Active Aging in a Global Culture : Do We Live in an Age-friendly Environment?

I

Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland

W o j c i e c h M a l i s z e w s k i PWSZ in Pila, Poland

ACTIVE AGING IN A GLOBAL CULTURE.

DO WE LIVE IN AN AGE-FRIENDLY ENVIRONMENT?

A BSTRA CT

The elderly are currently becoming one of the subjects of a global culture. As a conse­ quence of a substantial increase in the number of individuals belonging to this age-group, the social status of the elderly is constantly growing. This change has resulted in science “re-accustoming” with the issue of the old age, and the culture has been promoting its new and medially attractive quality. This article analyzes the relevance of the stereotypes and prejudices conditioning the quality of life among the elderly. The authors discuss the new challenges resulting from the demographic revolution that is taking place right now. The examples employed here are to facilitate turning the theory of active aging in a friendly environment into practice. Nevertheless, the authors are aware that this change will not be an easy or a swift process.

Key words:

active ageing, senior citizens, longevity, prejudices and stereotypes, volunteerism, third age universities, innovative technology

1. Introduction

N ow adays, th e n u m b e r o f se n io r citizens in m o d e rn societies has b ee n c o n ­ tin u o u sly increasing. D e m o g rap h ers indicate th e global shift from low to h ig h p ro p o rtio n o f the elderly in various populations. This affects n o t only E uropean countries, w here the b irth an d death rates are converging at low levels, w hich re ­ sults in m in im al or no population grow th. D em ograp hers estim ate th at by 2030, 20% o f th e popu latio n in the USA will be over th e age o f 65; in C an ada th is level will be reached even sooner, by 2024, an d in C h ina by 20301. The prolonged life expectancy, the declining n u m b er o f b irths, the “beanpole” fam ily stru ctu re o r the “sandw ich generation” are relatively co m m o n aspects o f the problem o f “p o p u la­ tio n ageing”2. Som e o th e r issues still need to be recognised an d addressed, e.g. longevity, life m ain ten an ce reserve, an d exceptional survival. This genetic quest on the natu re o f aging is tem pting, especially in the face o f an observation th at the nu m b er o f people aged 85+ increases 6 tim es faster and th e n u m b er o f cen ten ar­ ians grow s even 10 tim es faster w hen com p ared to the grow th o f a p o p u latio n at large3.

W hile analysing this dem ographic tran sitio n along w ith the increase o f eco­ n o m ic m o b ility am o n g th e y o u n g we sh o u ld reflect o n ho w th e aging process o f fu tu re g en eratio n s is going to unfold. We sh o u ld also address th e qu estio ns w hether c o n tem p o rary global culture prom otes active ageing, an d w eather we live in an age-friendly environm ent. These queries, along w ith the debate on the quality o f life in late adulthood, are to be addressed in this article.

2. The study of aging and the aged

W hen we try to u n d e rsta n d w hat aging is, we m ust perceive it as a process an d n o t an event. C h ristin e Bigby argues th a t “ [a]geing o cc u rs at a d ifferen t rate w ith diverse m a n ife sta tio n s for each in d iv id u a l an d is stro n g ly c o n n e c te d to earlier p a rts o f th e life course. H ealth, lifestyle, in fo rm al an d form al su p p o rts from earlier years com bined w ith genetic dispositions all influence the processes

1 A. Błachnio, Starość non profit. Wolontariat na Uniwersytetach Trzeciego Wieku w Polsce i na świecie [Old Age Non-Profit. Volunteering at the Universities o f the Third Age in Poland and Abroad], Bydgoszcz 2012, p. 18.

2 Ibidem , pp. 17-21.

3 S.M. Jazwinski, Aging and Longevity Genes, “Acta Biochim ica Polonica” 2000, No. 47(2), pp. 269-279.

o f ageing for an indiv id u al, its challenges an d ac com p any in g o p p o rtu n itie s o r vulnerabilities”4.

C om bining all these biological, socioeconom ic an d psychological criteria we deprive ourselves o f a consistent im age o f old age. W ith tim e, we develop a b etter u n d ersta n d in g o f ageing, an d gain m ore sophisticated know ledge, thu s acquiring skills necessary for revising o u r negative picture o f aging. The traditional approach to aging underlies deterioration, decline, and senescence. It presents aging as a state o f aggregating disadvantages such as: m em o ry lapses, p o o r health, general slum p in fitness an d decline in m obility, a decrease o f physical attractiveness; a reduced will to live, death s o f one’s relatives a n d friends, an d ap p ro ach in g th e p e rsp e c ­ tive o f one’s ow n death. Further, ageing ten d s to be con nected w ith th e increasing sense o f uselessness an d lack o f respect; often poverty, an d alien atio n fro m the y o u th culture, w hich can often lead to social exclusion5. C urrently, we becom e m o re pro n e to u n d erlin e “the b rig h t side o f life” o f seniors. We encourage th em to retain, p ro tect an d b uild resources so th at th ey can sustain th eir au to no m y and indepen dence in everyday functioning, thus d im inishin g stress in situations w hen the enviro nm ental d em an d exceeds an individual’s capacities6.

If we accept the heterogeneous n ature o f aging, it is easier n o t only to challenge the idea o f ageing lim ited to decline an d d eterioratio n processes bu t also to p e r­ ceive the concept o f “active ageing” as m ore appealing to senior citizens. A ccording to W orld H ealth O rganisation, in order for “active” an d “successful” to becom e used w ith reference to “aging”, senior citizens ought to be able to m eet th ree conditions: (1) the en h a n cem en t o f th e ir ow n o p p o rtu n itie s for p re serv in g h ealth (m en tal as well as physical); (2) th e possibility to rem ain active particip an ts o f life w ithin th e ir societies; an d (3) ability to p reserve th e feeling o f secu rity7. These factors im plem ent tw o others: in d ep en d e n t living an d the em ploym ent o f senior citizens.

A n n A. W ilcock has personalised th e form ula o f active ageing in o rd e r to ta i­ lor it better to m eet old people’s needs, an d preferences. Seniors should continue

4 Ch. Bigby, Ageing with a Lifelong Disability. A Guide to Practice, Program and Policy Issues fo r H um an Services Professionals, L ondon-Philadelphia 2006, p. 19.

5 M. Straś-Romanowska, Późna dorosłość. Wiek starzenia się [Late A dulthood. The Age of G row ­ ing Old] [in:] Psychologia rozwoju człowieka [Psychology o f H u m an D evelopm ent], B. H arw as- N apierala, J. Trem pala (eds.), Warszawa 2003.

6 S.E. Hobfoll, Stres, kultura i społeczność. Psychologia i filozofia stresu [Stress, C ulture and Soci­ ety. Psychology an d Philosophy o f Stress], G dańsk 2006.

7 A. Sidorenko, A. Zaidi, Active Ageing in CIS Countries: Semantics, Challenges, and Responses, “C urrent Gerontology and Geriatrics Research” 2013, http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/261819, [Access date: 03.10.2013].

to do, to be, to becom e an d to belong in ways m eaningful to each o f th e m 8. If old people m anage to accom plish it th ey gain w ellness an d im prove th eir quality o f life. In ad d itio n , sen io r citizens, if th ey are n o t straitjack eted by cu ltu ral, so ci­ etal, an d fam ilial expectations an d en v iro n m en tal b arriers, can live longer. The recent stu d y prove th e positive view o f ageing ten d s to tran slate into increased longevity9.

3. Global culture and ageing

Global culture contributes to p rom oting the old age as fashionable. The increase o f the n u m b er o f the senior citizens com bined w ith the globalization o f the m arket th at has intensified the contest for clients have co n trib u ted to the change in the social an d econom ic status o f the elderly. It is n o t conn ected w ith th e econom ic im provem ent o f the stan d ard o f living am ong the senior citizens, particularly in Poland, b u t w ith th e sensitizing to th e ir v ery presence an d w ith revising b lu n t m anifestations o f ignorance and prejudices. A lthough ageist stereotypes are p re ­ served in p o p u lar jokes, everyday language in general avoids o pen “b ra n d in g ” and criticizing o f the elderly, an d w hen describing the reality in w hich th ey function it employs euphem ism s as a rule, as this is m uch safer m od e o f behaviour. Thus along w ith m any global range changes we w itness changes in n o rm s an d behaviours that m ay result in im provem ent o f seniors’ quality o f life. There are already the first forerunners o f change th at show the elderly stop being invisible for th e m edia an d the p o p u lar culture.

The old age has becom e the topic o f various com m ercials a n d m edia campaigns. N um erous T V series an d box office hits have the elderly as th eir protagonists. The im age th a t is p resented there, however, is usually quite biased, an d incidental at­ tem pts to p o rtray the tru th on the quest for the dignity an d m eaning in the old age o f an individual10 leave viewers helpless and lost in defining the sp ectru m o f em o ­ tions th e m essage conveyed in such a presentation causes. N evertheless, this state o f affairs ceases to be surp risin g if we becom e aware o f th e reason b eh in d such behaviour. The society as a rule receives th e m essage th at th e old age is a beautiful, vigorous an d joyful tim e. V irpi Ylänne, A ngie W illiam s, an d Paul M ark W adleigh

8 A.A. Wilcock, Active Ageing: Dream or Reality?, “N ew Zealand Journal o f O ccupational Ther- apy” 2007, No. 54(1), p. 17.

9 C. Phoenix, G. Faulkner, A.C. Sparkes, Athletic Identity and Self-ageing: The D ilem m a o f E x­ clusivity, “Psychology o f Sport and Exercise” 2005, No. 6, pp. 335-347.

(2009) analysed th e advertising m essage co n tain in g an im age o f an old p erso n p rin te d in 140 B ritish new spapers an d m agazines. The researchers cam e to the conclusion th at th e im age th a t was em ployed m o st frequ ently was th e figure of a “young old p erson”. The d o m in a n t in fo rm atio n was th a t th an k s to th e offered services o r purchasing th e advertised p ro d u cts every p erso n can experience th eir old age “well”, nam ely p o stp o n e it an d stop th e signs o f ageing or even reverse the sym ptom s and the consequences o f the old age.

C onsequently, alth o u g h we can w itness som e change, in real life th e m ed ia an d the culture do n o t favour the old age at all. The reason for th a t is the fact th at “you th ” a n d “b o d y ” still co n stitu te th e m o st p recio u s aspects o f an in d iv id u al’s existence. Because o f an ticip ated d e g ra d a tio n o f physical-self, p eo p le b ecom e frightened w ith ageing w hen they shape represen tation s o f th eir possible future selves11. Being attractive still occurs com ponent o f identity an d self-esteem o f great significance in global culture12.

4. Age-friendly or age-unfriendly environment?

The care-providers, GPs, therapists and o ther professionals are reluctant to respond to older peo p les needs an d concerns. Thereby the p ro m o tio n o f active ageing is also m eagre. This belief is shared by many, bu t only few decide to speak ab o u t it openly. A n n A. W ilcock believes th a t active ageing “is n o t alive an d well in co m ­ m unities such as ours. That is except am ongst som e o f those striving to be active agers w ho often, daily, have to fight against conventions, bureaucracy, families, and h ealth professionals for th at right. It is a difficult fight for many. It m ay call for the fight o f th eir lives, at a socio-political level as well as a p erson al one, an d it places huge d em an ds at a tim e w hen m any are financially strapped, physically hobbled, em otionally fatigued, a n d socially ignored”13.

The debates on ageing allude to the fact th a t prolonged life expectancy is no t an equivalent o f h ealth life expectancy (HLE) o r disability-free life expectancy (DFLE). Ageing concerns people w ith disabilities as well; freq uen tly th ey suffer from lo ng -term an d incurable diseases e.g. C h ristin e Bigby describes the d e m o ­ graphic change am ong people w ith intellectual disability. She discusses the regular 11 R.P Eibach, S.E. Mock, E.A. Courtney, Having a 'Senior M om ent’: Induced Aging Phenomenol­ ogy, Subjective Age, and Susceptibility to Ageist Stereotypes, “Journal o f E xperim ental Social Psychol­ ogy” 2010, No. 46, pp. 643-649.

12 C. Phoenix, G. Faulkner, A.C. Sparkes, op.cit., p. 337. 13 A.A. W ilcock, op.cit., p. 15

falling o f th eir age-specific m ortality rate in com parison to the general population. In the first half o f the tw entieth century, people w ith intellectual disability at an av­ erage reached their twenties. By 1993, their average lifespan increased to fifty years, a n d now m any o f th em are septuagenarians14. This ten den cy presents a challenge for h ealth care system w here th e shift from the “responsibility” to “profitability” category takes place15.

The negative approach to aging is intensified by econom ic prognosis o f high- cost o f seniors’ dem ands (pensions, allowances, and health and social care services, including long-term care). M eanwhile, the c u rren t social and health-related situ a­ tion o f seniors has already been recognised as unsatisfactory. In general, we observe the low stan d ard o f services offered to older people. M any age-advanced patients often suffer from m isdiagnosis (e.g. depression sym ptom s are com m only ignored by th e ir GPs) or in co rrect diagnoses. They are also p ro v id ed w ith less detailed inform ation on th eir health co n d itio n 16. Insufficient financial expenditures in aid sectors leads to the shortage o f qualified an d experienced p erson nel proficient in dealing w ith the elderly. Hospitals, n ursing hom es and hospices provide inadequate assistance an d care. Official reports identify this problem giving n um erou s illustra­ tions o f geriatric p atien ts’ neglect17. In Poland, we also w itness different form s of th e seniors’ m istreatm en t w hich m ove th em to “the very p e rip h e ry o f atten tio n (how m any geriatricians are currently being train e d at Polish m edical universities, an d how m any m edical stu d en ts express interest in studying this subject?); the very p erip h e ry o f access (how m any senior citizens becom e th e patients o f private hospitals an d clinics?); th e p erip h e ry o f im p o rtan ce (how m any sen io r citizens have h ea rd ‘You are to o old for this service, an d besides w hat do yo u expect at yo u r age?’)”18.

Seniors’ con spicuousness in social life elim inates o r at least lessens som e o f th e existing prejudices and stereotypes concernin g elderhood. A good exam ple to illustrate this p h e n o m en o n is th e b re ak th ro u g h in th e general approach to se n ­ iors’ sexuality. M edical science an d pharm aceu tical m arket have in tro d u ced a new perspectives on sexuality in the late adulthoo d. A fter discovering how lucrative

14 Ch. Bigby, op.cit.

15 A. Błachnio, Impact o f Older Adults’ Social Status and Their Life Satisfaction on Health Care Resources, “Acta Neuropsychologica” 2011, Vol. 9(4), pp. 335 - 349.

16 A.J.C. Cuddy, M.I. N orton, S.T. Fiske, This Old Stereotype: The Pervasiveness and Persistence o f the Elderly Stereotype, “Journal o f Social Issues” 2005, No. 61(2), pp. 265-283.

17 A. Błachnio, Im pact of..., op.cit.

18 M. Kuchcińska, Edukacja przeciw marginalizacji seniorów [Education Against Marginalization o f Seniors], “C howanna” 2009, No. 2(3), p. 179.

th e m arket o f V iagra an d o th er pharm aceutical p ro d u cts en han cin g m ale p o tency has becom e, m edical an d pharm aceutical businesses ceased to treat th e sexuality o f the elderly as an individual’s need. Instead it becam e one o f the conditions of an individ uals wellness, an d consequently a public health co n c ern 19. O lder people have gained m ore o p p o rtu n itie s to express sexuality an d get sexual satisfaction. The interest in seniors’ sexual behaviours has been also im p lem en ted to science. Since th e b eg in n in g o f th e 21st century, th e seniors have b ecom e a reg u lar p a rt o f alm ost every research or a discussion on h u m an sexuality. The gath ered data have stim ulated m any scientists an d GPs to raise the queries o n ho w to preserve vigour an d satisfaction o f sex am ong the elderly20. In add ition , th e o b tain ed re ­ sults reveal the urg en t n eed to adjust social an d individual approach to th e older adults’ sexuality. A ccording to M argaret M cG rath an d E ithne Lynch, th ere is a gap betw een professional know ledge an d practice. Seniors’ sexuality is still perceived as an ab se n t n eed , a so urce o f a m u se m e n t o r d ev iatio n 21. This m isp e rc e p tio n discourages m an y seniors from expressing th e ir sexuality. As a result, it h arm s th eir self-im age, an d dim inishes th e ir quality o f life because sexuality is n o t only sexualisation or sexual identity. This also includes sensuality (awareness o f one’s body) an d intim acy (sharing em otion al closeness)22.

A lthough we observe certain significant changes caused by the d em ographic “revolution”, the age-related lim itatio ns fixed in th e local context ind uce in terac­ tional an d cultural passivity o f the elderly in everyday life. At th e sam e tim e, the concept o f positive an d active ageing w ith m any examples o f good practise is easily available th ro u g h the high-tech m edia. N evertheless, n o t all o f the sen io r citizens are eager to use e.g. the In tern et resources. A lthough the n u m b e r o f w ell-educated an d som etim es even affluent seniors has been increasing gradually, th ere are still m any seniors w ho lack lifelong learning habits an d opportunities, ignore new tech ­ nological devices, rarely set n ew goals, an d focus too m uch on th eir senility23. The m em bers o f the last group often preserve self-handicapping behaviours im posed b y culture. The aggravating pro b lem s o f th e old peop le still n ee d to be solved,

19 M. M cG rath, E. Lynch, Occupational Therapists’ Perspectives on Addressing Sexual Concerns o f Older Adults in the Context o f Rehabilitation, “Disability and Rehabilitation” 2013, http://inform a- healthcare.com /doi/abs/10.3109/09638288.2013.805823, [Access date: 03.10.2013].

20 B.L. M arshall, Science, Medicine, and Virility Surveillance: ‘Sexy Seniors’in the Pharmaceutical Imagination [in: ] Technogenarians. Studying Health and Illness Through an Ageing, Science, and Tech­ nology Lens, K. Joyce, M. Loe (eds.), Malaysia 2010, pp. 38-50.

21 M. M cG rath, E. Lynch, op.cit. 22 Ibidem.

but at the sam e tim e th ere are m any new oppo rtu n ities intro d u ced to them . It is difficult to verify if th e en vironm ent we live in is age-friendly o r age-unfriendly one, though. A lthough num erous traces o f prejudices an d ageism can still be expe­ rienced, th e new approach to active ageing is gaining n u m ero u s supporters.

5. New opportunities raised by active ageing

Active ageing im p lem ents new possibilities for n u m ero u s im provem ents in the seniors’ lives. The three pioneering realm s o f the elderly s activization encourage em ploying: so p h isticated technological devices th a t m ake life easier an d m ore autonom ous, w idespread interest in v olunteer services, a n d lifelong learning p ro ­ gram m es.

The seniors’ p op u latio n is th e catalyst to o u tb u rst o f innovative technology. In o rd e r to age successfully, older people d em an d open an d frien dly en vironm ent. They n eed greater n u m b e r o f safe street intersections as well as green and open spaces to preserve th eir physical activity. W hen th eir m obility decreases, th ey re ­ quire accessible an d affordable tra n sp o rt services. S ooner o r later the seniors need su p p o rt an d care in everyday activities. Because the relatives’ assistance is often lim ited an d unsatisfactory, a b ro a d sp e c tru m o f care tech n o lo g ies is designed. A m ong them , there are fixed assistive technologies designed for dom estic space (such as ram ps an d lifts), portable assistive technologies (alarm s, m onitors, m otion detectors etc.), electronic pill disp en sers,“sm art clothing an d fabrics” w ith inbuilt sensors to m o n ito r the h ea rt rate, pulse, tem perature, a n d even rob otic p ets24. Es­ pecially the last device was designed to help the seniors cope w ith loneliness and isolation. N evertheless, th e In te rn e t has offered even b e tte r so lu tion fo r people socially excluded an d im m obile. It has becom e “th e seniors” w ide op en w indow to the outside world. The possibilities it offers to the senior citizens are innum erable. It gives access to inform ation an d com m unication. It is a tool for encouraging p ro ­ social behaviour, an d group discussion. The n u m b er o f fora a n d websites dedicated for the elderly has been increasing systematically. The e-services addressed to older custom ers are developing fast and progressively, too. C urrently, th eir im pact is still lim ited b u t for the future ageing generations all these technological devices will becom e m ajor tools o f life-facilitation.

Better life an d active ageing can also be achieved by voluntarism . The assistance an d care are key-needs o f seniors. However, we should re m e m b er n o t all elders

are care-receivers. Very often they are care-givers in various n o n -p ro fit activities. V oluntary services gain attention an d appreciation am ong actively aging people25. This is because th e advantages offered by v o lu n teerin g are a b u n d a n t, b o th on individual and social levels. Just to m en tio n a few: v olun tary service is th e source o f satisfaction an d the jo y o f life, it breaks social isolation an d develops new and strong social netw ork, it m ain tain s self-esteem an d stim ulates perso n al grow th, self-confidence an d self-integration. V oluntarism develops civic sense o f re sp o n ­ sibility, social involvem ent, respect for th e others, an d em pathy. The old people w ho invest th e ir tim e an d w ant to do som ething positive to o th ers often receive appreciation. They are perceived as com petent by those looking for help because they n o t only know b u t very often u n d ersta n d an d experience. Thus, th ey act as m odels an d effectively inspire o thers to change them selves. A part from obvious gains for the care-receivers, the volunteering seniors profit from th e ir actions as well. The available stu d y proves positive associatio n o f v o lu n teerin g w ork w ith the follow ing aspects o f everyday existence: im proved physical health, sense o f achievem ent, greater life satisfaction, low er psychological distress, an d even lower rates o f m o rtality26. O ne could argue if it is the result o r m aybe th e reason w hy som e people are m ore p ro n e to becom e volunteers th an others. N evertheless, the general gain is undisputable.

The last o f the aforem entioned realm s is to activate the seniors’ to in corpo rate lifelong learn in g ideology. Its m ain assu m p tio n is th at th e ed ucation co n tin u ed th ro u g h o u t o n es life encourages p ersonal developm ent, raises wellness an d solves various socio-econom ic problem s present in narrow ing global job-m arket. For the seniors citizens, it m eets their natural need to learn and develop. It also helps th em to develop new skills an d update th eir expertise. The elders’ response to lifelong learning o pportunities is generally positive. Especially in Poland we observe a vivid and continuously increasing involvem ent in the Universities o f the Third Age. They p u t seniors at the core o f interest. The cu rricu la o f U3As enable th e progress o f personal grow th, the am elioration o f psycho-physiological an d social conditions o f the elderly, an d en h ance th em to take up and ca rry o u t new challenges o f lifelong learning. Further, the students extend th eir know ledge, integrate w ith local co m ­ m unities, start new friendships, an d im prove th eir quality o f life.

The interest in technology th at m an y seniors express, the eagerness th ey d em ­ onstrate in testing the m ost recent gadgets, and their involvem ent in education and

25 A. Błachnio, Starość non profit..., op.cit.

26 J.H. Barlow, G.V. Bancroft, A.P. Turner, Volunteer, Lay Tutors’ Experiences o f the Chronic Dis­ ease Self-management Course: Being Valued and A dding Value, “H ealth E ducation Research” 2005, No. 20(2), pp. 128-136.

no n-profit w ork they display can all co ntribute to solving th e problem o f th e im ­ pact the environm ent has on ageing and tu rn it into a positive value. The condition is general involvem ent an d confidence in active ageing p rom o tio n. Its advantages will serve n o t only the seniors them selves b u t also the future generations.

6. Conclusions

In a global society, analogous to the Polish society, the increase in th e elderly p o p u ­ lation is a challenge for m any public sectors: m edical and social care, education, an d public finance. The practises th a t can be o b serv ed to d ay prove th a t m any prejudices an d stereotypes are still deeply ro o ted in the society. Ageism enlarges barriers for senior citizens everyday life. They are m arginalized in public life. Their needs are often ignored o r unrecognised. As patients th ey are often m isu nd ersto od by th e ir GPs, therapists, psychologists an d social care w orkers. Seniors’ lives are frequently m edicalized and th e ir aging is perceived as an endless list o f various diseases only several o f w hich can be treated. As con su m ers, th e elderly often have very lim ited choice an d unsatisfactory protection. As fam ily m em bers, th ey are to o often left on th eir own. M oreover, ageing people often try to adjust th eir behaviours and expectations to cultural stereotypes. As a result, self-handicapping becom es a co m m o n problem in late adulthood.

A lth o u g h som e prejudices have already b een broken , th e so cio -cu ltu ral ap ­ p roach to aging an d th e aged still needs to be im proved. Professionals are en co u r­ age to respond to “new reality” o f ageing including older peoples’ concerns about sexuality an d sexual h ealth 27 or ageing am ong people w ith intellectual disability in th e co ntext o f rehabilitation services28. We should help senior citizens to re ­ establish th e ir self-esteem , a n d sense o f integrity. They m u st regain satisfaction and control over th eir life. The society an d senior citizens them selves should revise th e ir know ledge on aging as is a heterogeneous process an d n o t m erely d eterio ra­ tio n an d dependence. M any factors (socioeconom ic, educational, health, habits as well as o n es subjective expectations) can am eliorate th e way people experience aging. A n o th e r task is to en courage y o u n g g en eratio n to w o rk w ith th e sen io r citizens. We need education in o rd e r to p repare com p etent an d confident in w ork w ith older adults specialists in educational, h ealth and social care sectors.

27 M. M cG rath, E. Lynch, op.cit. 28 A. Błachnio, Impact of..., op.cit.

R E F E R E N C E S :

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Bigby Ch., Ageing with a Lifelong Disability. A Guide to Practice, Program and Policy Issues fo r H um an Services Professionals, London-Philadelphia 2006.

Błachnio A., Impact o f Older Adults’Social Status and Their Life Satisfaction on Health Care Resources, “Acta Neuropsychologica” 2011, Vol. 9(4).

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