is spread nowadays in modern airport operations. Besides the improvement of the efficiency of baggage handling processes, RFID technology enables the enhancement of the security with respect to the information of passengers and during tracing and tracking baggage. The development of RFID technology and its applications in airport was significant in the past years.

This literature assignment is to survey the start of the art development and application of RFID that benefit the handling of baggage and passengers in airports. Based on a general understanding of RFID technology and working principle, this survey should cover following aspects:

• To summarize the functions of baggage handling and passenger control in airport operations • To investigate the development and application of RFID technology with respect to both

baggage handling and passenger control

• To explore the RFID application in other operational point of view, e.g. maintenance • To discuss the RFID concerns of information security

This report should be arranged in such a way that all data is structurally presented in graphs, tables, and lists with belonging descriptions and explanations in text.

The report should comply with the guidelines of the section. Details can be found on the website. The mentor,

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Table of Figures

FIGURE 1: RFID SYSTEM (GRANDE, 2013) ... 3

FIGURE 2: RFID TAG (ARMSTRONG S. , 2013) ... 4

FIGURE 3: EPC (INFOMAX, 2012) ... 6

FIGURE 4: UPC (KENNEDY, 2013) ... 6

FIGURE 5: EPC CLASSES (EPC-RFID INFO, 2013) ... 7

FIGURE 6: LINEAR ANTENNA (GLOBAL SOURCES, 2016) ... 8

FIGURE 7: CIRCULAR-POLARIZED ANTENNA (FPVLAB, 2016) ... 8

FIGURE 8: LINEAR ANTENNA (LEFT), CIRCULAR-POLARIZED ANTENNA (RIGHT) (ARMSTRONG S. , CIRCULAR POLARIZATION VS. LINEAR POLARIZATION: WHICH IS THE RIGHT RFID ANTENNA?, 2013) ... 9

FIGURE 9: PASSPORT 2016 (WIKIPEDIA, 2016) ... 12

FIGURE 10: RFID PASSPORT (BIOPASPOORT.BLOGSPOT.NL, 2006) ... 13

FIGURE 11: SELF-SERVICE PASSPORT CONTROL (KMARMAGAZINE, 2015) ... 14

FIGURE 12: SSPC PROCESS (WIKIPEDIA, 2016) ... 16

FIGURE 13: CHECK IN COUNTER (LEFT), BAG TAG (MIDDLE), SELF-SERVICE BAG DROP (RIGHT) (LODEWIJKS, 2016) ... 17

FIGURE 14: 3D SCANNER/X-RAY (LODEWIJKS, 2016) ... 18

FIGURE 15: HELIX SORTER (LEFT), VERTISORTER (RIGHT) (LODEWIJKS, 2016) ... 18

FIGURE 16: MANUAL MAKE-UP (LEFT), PACKING ROBOT (RIGHT) (LODEWIJKS, 2016) ... 19

FIGURE 17: CONVEYOR LOADING BAGS INTO PLANE (LODEWIJKS, 2016) ... 19

FIGURE 18: RFID PRINTER (BARCODESINC, 2016)... 20

FIGURE 19: RFID READER SIGNAL (DELTA, 2016)... 21

FIGURE 20: RFID BAG TRACKING (DALTON, 2016)... 22

FIGURE 21: MAINTENANCE PROCESS FRAPORT (LEGNER, 2006) ... 23

FIGURE 22: MOBILE DEVICE (LEGNER, 2006) ... 24

FIGURE 23: SKIMMING VS. EAVESDROPPING ... 27

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List of Abbreviations

RFID – Radio Frequency Identification ULD – Unit Load Device

EPC – Electronic Product Code UPC – Universal Product Code BAC – Basic Access Control EAC – Extended Access Control Gen 1 – Generation 1

Gen 2 – Generation 2

WORM – Write Once Read Many WMRM – Write Many Read Many TPC – Traditional Passport Control BCS – Border Control System ODR – Optical Data Recognition BHS – Baggage Handling System ETD – Explosives Trace Detector Fraport – Frankfurt Airport

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Preface

This report is a literature study for the 2nd_{year master track “Transportation Engineering and} Logistics” of the master program “Mechanical Engineering”. This literature study is about RFID technology and its development in the past years. The report focusses on RFID technology

implemented in airports as this is a subject that fascinates me personally. I have travelled often when I was young and still do today. Therefore, I have always been interested in air transport and how it works and what aspects come into play when travelling. I am keen to find out what RFID technology will do for us in the future and hope the readers of this literature study enjoy the subject as much as I do. Lastly, I would like to thank Dr. Ir. Y. Pang for helping me and guiding me through this study.

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Summary

Due to the increasing passenger traffic and increasing security requirements, airports face the problem to have to get more passengers and bags through the airport in less time with increased security measures. To make the baggage and passenger handling processes more efficient, airports are experimenting with RFID. This is a relatively old technology with a potential that has been discovered just this past decade. In common tongue people are calling it the new barcode scanner. However, RFID is much more than a replacement for a barcode scanner. This literature study focusses on the implementation of RFID in airports and the concerns that go with it.

RFID is short for Radio Frequency Identification and consists of three main components: the RFID tag or transponder, the RFID reader or transceiver, and the data processing subsystem. The system works with electromagnetic waves. The RFID reader sends the tag a request to access its data. This signal powers the tag to send a signal back containing its data. This data is then sent from the reader to the data processing subsystem, which could be a computer or laptop with software, for processing. RFID tags are distinguished by the type of integrated circuit, the read/write capability, and the radio frequency. RFID readers are distinguished by the type of antenna and the read range. Each characteristic has its own advantages and disadvantages.

RFID technology has three main capabilities that make it interesting to airports. The first is data storage which is needed to store passenger and baggage data. The second is wireless data transfer. Wireless transfers are reliable and not easily messed with whereas cables can be easily damaged. The last is security. Airports must be able to ensure personal information is handled securely and the capability to encrypt RFID tags makes this possible. Lastly, RFID tags are embeddable, which is essential as they can, for example, be placed in luggage tags and passports.

In airports, RFID is used in Baggage handling, security, and overall airport maintenance. The majority of passports nowadays contain an embedded RFID chip storing the same personal information as is written in the passport along with a digitalized photo and fingerprint. As these passports were created, airports have started using a process called automated passport control. These are gates with an RFID reader that automatically check your passport. This situation needs less employees as one security agent can check 6 gates simultaneously. This process is just as fast as normal security procedure, however, in the future it is expected to be faster. In some airports, RFID has also been introduced in baggage handling. The bag is given an RFID tag when it’s checked in. This way the bag can be automatically scanned throughout the baggage handling system of the airport without slowing down. It is quicker and more reliable than manual scanning of bags. It also increases visibility as RFID reader can be placed where employees can’t easily enter. When a bag is loaded onto a plane, an RFID reader can perform a last check to see if the bag is loading the correct plane. If a passenger misses a flight, an RFID reader can immediately show the employee where the bag is located. This is of course much

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RFID by using the technology to improve the maintenance process. Frankfurt Airport is a great example of such a system improving the process. Maintenance can be tracked, such that there is less room for error or slacking.

There are some concerns about the widespread use of RFID. The main concern is the storing of personal information on a chip as is the case with the RFID passport. RFID systems are susceptible to skimming and eavesdropping. However, RFID passports are secured by both Basic Access Control (BAC), which entails that the contactless RFID chip is secure from being read without direct access and ensures the information exchanged with the reading device is encrypted, and Extended Access Control (EAC), which protects and restricts access to sensitive personal data contained in the RFID chip. This makes skimming nearly impossible. Eavesdropping is theoretically possible but is most likely not worth the risk and cost for a potential perpetrator. It is safe to say RFID passports are safe and secure enough to use.

Thus, RFID is definitely living up to its name and it seems only a matter of time until more airports and companies in general start heavily using the technology. However, to fully put the potential into perspective, further research is needed into the future possibilities and capabilities of RFID

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1. Introduction

Air travel is an ever-increasingly used form of transportation. The usual demand growth per year is 5.5% relative to the previous year and 2015 even recorded a demand growth of 6.5% (IATA, 2016). For the busiest airport in the world, Atlanta Airport, this meant a record-breaking total of 100 million passengers in 2015 (ACI, 2016). Meanwhile, security requirements are increasing and constantly changing. This creates a problem for airports as they must find ways to get more passengers and bags through the airport in less time without increasing the safety risk.

One potential way to speed up and make both the baggage and passenger handling processes more efficient is the implementation of RFID technology. RFID is short for Radio Frequency Identification. Nearly all airports in the world currently use some form of RFID, however, large-scale use of the technology has only been implemented in a small number of large international airports such as Los Angeles International Airport and Hong Kong International Airport. Here, RFID has been implemented in the baggage handling process to, eventually, fully replace the barcode bag tag and in the

passenger handling process to automate the security identification process.

Scope

The overall subject of this literature assignment is to map the current development and uses of RFID in airports. From a customer point of view, there are two main subjects active within the airport, namely, passengers and luggage. Passengers and their luggage are separated at the check-in point and reunited at the destination. During this process, RFID plays a large role in both baggage handling and passenger handling. From the airport’s point of view, RFID could be used for tracking

maintenance. The scope of this study will therefore be focused on the uses of RFID in airports in baggage and passenger handling, as well as airport maintenance. More specifically, the study will look at the individual procedures within these processes and explore the current possibilities of RFID implementation in each of these procedures.

The Goal

RFID is a relatively well known and widely used technology and many papers have already been written on the subject of RFID. However, there is no literature on the current uses of RFID and the effects in airports specifically. This is why I thought it would be interesting to study this topic. Thus, the goal of this survey is to create a clear overview of how RFID is currently used and implemented in airports and on what scale this has been done.

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The Process

Before writing this report, I have intensively gathered, read, and studied all kinds of literature regarding RFID. This includes previous literature reports, thesis papers, websites, university lectures, and certain paragraphs in books. After having read and summarized the collected literature, I started writing and structuring the report. Throughout this process, I have been helped and guided by my supervisor who especially helped me improve my report structure and understanding of how to write a literature study report.

The Structure

The report has been structured to first provide you with an understanding of RFID technology before leading up to the goal of the study. Chapter 2 explains the different components of an RFID system and the different types of RFID components. It also explains the capabilities of RFID and why this is interesting to airports. Chapter three describes how RFID is currently used and implemented in airports. This has been split into three subchapters, namely, passenger handling, baggage handling, and airport maintenance. Chapter four focusses on the concerns of RIFD technology and if these concerns are well grounded and with good reason. The final chapter concludes this report with an overall summation of the goal of this literature study.

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2. What is RFID?

Although RFID technology has only really become popular and known within the public in the last decade, the roots can actually be traced back to the 1920’s. However, the first RFID system resembling modern day RFID technology was created over 30 years later in the 1960’s when companies began commercializing anti-theft systems that used radio waves to determine if an item had been paid for or not (Violino, 2005). This chapter will explain exactly how a modern-day RFID system works and the different types of systems that are currently used.

An RFID system consists of three main components: the data processing subsystem, the RFID reader or transceiver, and the RFID tag or transponder (RFID Tutorial, 2013). These components have been depicted in the blue boxes in figure 1 as components 1, 2, and 3 respectively. The process of a RFID system starts once communication has begun between the RFID reader and the transponder. The communication space between an RFID reader and transponder is called the Interrogation Zone. As can be seen in figure 1, The RFID reader sends energy to power the RFID tag, time (clock) to document the time of the read, and data to communicate with the tag. The RFID tag in turn sends back the data that is stored on it. Once the reader has received the tag’s data, communication is stopped and the reader sends this data back to the host for decoding and processing. The host is the data processing subsystem, which in this case is a computer with RFID software and storage space. Once the host has decoded the data, it will be readable and understandable to the respective employee.

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RFID Tags

RFID systems have great potential in numerous industries, however, each industry requires different needs and utilizations. The main difference in RFID systems in different industries is the type of RFID tag. The RFID tag is basically a chip, capable of

transmitting and responding to signals, thus also called a transponder. The tag, of which an example can be seen in figure 2,basically consists of an antenna, a wireless transducer, which converts one

form of energy to another, and an encapsulating material (Tutorial-reports, 2013). There are 3 main types of RFID tags, all of which are explained below:

Passive: Passive RFID tags have only 2 main components, the antenna and the microchip or integrated circuit (Smiley, 2016). Passive tags don’t have an integrated power source and are powered by the RFID reader’s signal. The energy sent by the reader is moved through the tag antenna to the integrated circuit and powers the chip which sends a signal back to the reader. This is called backscatter which means the signal is basically reflected. Passive tags can operate on different frequencies. The frequency strongly determines the characteristics and purpose of the RFID tag. The three main frequencies are the following:

- Low Frequency (125 – 134 KHz) o Extremely long wavelength o Typical read range: 1 – 10 cm o Not affected much by water or metal o Typically used for animal tracking

- High Frequency (13.56 MHz) o Medium wavelength

o Typical read range: 1 cm – 1 m

o Typically used for access control and passport security

- Ultra-High Frequency (865 – 960 MHz) o Short, high-energy wavelength o Typical read range: 5 - 6 m

o Larger UHF chips can achieve 30+ m read range o Typically used for race timing

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Active: Active RFID tags have three main components, namely, the antenna, the microchip, and an internal power source. Typically, this battery lasts about 3-5 years after which the tag will have to be replaced. There are two different types of active RFID tags:

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Transponders: In a system that uses an active transponder tag, the reader (like passive

systems) will send a signal first, and then the active transponder will send a signal back with the relevant information. Transponder tags are very efficient because they conserve battery life when the tag is out of range of the reader. Active RFID transponders are commonly used in secure access control (Smiley, 2016).

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Beacons: In a system that uses an active beacon tag, the tag will not wait to hear the reader’s signal. Instead the tag will send out its specific information every 3 – 5 seconds. Beacon tags are very common in the oil and gas industry, as well as mining and cargo tracking applications. A beacon tag can be read hundreds of meters away, but, in order to conserve battery life, they may be set to a lower transmit power in order to reach around 100 meters read range (Smiley, 2016).

Active tags have only two main frequencies. These two frequencies are 433 MHz, a long wavelength, or 915 MHz, a short wavelength. Generally, companies favour 433 MHz as the long wavelength works better with other materials such as metal and water.

Furthermore, both passive and active RFID tags can be given certain characteristics allowing them to be designed for specific purposes. The three characteristics that can be assigned to the tags are explained below:

• Read-only: Must be recorded during manufacturing and cannot be typically modified or erased. This is useful for identifying objects, similar to how cars are identified by their license plates.

• Write-once: Same as read-only, however, they allow the end user to program the tag’s memory which cannot be erased. Useful for items progressing through a chain or conveyor.

• Read-write: Data can be written or erased on demand at the point of application. Completely rewriteable. Useful for supply chain and tracing packages. Advanced features include locking, encryption, and disabling the RFID tag.

Semi-passive: Semi-passive RFID tags are essentially active tags without an active transmitter. This means that the tag is battery-assisted to power the circuit and increase the read range, but still relies on the RFID reader to receive the power to broadcast radio waves and communicate. All other characteristics are similar to the active tag as described above.

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The different types of RFID tags currently used have been broken down into EPC classes. These classes will be further explained, as well as which types are used within airports and for what reasons. Electronic Product Code (EPC) is a new coding system to replace the older Universal Product Code (UPC), both used to for the identification of products (SkyRFID, 2015). UPC is used with barcodes whereas EPC is used for RFID systems. The main difference between the two is that EPC has an individual code for each product and UPC uses the same code for similar products (Lang, 2010). The two coding systems can be seen in figure 3 and 4.

The EPC consists of four groups of numbers further explained below (Wikipedia, 2016):

1. Header: gives the length, type, structure, version, and generation of the EPC 2. EPC Manager: gives the company that administered the EPC

3. Object Class: gives the type of product

4. Serial Number: gives the unique identification of the product

As stated before, EPC has multiple classes to distinguish the different possible RFID tag capabilities and characteristics. Each class is backwards compatible with the preceding class, meaning that it has all the same capabilities along with a few additions (SkyRFID, 2015). There are also 2 generations of tags and readers. The difference between these generations is that generation 2 has a single global protocol, whereas generation 1 has multiple protocols (Roberti, 2005). This means that generation 2 tags and readers are all compatible with each other as opposed to generation 1 where this is not the case.

- EPC class 0 tags are of generation 1 (gen 1). These tags are “Write Once Read Many” (WORM) tags. This means the tags can be written to only once but can be read multiple times (SkyRFID, 2015).

- EPC Class 1 tags can be either gen 1 or gen 2. These tags are also WORM tags. The difference with class 0 is that these tags can be read by readers of different companies. Class 1 tags have a minimum memory of 256 bits of which 96 bits is reserved for the EPC. It is possible to password protect these tags and decommission or recommission the tags. The difference between gen 1 and gen 2 is that gen 2 tags have better tag identification allowing the reader to eliminate duplicate reads, gen 2 tags read up to ten times faster, and gen 2 tags have a smaller integrated circuit (SkyRFID, 2015).

- EPC class 2 and up are solely gen 2 tags. Class 2 tags are “Write Many Read Many” Figure 3: EPC (Infomax, 2012) Figure 4: UPC (Kennedy, 2013)

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tags have extended user memory and authentication access control aside from the same capabilities as class 1.

- EPC class 3 tags are semi-passive or active WMRM tags and thus contain some kind of battery or power source. These tags have multiple “smart” components to record parameters.

- EPC class 4 tags are active tags and can communicate with other tags and readers - EPC class 5 tags have the additional functionality that they can provide power to other

tags and devices.

An overview of these classes and capabilities can be seen in figure 5.

Airports currently use EPC class 1 gen 2 tags for both baggage handling and RFID passports (Koscher, 2009). This is because there is no need to write to such a tag more than once unless the tags would be recycled, which currently is not the case.

RFID Readers

An RFID reader is the connection between the tag and the data processing subsystem. It is basically a transducer with an antenna. The reader antenna converts electrical current into electromagnetic waves and sends these into space to be received by a tag. The reader antenna then waits to receive back the electromagnetic waves containing the tag’s information and converts this back to electric current. The characteristics and capabilities of a RFID reader are largely dependent on the type of Figure 5: EPC classes (EPC-RFID INFO, 2013)

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antenna. There are two types of antenna used for RFID readers, linear and circular-polarized. Furthermore, RFID readers can have different read ranges. The read range is the distance between the RFID reader and the tags (Impinj, 2016). These characteristics will be further explained below:

Antenna characteristics:

Linear antenna

A linear antenna, of which an example is shown in figure 6, can only broadcast on a single plane. This means the created electromagnetic waves are either sent out in a vertical or a horizontal plane. This can be seen in figure 8. Because a linear antenna focusses all its power

on a single plane, this results in longer read ranges as opposed to circular-polarized antennas. For reliable results, the RFID tags to be read must all be aligned the same way and at the same height (Armstrong S. , 2013). Below is a short overview of linear antenna characteristics:

- Radiates linear electric fields - Long range

- High power levels

- Signals are able to penetrate through different materials - Cheap

- Simplistic

- Sensitive to tag orientation

Circular-polarized antenna

A circular-polarized antenna, of which an example is shown in figure 7, broadcasts electromagnetic waves in a corkscrew shape, thus broadcasting in both vertical and horizontal direction. This can be seen in figure 8. As a result of splitting the power to multiple planes, the read range is shorter compared to a linear antenna. However, the large advantage is that

differently-oriented tags can be read consistently and reliably (Armstrong S. , 2013). Below is a short overview of circular-polarized antenna

characteristics:

- Radiates circular helix-shaped electric fields - Shorter range

- Lower power levels - More reliable - Expensive

- Less sensitive to tag orientation

Figure 6: Linear Antenna (Global Sources, 2016)

Figure 7: Circular-polarized antenna (fpvlab, 2016)

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Figure 8: Linear antenna (left), Circular-polarized antenna (right) (Armstrong S. , Circular Polarization vs. Linear Polarization: Which is the right RFID Antenna?, 2013)

As airports use gen 2 RFID tags, they must use gen 2 readers as well. There are two types of gen 2 RFID readers. These two types are explained below:

EPC Gen 2 Certified: These readers are in the frequency range of 860 MHz ~ 960 MHz meaning they are UHF. All gen 2 certified readers use the same O/S (operating system) meaning they are interchangeable with readers from other manufacturers. The only differences between manufacturers relate to enhanced functionalities such as read and write sensitivities. Gen 2 certified readers have 2 read modes, fast and slow. The fast mode can read over 1600 tags per second, whereas the slow mode can read less than 600 tags per second. The read speed is detected automatically by the reader and changed to accommodate the situation (SkyRFID, 2015).

EPC Gen 2: Gen 2 readers also operate in the 860 MHz ~ 960 MHz frequency and are capable of reading all of the standard Gen 2 tags. The major difference is that the reader and antenna control codes are not interchangeable between manufacturers and they may not be interchangeable between different models by the same manufacturer. Other differences are that they usually do not have the read rate of the Gen 2 Certified readers, their power ratings may be less, and they are cheaper (SkyRFID, 2015).

Airports use the gen 2 certified readers because it is important that tags and readers are compatible with each other. Not all airports may use the same RFID manufacturer and it cannot be that certain tags or readers are not able to communicate with the used system.

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RFID Capabilities

RFID and its characteristics, mentioned in the previous subchapter, have a number of capabilities that are interesting and useful for airports. These capabilities have caused the uprising of RFID in the flight industry. Explained below are the capabilities of RFID and why these capabilities are especially

important and interesting to airports.

Data Storage

RFID tags can store data. Typically, a tag carries no more than 2 KB of data to store some basic information of the relevant item on it (RFID Journal, n.d.). However, specifically for the flight industry, passive UHF tags have been introduced that can store 4-8 KB of data as 2KB was not enough to store fingerprints and small digital photographs (RFID Journal, n.d.). This is not a lot of storage capacity, however, one must keep in mind that further information can be found on the host or computer that communicates with the reader by using the identification information on the tag. Data storage is an essential tool for quick baggage handling as the basic bag information must be able to be read at any stage within the baggage handling process. This information ensures the bag arrives at the correct destination and the correct owner.

Wireless data transfer

RFID communicates wirelessly using radio waves. The RFID reader can wirelessly exchange

information with both the tag and the host. This has multiple important advantages for use in airports. Firstly, it is the quickest and most efficient manner of data transfer. Cables decrease flexibility in movement, are susceptible to damage, and ultimately slow down the process due to having to plug in and take out cables for each separate bag. Secondly, it is a reliable form of communication as it can pass through almost anything ensuring that RFID has a reading reliability of almost 99% (Swedberg, 2009). This makes it a better option for airports than the conventional barcodes. Barcodes must be scanned from the front, which is sometimes still done by employees because bags arrive in all sorts of different positions. This wouldn’t matter to an RFID system meaning that no employees are needed for scanning anymore.

Security

RFID tags and communication between readers and tags can be encrypted. This is necessary as it is relatively easy to buy or create an RFID reader and airports usually deal with extremely sensitive information. Encryption ensures that only authorized personnel or machines can access the data on the RFID tag. Aside from encryption, the read range can also be limited to make it nearly impossible for bystanders to steal data. The specific ways in which airports encrypt RFID tags will be explained

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Embeddable

RFID tags can be embedded in other small or thin materials. These types of tags are called inlays. Inlays are the cheapest type of RFID tag but this does not affect the performance (Smiley, 2016). Inlays are flexible and can be embedded in two ways, dry or wet. Dry embedding means attaching the RFID microchip and antenna to a material called a web, which is similar to laminating. Wet embedding uses an adhesive to attach the RFID microchip and antenna to another material. The capability to be embedded is essential for RFID to be used in airports, for example embedding in baggage labels or passports.

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3. Current RFID Applications in Airports

This chapter focusses on the current uses of RFID in airports. Although the use of RFID is slowly spreading to many different airport processes, this chapter will focus on the three main sectors in which RFID is currently used. These are passport control, baggage handling, and airport maintenance.

Passport Control

To board a plane, passengers must first pass through security. This is done to check if the relevant passenger is not carrying dangerous items, is travelling with the correct identity and an authentic passport, and is allowed to leave the country. Currently, passport control is mostly still done manually, however, more and more airports are turning to automatic passport control. The working of this process will be further explained in this chapter.

Passports

Passports are a crucial part of air travel and is a way of proving one’s identity. Passports are travel documents issued by a country’s government. Since the first large paper passport in 1813, passports have shrunk to a normal wallet-sized booklet containing 34 pages as can be seen in figure 9. A present-day passport generally contains the following information: full name, photo, gender, length, birthdate, and signature. Aside from these personal attributes, a passport also consists of multiple security measures such as

watermarks, special paper, and multi-coloured stamps. In 2004, Belgium was the first country to introduce a biometric passport (Wikipedia, 2016). In the past decade, many more

countries all over the world have followed. A biometric passport contains a built-in RFID chip. Stored on the chip is the relevant information about the traveller. In figure 10, an example of a Dutch

biometric passport is given. Following the figure is an explanation of the new features of the biometric passport:

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1. Chip: The chip is built-in to the passport and is not visible from the outside. Stored on the chip is the following information:

• Photo (Full Frontal Image) • First and last name • Date of birth • Gender

• Passport number • Expiration date • Two fingerprints

2. Readable strip: A strip containing the same information as the chip with the exception of the fingerprints. The strip can be read by relevant airport machines. The function of the strip has basically been replaced by the chip but the strip has not yet been removed in case of a chip error.

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3. Model symbol: This symbol indicates the model of the passport.

4. Chip symbol: This symbol indicated the passport contains an RFID chip inside and that the passport conforms to the ICAO rules.

As can be derived from these features, the new biometric passports enable automatic wireless checking of information while still containing visual information as well to allow optical checking by security. This makes the passport compatible in both new and old fashioned airports. The reason for the creation of the biometric passport is automatic passport control, which will be explained in the next part of the chapter.

Automated passport control

Passport control at airports can be a very dull and loathsome aspect of travelling for both the security as well as the passengers, yet it is undeniably important. Schiphol airport has found a negative trend in the perception of waiting time for passport control (Bourguignon, 2015), which means passengers are increasingly dissatisfied with the security queues. Therefore, Schiphol sought for a way to

decrease waiting times without it taking a toll on safety. ‘In order to increase capacity at airports while at the same time making border controls more secure, the EU is promoting the introduction of

electronic visas and the use of electronic and biometric automated border control systems.’

(Accenture, 2013) SSPC, short for self-service passport control, was introduced at Schiphol in 2011 and can be seen in figure 11. Although the SSPC is currently not faster than the traditional passport control (TPC), it should be in the near future and currently this problem is solved by simply placing more self-service systems. An additional advantage of SSPC is the cost-saving aspect, as just two employees per six gates are needed instead of six employees for every six gates (KMarMagazine, 2015).

Figure 11: Self-service passport control (KMarMagazine, 2015)

The basic concept of the SSPC can be seen below in figure 12. When a passenger steps into the so-called E-gate, the identification process starts by placing the passport in the scanner. The reason the

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12. BCS checks the security features of the passport to figure out the next move. The system then uses optical data recognition (ODC), which means that it uses a camera to optically receive the data, to recognize and read the readable strip, explained earlier, at the bottom of the passport page. The RFID tag in the passport is encrypted for security reasons and thus the system needs the readable strip to decipher the RFID tag. After the system has used the strip to calculate the code to unlock the RFID chip, the chip is activated by the electromagnetic waves it receives from the RFID scanner. The tag in turn sends its information back to the scanner and the system can now access the personal information and photo of the traveller. BCS now checks the authenticity of the data and compares this with the results of the biometric verification, which uses a camera with a face recognition system to compare you face to the photo. At this moment, the traveller must look at the camera and the face is compared to the photo stored on the RFID chip as well as to photos on the airport’s blacklist, which is a list of people not allowed to leave the country. If everything is in accordance with border control, the gates open and the traveller is free to pass (Someren, 2014).

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Figure 12: SSPC process (Wikipedia, 2016)

Baggage Handling System

A baggage handling system (BHS) is a type of transport system installed in airports that transports checked baggage from ticket counters to areas where the bags can be loaded onto airplanes. A BHS also transports checked baggage coming from airplanes to baggage claims or to an area where the bag can be loaded onto another airplane (transfer baggage). Baggage handling systems are becoming increasingly automated. This is because it is hard work for labourers. It is faster, safer, and more efficient to have bags being transported automatically. The primary function of a BHS is, of course, the transportation of bags, however, it has many more functions such as the following:

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- Volume regulation (to ensure that input points are controlled to avoid overloading system) - Load balancing (to evenly distribute bag volume between conveyor sub-systems)

- Bag counting - Bag tracking

- Redirection of bags via pusher or diverter

The bags to be transported by the BHS include a large variety of different sorts with different origins, destinations, and shapes. Bag sorts with different origins and destinations are defined as follows:

- Originating baggage: baggage on an outgoing flight from passengers that take the airport as starting point of their trip.

- Destination baggage: incoming baggage that arrives at an airport as final destination of their trip.

- Transfer baggage: baggage that arrives at an airport and that will leave the airport on an outgoing flight.

- Departing baggage: originating baggage and transfer baggage. - Arriving baggage: destination baggage and transfer baggage.

Bag sorts with different shapes and purposes contain the following three types: 1. Hand baggage

2. Regular baggage

3. Special baggage (out of gauge)

Baggage that needs extra attention and that cannot be handled the normal way, except special baggage, is recovery baggage and crew baggage.

How does a BHS work? Check-in

The passenger carries the bags to one of two places: 1. Baggage drop-off counter

2. Self-service bag drop

The bags are weighed and receive a tag containing owner and destination information. The bag is then transported to the internal part of the BHS.

Figure 13: Check in counter (left), Bag tag (middle), Self-service bag drop (right) (Lodewijks, 2016)

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Screening

After check-in, the baggage is screened. The bag moves through an x-ray scanner which checks the contents of the bag for weapons or any other illegal substances. An explosives trace detector (ETD) checks the bag for explosives. If the bag is deemed safe, the bag moves along. If the bag is deemed harmful, the image is sent to the security agent who decides

whether or not it is actually a threat. If the bag is a potential threat, it is sent to a different location for further checking.

Sorting

After the bags are screened, the safe bags need to be sorted to the correct gates. There are a number of different sorting mechanisms that are used of which two examples are given below:

- Helix sorter: bags are transported on a tray that is part of the conveyor. The tray overthrows the bag onto the correct conveyor.

- Vertical sorter: A mechanism makes it possible for part of the conveyor to move up and down allowing it to sort the bags to either the top conveyor or the bottom conveyor.

These systems read the bag’s tag and automatically sort the bag to the correct conveyor. Figure 14: 3D scanner/x-ray (Lodewijks, 2016)

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Make-up

Once the bags have arrived at the correct gate. The bags are either put into ULD’s or carts depending on the type of plane. This is still usually done manually, however, some airports, such as Schiphol, have packing robots that can pack the bags automatically. Figure 16 shows a packing robot at Schiphol airport. The full ULD’s are then transported to the airplane for loading

Loading to plane

When the bags have arrived at the plane, they are loaded into the plane using a conveyor. This conveyor is part of a transport vehicle. It can be seen in figure 17.

Use of RFID in a BHS

The handling of checked-in baggage is a common RFID-linked process in airports. This is because baggage handling is basically a supply chain process, a sector which already uses RFID technology intensively. Many airports and airlines, such as Air France/KLM, Schiphol, and Beijing Airport, have carried out pilot projects with successful outcomes (Voges, 2012), however, most large airports have yet to implement the technology. Los Angeles International Airport and Hong Kong International Airport are examples of successful implementation of RFID baggage handling. Currently, Delta Airlines has the most advanced RFID baggage handling process, as this was installed in the spring of 2016 in most of its hubs (Lo, 2012) and thus this method will be used to explain how RFID baggage handling works. Below, the RFID aspect of each part of the baggage handling process is explained.

Figure 16: Manual make-up (left), packing robot (right) (Lodewijks, 2016)

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Check-in baggage

When checking in a bag, it receives a label with a barcode containing information such as the name of the passenger and the destination. The RFID chip is embedded in this label. One of two types of RFID chips are used (Wessel, 2010):

- 96kb chip: This chip has very little memory and thus carries only an identification number similar to a car license plate. To retrieve the information, a back-end system needs to be connected on which the information is stored. Thus, the bag’s information cannot be directly read from the chip.

- 512kb chip: This chip has much more memory for roughly only 2 cents more per chip. This means all the bag’s relevant information can be written directly to the chip and read without having to be connected to a back-end system. This is the type of chip used by Delta Airlines.

These labels are printed using an RFID printer. This is basically a printer and RFID reader in one machine (Smiley, 2016). The printer feed consists of empty labels that have already been embedded with an empty RFID chip. First, the RFID reader encodes the empty tags with the new information. Then the printer applies the written part of the information on the label such as the barcode. Before leaving the printer, the RFID reader reads the information one last time to check if it is correct. Figure 18 shows an example of a RFID printer. With the embedded RFID chip, the

barcode is not needed, however, the barcode is still printed because not all airports and airlines use RFID yet. If, for instance, the destination airport does not use RFID or the bag needs to be

transferred to another flight, the barcode can still be used. Both the barcode and the RFID tag lead to the same information on the computer, thus there is no need for any transfer of information from RFID tag to barcode.

Screening

During screening of the bag, it is either marked as safe or given a red flag. The bag tag is read using a RFID reader and the screening results are coupled to the RFID bag tag (Mishra, 2010). The bag is sent to either the sorting area, if the bag is safe, or to another location for further checking, if the bag is deemed harmful by both the system and the security agent. RFID during screening automatically matches bag with passenger, increasing efficiency and clarity for the security agents.

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by an automated scanning station. If for some reason the tag cannot be read, the bag is sent to a Manual Coding station, where a human operator scans the bag. The Sortation process directs the bags to the correct system outputs. The RFID reader gathers the information on the tag to which gate the bag must be sent. Then this information is sent to the sorters, of which an example was shown in figure 15 previously. If the bag cannot be sorted, it is sent back to the identification area (Grigoras, 2007). In an RFID-less situation, an employee must scan each bag before it enters the storage or the gate for both visibility and sorting purposes. When employees are forced to do an unchallenging repetitive task such as scanning bags, mistakes are made. This barcode scanning process has about an 80% reliability rate whereas RFID systems, according to some providers, have a 99% read rate (Lo, 2012). This is because of two reasons. For one, RFID tags can be read regardless of their position whereas barcodes have to be scanned by directly pointing the reader at the barcode without

intervening obstacles. The second reason is that machines don’t tire and simply make less mistakes than humans do. RFID tags are also read faster because of these reasons meaning the conveyor belt speed can increase. Another advantage of RFID is that more readers can be implemented in places employees are not able to go to creating more visibility. This increasing visibility greatly improves the sorting process and increases the speed of the overall baggage handling process.

Load to plane

When the bag has been taken from the gate to the plane it is time to load the bag into the plane. Although it is possible to have an employee scan the bags one last time, this is usually not done and the bags are loaded without a final check. Delta Airlines has put a RFID reader on either side of the loading conveyor that automatically signals if the bags are being loaded on the correct flight (Morrow, 2016). As can be seen in figure 19, a RFID reader is located within cylinder on the signal on either side of the conveyor. These RFID readers read the tags of each bag that enters the plane and uses

the information to check if it is being loaded onto the correct plane. The reader makes the lights signal green if the bag is correct and red, as well as stop the conveyor, if the bag is wrong. The bag is then quickly transferred to the correct plane. This makes it nearly impossible for a bag to board the wrong plane and meanwhile it does not slow down the process.

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Passenger missed flight

If a passenger misses a flight, the baggage is not allowed to be on the plane for safety reasons. This is a big deal for the airline as this can easily cause a 20-minute delay if barcodes are used and delays cost the company a lot of money. The reason it takes so long is because all the employees know is which ULD the bag is in but not where it is located precisely, so the bags have to be manually

scanned one by one until the correct bag is found. By using an RFID reader, this process is quickened because an employee with the reader can track the distance to and direction of the bag. In advanced situations, the reader can even show the bag highlighted green on the display (Morrow, 2016).

Track baggage

One of the improvements to the passenger in using RFID chips, is status updates of their bag. The same way passengers want information about flight changes, passengers also want visibility to their checked bags (Morrow, 2016). Multiple RFID reader stations are set up throughout the baggage handling process. Each time the bag passes one of these checkpoints, the information is automatically sent to the owner of the bag, which is read from the RFID tag. This means passengers don’t have real time knowledge of their bag’s location, but do have insight in which checkpoints have been passed, as can be seen in figure 20.

Airport Maintenance

Aside from the users of the airport, the airport itself also benefits from RFID technology. Airports are supposed to be safe environments for both passengers and employees. To stay safe, every aspect of the airport must be regularly checked and maintained. One example of using RFID to improve airport maintenance is Frankfurt airport (Fraport). Fraport has introduced RFID because manual paper-based logging of fire preventive maintenance was prone to errors (Legner, 2006).

Figure 20: RFID bag tracking (Dalton, 2016)

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Maintenance process

A clear overview of the Fraport maintenance process can be seen in the figure below:

Figure 21: Maintenance process Fraport (Legner, 2006)

Plan maintenance activities

Management checks which fire shutters and smoke detectors are in need of a maintenance check or repair. Because all the RFID information of each individual device is stored, management can easily track what is in need of maintenance and when.

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Distribute work assignments

Once the devices in need of maintenance have been gathered, management distributes these tasks over the service technicians that are on call that day. This is done by uploading the maintenance information to the mobile devices of the employees.

Download maintenance orders to mobile device

Service technicians carry a mobile device, seen in Figure X, containing all the daily maintenance plans and work orders. The technicians download all their plans and orders for the day and can easily track their progress throughout the day.

Perform authentication

To ensure that maintenance activities actually occur and to keep track of which technician has done what, the service technician must first authenticate himself before starting a maintenance activity. Each technician has a personal badge also containing an RFID tag. This tag is scanned and the system identifies the technician working on the particular device. Once the authentication is complete, the technician can start working.

Locate maintenance object

The access locations for maintenance work of fire shutters are sometimes hard to get at and difficult to find if you are not familiar with the airport. The technician’s RFID reader shows the direction and distance to the RFID tag it reads. This makes it easy for the technician to find the different

maintenance locations.

Identify object and open maintenance order

To ensure only authorized personnel access the RFID tag, the technician must first follow a login and legitimization process.

Perform maintenance activities

Once the object has been identified and the technician has authorized himself and logged in, the maintenance work cans start. The technician does this with a controlled step-by-step dialog. This ensures that maintenance takes place in accordance with a series of precisely defined process steps (Legner, 2006).

Report maintenance activities

When the technician has finished the maintenance activities on a particular fire shutter, defects, if any, are registered and the technician scans the RFID tag a second time which automatically stores

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Close order and synchronize data

When the technician closes the order, the data is sent to management. Management checks that the daily maintenance orders have been done and receives confirmation from each order. Management then archives the reports.

Fraport’s new RFID maintenance process is a full-proof system because every step is checked and registered automatically making it nearly impossible for employees to slack. Fraport has experience multiple improvements using the RFID system such as faster inspection times, better process quality, and consistent and comprehensive documentation of all maintenance work (Legner, 2006).

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4. RFID Concerns

Security is one of the most important aspects of an airport, especially after the 9/11 disaster. RFID technology has raised some new security concerns regarding privacy. With the rise of cybercrime, people are increasingly worried having personal information stored on a computer or a chip. Is there really reason for concern regarding personal information on RFID chips in airports? The only real possible threat would be to RFID passports. This is because baggage tags contain little personal information and cannot be written to. Airport maintenance is also extremely difficult to manipulate as explained earlier. Thus, below will focus solely on the concerns and possible threats to passports.

Threats

As described earlier, passports contain pretty much all your personal information including a

photograph. With the new RFID Passports, all this information is stored on a single chip embedded in the passport. If someone else were to obtain this information, it could be used against you through identity fraud. In the UK alone, the number of victims of identity fraud has risen by 57% in 2016 compared to 2015 (BBC, 2016) so it is safe to say it is an increasingly serious threat. The definition of identity fraud is “a crime in which a criminal obtains and uses a victim’s personal data through fraud or deception and usually for economic gain” (Business Dictionary, 2000). The most common use of identity fraud is to acquire credit cards through someone else’s name. Before a criminal can do this, he/she must first obtain a legitimate, or near perfect, copy of the victim’s identification. Some argue this is made easier by storing personal information on an RFID chip. Obtaining information from such a chip can be done in two ways explained below:

- Skimming: In the act of skimming, the authorized RFID reader is imitated by the criminal’s system. For example, in the airport case, the system makes the RFID chip think that it is the security control reader so that it will release the information. Because the actual reader is imitated, skimming can be done anywhere provided that the distance between the imitating reader and the chip is less than the maximum read distance.

- Eavesdropping: In the act of eavesdropping, the criminal uses a system with an antenna to intercept communication between the RFID chip and the reader. Of course, this must be done at the very moment the RFID chip is being read and thus the criminal must be close to the victim at this precise moment.

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Passport protection

BAC: Basic Access Control protects the contactless RFID chip from being read without direct access and ensures the information exchanged with the reading device is encrypted (Federal Office for Information Security, 2010). In case of the passport, this means the chip can’t be read without opening the jacket pocket because the machine readable zone at the bottom of the passport must first be read to gain access to the chip. Based on the data of the machine readable zone, an individual access key is computed for each passport, which the reader uses to authenticate itself to the chip. First, the chip transmits a random number to the reader. The reader in turn encrypts this number using the earlier obtained access key and sends it back. Then the chip checks if it has been encrypted using the correct key and allows access if this is the case. The further exchanged sensitive information is, of course, also encrypted with the same access key.

EAC: Extended Access Control is a set of advanced security features for electronic passports that protects and restricts access to sensitive personal data contained in the RFID chip. These advanced security features are used to protect the more sensitive data such as fingerprints. It will allow the sensitive data to be read through an encrypted channel only by an authorized passport inspection system. EAC consists of two parts:

Figure 23: Skimming vs. Eavesdropping

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- Chip authentication: This security measure ensures a strong encryption. The first function is to authenticate the chip and prove that it is genuine. Chip authentication is able to tell the difference between an authentic RFID chip and a cloned RFID chip. The second function is to establish a strongly secured communication channel, using a chip-specific key pair with strong encryption and integrity protection.

- Terminal authentication: This security measure is used to determine whether the

inspection system is allowed to read sensitive data from the passport. The inspection system is granted a card verifiable certificate, which is valid for typically one day up to one month, from a document verifier. A different certificate is needed for each different country that is allowed to read the data.

Threat analysis

Due to the security measures a passport has, skimming is extremely difficult and so it is safe to say eavesdropping is the largest risk to travellers. To eavesdrop on your passport information, a perpetrator needs to be able to o 3 things: data capture, data recovery, and data reproduction (Ramos, 2009).

- Data capture: To capture both the forward channel, signal from the reader to the tag, as well as the backward channel, signal from the tag to the reader, the perpetrator needs an RFID reader. These readers can be about as small as a matchbox and can be plugged into a laptop. The signals sent to and from passports at airports have a very short read range, so with the help of a signal amplifier, a perpetrator could read the signal at a maximum of 5 meters.

- Data recovery: To recover the captured data, the signals must be processed correctly, meaning that the actual RFID signals must be separated from the background noise. This can be relatively easily done by take a separate profile of just the noise of the environment and filtering this out of the other recording using currently available hardware. Signal processing can take a while, however, this can be done elsewhere once the signals have been captured.

- Data reproduction: The recovered data of the signals between the RFID reader and the tag

is heavily encrypted, however, studies have shown it to be possible to decrypt the signals. An analysis published by the International Association of Cryptologic Research indicates that the entropy of the resulting key is on the order of 52 bits, which, while something of a challenge, is not impossible to crack (Juels, 2008).

Although the above indicates it is very well possible to steal passport information, it does not seem likely someone would actually try it. First of all, security agents at airports are constantly looking out

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and a flight ticket to even enter the security zone could easily add up to a couple thousand dollars. In this case, it seems that it is better not to look at the possibility of eavesdropping on passport

information, but whether it is actually worth the cost and the risk to perpetrators. For perpetrators, physically stealing a passport would be the better option.

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5. Conclusions

This literature study explored the advanced development and applications of RFID in airports.

Surprisingly, much less airports have actually implemented RFID than I had first imagined. Aside from automated passport control, which most airports already have as most travelers already have an RFID passport, RFID is not used much elsewhere. Los Angeles International Airport and Hong Kong

International Airport have taken the lead in using RFID technology and have done so with success. It shouldn’t be too long before the rest follow, especially when noticing that the concerns with RFID are more a dooms-day thought than an actual threat. Is eavesdropping of RFID-stored information at airports theoretically possible? Yes. Would any level-headed perpetrator try this considering the risks and costs instead of other methods to steal information? Probably not. The effect of RFID in baggage handling has led to increased efficiency and a decrease in costs on the long term. Automated passport control has the potential for a quicker passenger throughput and allows for less employees decreasing costs. It has also improved airport maintenance by speeding it up and making the process consistent and of better quality. It is safe to say RFID has had great effects on baggage and passenger handling at the airports it has been implemented and the future seems bright for this technology.

Recommendations

RFID technology is a very broad topic and there are many differences possible in RFID systems. Even different airports are established in different ways and so for optimal use probably need RFID systems with different characteristics. Thus, when studying RFID in airports, it is better to choose just one airport and study only that system. This might limit the amount of information; however, you can go into more detail about the precise architecture of that specific system. It also makes for a more consistent study. I expected many more airports to have implemented RFID on a broader scale with relatively the same systems. It is also interesting for future research to study the future

implementations and possibilities of RFID in airports. The possibilities seem endless.

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