Postglacial morpholineaments as an in di ca tor of ice sheet dy nam ics dur ing the Saale Gla ci ation in the Bia³ystok Pla teau and Sokó³ka Hills (NE Po land)
Joanna RYCHEL1, * and Marcin MORAWSKI2
1 Pol ish Geo log i cal In sti tute – Na tional Re search In sti tute, Rakowiecka 4, 00-975 Warszawa, Po land
2 l’immeuble SarSaara Lot 124B-2 Yoff Toundoup Rya, Dakar, Sen e gal
Rychel, J., Morawski, M., 2017. Postglacial morpholineaments as an in di ca tor of ice sheet dy nam ics dur ing the Saale Gla ci - ation in the Bia³ystok Pla teau and Sokó³ka Hills (NE Po land). Geo log i cal Quar terly, 61 (2): 334–349, doi: 10.7306/gq.1352 The palaeo geo graphi cal re con struc tion of the deglaciation pro cess in NE Po land dur ing the Odranian Gla ci ation Wartanian Stadial (Saale MIS 6) is based mainly on the anal y sis of gla cial morpholineaments, per formed us ing the GIS pro grams that pro vide us with better un der stand ing of the gla cial land scape evo lu tion, spa tial re con struc tion of gla cial pro cesses, and postglacial land scape de vel op ment. Anal y sis of postglacial morpholineaments was car ried out based on the Dig i tal El e va - tion Model (DEM) as well as geo log i cal, geomorphological and top o graphic maps. It re sulted in the de lim i ta tion of vis i ble lin - ear postglacial land forms, their iden ti fi ca tion and clas si fi ca tion, and the de ter mi na tion of their ge netic and chro no log i cal re la tions. Di rec tions of the lin ea ments were de ter mined through quan ti ta tive anal y sis. Qual i ta tive anal y sis was ap plied to de - ter mine the spa tial and tem po ral se quence of events, di rec tions of ice move ment and its range. Two gla cial lobes, Biebrza and Neman, ex isted in the north-west ern part of the Bia³ystok Pla teau and Sokó³ka Hills dur ing the last gla cial ad vance. The lobed na ture of the ice sheet can be con firmed by field data col lected from, e.g., sites in Knyszewicze, and by top o graphic anal y sis of Qua ter nary sed i ments, com bined with their thick ness and gen e sis. The ob tained re con struc tion of the last gla cial ad vance and re treat in the study area can be used in fur ther re gional dis cus sions on the char ac ter and dy nam ics of the last gla ci ation in this re gion.
Key words: morpholineament, Saalian ice sheet move ment, lobe, NE Po land.
INTRODUCTION
Mor pho log i cal lin ear el e ments of the re lief, more and more eas ily de tect able through the use of dig i tal data on the land sur - face (sat el lite and ae rial im ages, dig i tal ter rain and el e va tion mod els – DTM and DEM), have long at tracted the at ten tion of re search ers. Their or i gin has been as so ci ated pri mar ily with the deep geo log i cal struc ture of a given area as a struc tural foun da - tion of the land re lief (cf. Tirén and Beckholmen, 1989; Gra - niczny, 1989; Graniczny et al., 1995; Gabrielsen et al., 2002). In ar eas cov ered by Pleis to cene glaciations and con tem po rar ily gla ci ated, a cor re la tion is ob served be tween lin ear mor pho log i - cal el e ments and the ac tiv ity of ice sheets (e.g., Boulton and Clark, 1990; Clark, 1993, 1997; Fahnestock et al., 1993; Pun - kari, 1995a, b; Bindschadler and Vornberger, 1998; Boulton et al., 2001; Morawski, 2009a, b). At tempts have been made to re - con struct ice sheet move ment di rec tions based on se lected, pos i tive and neg a tive lin ear gla cial mor pho log i cal forms, such as mega-scale gla cial lineations (e.g., Stokes and Clark, 2001, 2002; Przybylski, 2008; King et al., 2016), drum lins (e.g., Benn
and Ev ans, 2010; Lamsters, 2012) cre vasses (Morawski, 2005), fron tal mo raines (Kalm, 2012) or subglacial chan nels and kame pla teaux (Bitinas, 2012). They are re ferred to as gla - cial morpholineaments (Morawski, 2005) or gla cial lineations (cf. Kleman and Borgstrom, 1996) and used to re con struct the di rec tion of ice flow and ice sheet move ment.
In the con text of gla cial geo mor phol ogy and its de vel op - ment, it ap pears nec es sary to use GIS to in te grate and ana lyse mor pho log i cal data ob tained from var i ous sources, and to in - ves ti gate spa tial re la tion ships be tween par tic u lar el e ments of the post glacial land scape for fur ther tem po ral re con struc tion of its evo lu tion (Napie ralski et al., 2007). Land forms pre sented on the map may rep re sent phe nom ena and pro cesses of di verse age. Dig i tal data in ter pre ta tion in the GIS en vi ron ment was con - ducted to iden tify them as morpholineaments and di vide into groups and lay ers (Napieralski et al., 2007). Anal y sis of the re la - tion ships be tween morpholineaments al lows for re vers ing the se quence of events, i.e. for de vel op ing an in verted re lief model which pres ents the se quence of gla cial events and gives in sight into the ice sheet (or its parts) dy nam ics in both time and space (cf. Green wood and Clark, 2009a, b; Stokes et al., 2009; Ev ans et al., 2014).
How ever, so far the ap pli ca tion of GIS and DEM in the re - con struc tion of the di rec tion of Pleis to cene ice sheet ad vance is re stricted to ar eas gla ci ated dur ing the Vistulian Gla ci ation.
These ar eas are char ac ter ized by a fresh re lief, un changed or trans formed only to a small de gree by post-sed i men tary pro -
* Corresponding author, e-mail: joanna.rychel@pgi.gov.pl Received: March 3, 2016; accepted: October 14, 2016; first published online: March 20, 2017
cesses. Due to this, the iden ti fi ca tion of par tic u lar forms does not raise any prob lems. On the con trary, the mor phol ogy of ar - eas be yond the range of the LGM and gla ci ated dur ing older ice-sheet ad vances could have un der gone deep trans for ma tion both in the inter gla cial pe ri ods and in periglacial con di tions of youn ger glaciations. Such trans for ma tion in cluded re or ga ni za - tion of the river net work (Kasse, 1997; Kasse et al., 2003;
Rychel et al., 2015; Woronko et al., 2016), and ac ti va tion of slope (Dylik, 1953; Dzieduszyñska et al., 2014) and ae olian pro cesses (Kasse, 1997; Zeeberg, 1998; Renssen et al., 2007;
Zieliñski et al., 2016). The Sokó³ka Hills (NE Po land) and the Grodno Pla teau (E Belarus) are ex am ples of such ar eas. They were gla ci ated dur ing MIS 6, were twice un der the in flu ence of periglacial cli mate dur ing the MIS 6 and the Vistulian ice-sheet re treats (Gilewska, 1991), and twice un der the in flu ence of pro - cesses dur ing warmer, inter gla cial pe ri ods (MIS 5e and MIS 1).
There fore, the re con struc tion of the di rec tions at which the ice-sheet ad vanced in ar eas with the land scape shaped dur ing older glaciations re quires the ap pli ca tion of mul ti stage morpho - lineament anal y sis (MMA), in con trast to the pre vi ously con - ducted gla cial morpholineament anal y sis (GMA) (e.g., Mora -
wski, 2005; Ewertowski and Rzeszewski, 2006; Przybylski, 2008; Szuman et al., 2013; King et al., 2016).
The MMA pro vides a ba sis for a hy poth e sis of the pre dom i - nant lobe style of gla ci ation and for mer ice sheet dy nam ics in the re gion that needs to be checked in a broader area.
The anal y sis was aimed at the re con struc tion of:
– di rec tions of ice sheet ad vance of the Odranian Gla ci - ation, Wartanian Stadial, in the bound ary zone be tween NE Po land and Belarus;
– ice sheet dy nam ics;
– func tion ing of the Biebrza lobe (NE Po land) and Neman lobe (W Belarus) in time and space.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The study area is lo cated in north east ern Po land and in - cludes the Sokó³ka Hills (ex clud ing their south east ern lim its), the north west ern part of the Bia³ystok Gla cial Pla teau (Kon - dracki, 2009), and the west ern part of the Grodno Pla teau, Postglacial morpholineaments as an in di ca tor of ice sheet dy nam ics dur ing the Saale Gla ci ation... 335
Fig. 1. Lo ca tion of the study area
Belarus (Fig. 1). The area is more than 2,500 km2 in size and ex tends to the south of the max i mum range of the Vistulian Gla - ci ation – Last Gla cial Max i mum (LGM). It is one of the north ern - most up land ar eas, formed dur ing the re treat of the last con ti - nen tal gla cier of the Mid dle Pol ish Gla ci ation (MIS 6) (Karaba - nov, 1987; Marks and Karabanov, 2011). The area rep re sents an old-gla cial land scape. The re lief is char ac ter ized by con sid - er able vari a tions (>100 m) and ex pres sive gla cial land forms, e.g. gla cial pla teaux, sandurs, kames and end mo raines (Fig.
2). The high est el e va tions are ob served in the end moreaines of the Sokó³ka Hills, near the vil lage of Gliniszcze Wielkie – 236.6 m a.s.l., and on Horczaki Knoll (hump) near the vil lage of Wojnowice – ~226.3 m a.s.l. The low est el e va tions are noted in the bot toms of river val leys south west of Janów, i.e. the Kumia³ka River – 136.6 m a.s.l. and the Sidra River (north of the vil lage of Sidra) – 129.5 m a.s.l.
A char ac ter is tic el e ment of the land scape in the area is long dry val leys with nu mer ous side val leys, and abun dant land - locked de pres sions ad ja cent to high hills (Rychel et al., 2012).
The older base ment played a sig nif i cant role in shap ing the land scape of the area (e.g., the Horczaki Knoll; Karabanov, 1987; Boratyn, 2006; Rychel et al., 2015).
Ac cord ing to Karabanov (1987) and Ber et al. (2012), the ice sheet of the Wartanian Stadial in the area ad vanced from dif fer ent di rec tions cor re spond ing to two lobes. Ber et al.
(2012) dis tin guished the Biebrza lobe, which ad vanced from the NW to the SE, and the Neman lobe, with a gen eral NE-SW ori en ta tion. Banaszuk (2010) de scribed the pres ence of a Mid - dle Vistulian (Œwiecie Stadial – MIS 4) ice sheet in the North Podlasie Low land. This con cept was con firmed by the au thors of the De tailed Geo log i cal Map of Po land (DGMP) (e.g., Sztabin sheet – Kac przak and Lisicki, 2007; D¹browa Bia³o - stocka sheet – Wrotek, 2009)
METHODS
The anal y sis of the Sokó³ka Hills and the Bia³ystok and Grodno Pla teaus (Fig. 3) was con ducted us ing nine sheets of the De tailed Geo log i cal Map of Po land (scale 1:50,000) lo cated in NE Po land (Krzywicki, 2005; Boratyn, 2006; Kmieciak, 2006;
Koz³owski, 2006; Kacprzak and Lisicki, 2007; Majewska, 2008a, b; P³onczyñski et al., 2009; Wrotek, 2009) and the cen - tral and south ern part of the Geo log i cal Map of the north ern bor - der land be tween Po land and Belarus at the scale of 1:250,000 near Sokó³ka and Grodno (Marks and Karaba - nov, 2011).
The morpholineaments were de ter mined on the ba sis of sur face geo log i cal data, the dig i tal el e va tion model, and the top o graphic map at the scale of 1:10,000 and 1:25,000. An ex ag - ger ated DTED 2 ter rain model, rec ti fied to the PUWG “92” pro jec tion, and a co or di nates sys - tem (State Geo detic Co or di nate Sys tem “92”) with the spa tial res o lu tion of the ras ter cell of 30 m was used in shaded, col oured and greyscale lay outs. The top o graphic map of Po land was vi - su al ized in the WMS ser vice from the serv ers of geo portal.gov.pl.
The mul ti stage morpholineament anal y sis (MMA) was con ducted in sub se quent stages.
Land forms re lated to the fol low ing pro cesses were dis tin guished:
– ice sheet ad vance: subglacial chan nels, ter mi nal bas ins (Fig. 4A);
– sta bi li za tion of the ice sheet front, in clud - ing pos i tive (end mo raines, eskers, prox i - mal parts and edges of outwash plains) and neg a tive land forms (subglacial chan - nels; Fig. 4B);
– ice sheet re treat, in clud ing neg a tive (ket - tle holes) and pos i tive land forms (cre - vasses, kames, hummocky mo raines;
Fig. 4C);
– interglacials (river val leys; Fig. 4D).
The avail able el e va tion and geo log i cal data en abled the iden ti fi ca tion of gla cial morpho linea - ments and per mit ted their geomorpholo gical clas si fi ca tion into in di vid ual ge netic groups. Vi - sual anal y sis of el e va tion and geo log i cal data was used to iden tify mor pho log i cal lines within the gla cial forms (ridges) and the lon ger axis of the landform out line. Eight dif fer ent pos i tive and neg a tive ge netic groups of land forms were dis - tin guished, di rectly or in di rectly re lated to the gla - cial en vi ron ment (Fig. 4 and Ta ble 1)
Fig. 2. Geo log i cal map of the study area (af ter Marks et al., 2006, changed)
Most of them were land forms of di rect gla cial or glaciofluvial or i gin. Pos i tive forms in clu ded: cre vasse ac cu mu la tion forms and eskers, mo raine hills, prox i mal parts and edges of out wash plains (sandurs) and fans, kame hills, and ridges of hummocky ter rain/mo raines, whereas neg a tive land forms were rep re sen - ted by subglacial chan nels and ter mi nal bas ins. In ad di tion, land locked de pres sions – ket tle holes (pits and de pres sions within gla cial pla teaux) as well as flat-bed ded dry val leys (gul - lies) and small river val leys, whose ex is tence had no di rect con - nec tion with the ice-sheet ac tiv ity, were also dis tin guished. The aim of dis tin guish ing the two last groups of land forms was the as sump tion that their lo ca tion and ori en ta tion were in her ited af - ter the for mer ice-sheet con fig u ra tion (e.g., vary ing thick ness, pat tern of cracks/joints), which might have had a relationship with the stress field during the glaciation.
The ter mi nal ba sin (vast de pres sions of the up land sur face that stretch over sev eral kilo metres) are hol lows that orig i nated in con se quence of stress ex erted against the base ment un der com pres sion-ten sion con di tions of a re gional stress field that de vel oped dur ing the ice sheet trans gres sion as a re sult of its pro gres sive move ment (cf. Nye, 1952 af ter Jania, 1997; Patter - son, 1994). When viewed in plan, they form a low-an gle joint
sys tem of the morpholineaments, where the bi sec tor of the ob - tuse an gle be tween both max ima may be iden ti fied as be ing iden ti cal with the re sul tant di rec tion of the ice flow (Fig. 4) – the main driv ing stress vec tor.
The ar range ment of subglacial chan nels re flects the sys tem of chan nelled subglacial drain age (cf. Kehew et al., 2012), whose de vel op ment is (in gen eral) con cor dant with the driv ing stress vec tor within in di vid ual ice sheet sec tors. The ori en ta tion re sul tant (av er age vec tor), de ter mined from the ori en ta tion of these gla cial forms, may ren der the di rec tion of ice ad vance (Fig. 4). Be ing of gla cial or i gin, these land forms di rectly in di cate the di rec tion of ice sheet ad vance (Majdanowski, 1950; Galon, 1972). The pres ence of subglacial chan nels and ter mi nal bas - ins in the ana lysed area was as sumed to be the only subglacial sys tem land forms whose ar range ment di rectly re flects the di - rec tion of ice sheet ad vance and dy nam ics.
Cre vasse ac cu mu la tion forms, eskers, mo raine hills, ka - mes, prox i mal parts and edges of outwash plains (sandurs) and fans rep re sent el e ments of the mar ginal zones, the dis tri bu tion and ar range ment of which in di cate sub se quent phases of ice sheet stag na tion (Bitinas, 2012; Morawski, 2015). Mo raine hills of var i ous or i gins, hum mocks, pits and de pres sions are com - Postglacial morpholineaments as an in di ca tor of ice sheet dy nam ics dur ing the Saale Gla ci ation... 337
Fig. 3. List of DGMP sheets in the study area
mon el e ments of the re lief of gla cial pla teaux. Based on their elon gated shape, ori en ta tion and con cen tra tion, in di rect con - clu sions may be drawn about the dy nam ics of the degla ciation pro cess in the study area. The ori en ta tion and dis tri bu tion of zones of mar ginal and intra-lobe land forms re flect lo cal stress sys tems within the mar ginal parts of the ice sheet. On a re gional scale (be tween a dozen to sev eral tens of square kilo metres), the spa tial ar range ment of these morpho linea ments is bidire - ctional, which may be re lated to a lobe formed in the dis tal zones of par tic u lar channelized ice flows – palaeo-ice stream (cf. Patterson, 1997; Kasprzak, 2003; Turkowska, 2006;
Jennings, 2006). In the study area, the ice-flow di rec tion may be iden ti cal with the di rec tion of the mid-per pen dic u lar to the chord con nect ing the max ima of morpholineament sets in the mar - ginal and intra-lobe landform sys tems.
Val leys are among the most dis tinc tive el e ments of the pres ent-day land scape of the Pol ish Low lands. They were dis - tin guished on the ba sis of the as sump tion of their in di rect re la - tion ship with post-gla cial foun da tions of the val ley net work de - vel op ment in the study area (Brykczyñski, 1986). Land forms, clas si fied as morpholineaments, were grouped in a vec tor da ta - base ac cord ing to their geomorphological cat e gory.
The study area was sub di vided into 20 sec tors (Fig. 5A).
Their size var ies from 12 km2 to ca. ~300 km2, and they were clas si fied as inter-lobe (mo raine junc tion – MJ) and intra-lobe zones (L) (Fig. 5B). Next, a se quen tial anal y sis of the spa tial ar - range ment of morpholineaments was per formed in the dis tin - guished sec tors. Col lec tive quan ti ta tive anal y sis of their ori en ta - tion was made by plot ting var i ous rose di a grams of the morpho - lineaments ori en ta tion (ex am ple in Fig. 5C.1–C.3). Quan ti ta tive Fig. 4. Model of post-gla cial morpholineaments for ma tion, its se quence and pat tern
within an ide al ized ice sheet lobe with dom i nant fron tal deglaciation
anal y sis in volved clus ter ing of morpholineaments (vec tors) in the in ter vals of 5 and 10° up to 180° ev ery 1 km along their length, within the ex am ined groups. Cu mu la tive plots pres ent the dis tri bu tion of morpholineaments ac cord ing to their di rec - tion and geomorphic fea ture (Fig. 5C.1–C.3). In the next step, the landform vec tors were com bined on a ge netic ba sis into subglacial and mar ginal sys tems, and the re sul tant (av er age) di rec tion of each sys tem in ev ery sec tor was com puted.
Based on the mu tual re la tions be tween the groups of in di - vid ual post-gla cial forms and their ori en ta tion, a qual i ta tive anal y sis was con ducted and sec tors of po ten tial, ac tive ice sheet lobes were dis tin guished. These re gional zones may be re ferred to as do mains (Fig. 6) within the ice sheet that de vel - oped dur ing the par tic u lar phases of the gla ci ation of the area (cf. Ev ans, 2003).
The ob tained di rec tional data, geo met ric con struc tions on the DEM, and the palaeogeomorphological anal y sis, in clud ing anal y sis of the po ten tial depositional ef fec tive ness of the ice sheet (Kozarski and Kasprzak, 1987; Kasprzak, 2003), were used for the re con struc tion of sub se quent deglaciation stages (Fig. 6), and the dy nam ics of the Saale ice sheets in the study area (Fig. 5).
RESULTS
The MMA has al lowed for dis tin guish ing 15 sec tors of intra-lobe zones (L1–L15) and five sec tors re ferred to as mo - raine junc tion zones (MJ1–MJ5; Fig. 5A). Land forms re flect ing the ad vance and re treat of the Saale ice sheet (MIS 6) in the ar - eas of the Sokó³ka Hills, the Bia³ystok Pla teau and the Grodno Pla teau were iden ti fied in each of these zones.
The ad vance of the Saale (MIS 6) ice sheet re sulted in the for ma tion of ter mi nal bas ins and subglacial chan nels.
The ob tained re sults al lowed dis tin guish ing two ori en ta tions of ter mi nal bas ins in the morainic pla teaux (1–4° and 5–14°).
The re sul tant di rec tions of the first group of re sults clus ter in the cen tral and west ern part of the area, that is in sec tors from L1 to L4, L8–L9 and L12 (Fig. 5B, C.1 and Ta ble 1). The re sults of the sec ond group oc cur in the east ern sec tors (L5–L7), L10 and L14 (Ta ble 1). In sec tor L10, the re sul tant di rec tion is 14°, and in L11 – 353° (Fig. 5A and Ta ble 1). Both sec tors rep re sent the most ex treme fields of the study area. The first is lo cated in its east ern most part and lies di rectly ad ja cent to the Neman River Val ley. In turn, L11 cov ers an area in the west ern part of the study area.
Postglacial morpholineaments as an in di ca tor of ice sheet dy nam ics dur ing the Saale Gla ci ation... 339
BIEBRZA LOBE [B]
hy po thet i cal di rec tion of trans gres sion older subglacial drain age sys tem [B1]
youn ger subglacial drain age sys tem [B2]
NEMAN LOBE [N]
hy po thet i cal di rec tion of trans gres sion older subglacial drain -
age sys tem [N1]
youn ger subglacial drain age sys tem [N2]
STAGE OF DEGLACIACION
the youn gest [D5]
[D4]
the el dest [D1]
T a b l e 1 The re sul tant di rec tions of ice flow by ge netic groups of morpholineaments in the sec tors,
and the pro posed se quence of gla cial events
Sec tor
RESULTANT DIRECTION ICE-MASSES FLOW [in de grees]
Ter mi nal bas ins
Subglacial chan nels 1
Subglacial chan nels 2
Mar ginal sys tem 1
Mar ginal
sys tem 2 Suc ces sion
1 2 3 4 5 older®youn ger (D1®D5)
L1 2 346 23 1®4®5
L2 2 344 2®4
L3 1 294 353 1®2®®4
L4 3 335 355 1®2®4
L5 5 347 1®®®4
L6 8 292 36 340 31 1®2®4®3®5
L7 10 40 338 40 1®2®4®5
L8 3 345 359 1®2®4
L9 2 287 352 1®2®4
L10 14? 4? 0 1®2®4
L11 353? 282? 352 4
L12 4 332 45 355 1®2®4 for W part
1®2®3®4 for NE part
L13 317? 3 4
L14 5? 5? 354 1 + 2®4
L15 355 4
MJ1 355 45 4®5
MJ2 345 8 5 = 4
MJ3 325 25 5 = 4
MJ4 350 23 4®5
MJ5 331 35 4®5
Subglacial chan nels found in the west ern part of the study area have an ori en ta tion in a wide range from 282 to 345°. They com prise two sets: the first with an ori en ta tion be tween 282 and 294° (L3, L6, L9, L11), and the sec ond with an ori en ta tion be - tween 317 and 345° (L4, L8, L12, L13) (Fig. 5A, C.2 and Ta ble 1). Forms with an ori en ta tion of 4° (L10), 5° (L14) and 40° (L07) have also been ob served. In turn, in the east ern part of the area, subglacial chan nels were reg is tered only in two sec tors, L6 and L12. Their ori en ta tions lie in a rel a tively nar row range be tween 36 and 45° (Fig. 5A, C.2 and Ta ble 1).
Forms re cord ing the in ter val/in ter vals of a lon ger stop of the ice sheet front, rep re sented by end mo raines, e.g. near Kny - szewicze, Janów and Gliniszcze Wielkie (Fig. 2), edges of
outwash fans and eskers have also been iden ti fied. For ex am - ple, in sec tor L8, the ori en ta tion of end mo raines is in the range be tween 47 and 120°, which cor re sponds to the ori en ta tion of the edges of outwash fans and side val leys (Fig. 5B). A sub di vi - sion into two zones is also vis i ble as re gards the ori en ta tion of forms of mar ginal zones. In the west ern part of the study area the prob a ble re sul tant di rec tion of ice-mass flow is in the range of 338 to 360°. A de tailed anal y sis of the col lected data in di - cates a bipartition of the ice sheet flow di rec tions. The first di rec - tion is be tween 344 and 352° (L1–L7, L9 and L11). A sim i lar di - rec tion of ice sheet ad vance was reg is tered in sec tors L14 and L15 lo cated in the north ern most part of the study area, in di rect vi cin ity of LGM mo raines (Fig. 5C.3). The sec ond di rec tion is Fig. 5. The main as sump tions of the anal y sis
A – di vi sion of the study area into sec tors in re la tion to gen eral geomorphic fea tures and in ferred ice sheet lim its; B – typ i cal post-gla cial morpholineaments pat tern in one of the sec tor (L8, conformal LonLat pro jec tion); C.1 – re sul tant ice-flow di rec tion based on dis crete de - pres sions; C.2 – ice-ad vance di rec tion based on the subglacial chan nels; C.3 – hy po thet i cal ice-flow di rec tion dur ing ice sheet mar gin stag na tion (steady-state con di tions), re con struc tion of palaeo-ice sheet lobe out line (lim its). All cal cu la tions of re sul tant di rec tions (vec - tors) were com puted based on vec tor al ge bra (ad di tion). For each cal cu la tion, all the morpholineaments from all ge netic groups con sid - ered in par tic u lar sec tor where added to each other one by one and the re sul tant vec tor pa ram e ters (strike and length) were ob tained.
De pend ing on the morpholineaments group(s) the strikes of the re sul tant vec tor were ro tated by 90° to re fer to the re sul tant ice-flow di rec - tion. Ev ery cal cu la tion cov ers the 180° in ter val of morpholineaments strike ac cord ing to dis tri bu tion of the data ana lysed. Strikes of the morpholineaments were com puted in GIS en vi ron ment af ter vec tor trans for ma tion to conformal lat i tude-lon gi tude pro jec tions. Length of each morpholineament was de ter mined as a weighted unit by ev ery 1 km of its length mea sured in equal-area pro jec tion of PUWG 92 co - or di nate sys tem. n – to tal weighted nom i nal length of morpholineaments. All graph i cal con struc tions were pre sented on rose di a grams. In graph i cal con struc tion, only the lo cal max ima (peaks of fre quency) in morpholineaments dis tri bu tion were con sid ered. Morpholineaments clus tered within 9° in ter vals
Postglacial morpholineaments as an in di ca tor of ice sheet dy nam ics dur ing the Saale Gla ci ation...341
l
a i c a l g
f
o n o i t u b i r t s i d
f
o s t l u s e R
.
6
.
g i
F morpholineamentsintheKnyszewiczemar gina lzone ,andmea sure men tdi rec tionsfaults
f
o glaciotectonicde for ma tioninKnyszewiczeout crop(af te rRychele tal. ,2015 ,com pleted)
be tween 355 and 3° (L8, L10, L12, L13). In turn, in the east ern part of the study area, the di rec tion of ice sheet ad vance is be - tween 23 and 40° (Ta ble 1).
In sec tors MJ1–MJ5, which rep re sent the mo raine junc tion, the re sul tant di rec tion of ice-mass flow was from the NNW (325–355°) and NE (8–45°) (Ta ble 1). Height dif fer ences be - tween par tic u lar hills in these ar eas are from 10 even to 30 m.
Their ori en ta tion in sec tors MJ1, MJ3 and MJ4 is NNW–SSE, and in sec tor MJ2 – N–S (Fig. 5A).
An in ter est ing ex am ple of the mar ginal part of the Saale ice sheet is the area ana lysed in sec tors L1 and L2. They cover the area of the vil lages of Knyszewicze (L1) and Horczaki Knoll (L2) (Fig. 7). De tailed anal y sis of the post-gla cial morpholineaments car ried out at the Knyszewicze site re sulted in the iden ti fi ca tion of two gla cial seg ments, i.e. Horczaki Knoll and Knyszewicze,
which is con firmed by dif fer ent di rec tions of the ice sheet move - ment, i.e. 171 and 23°, re spec tively (Fig. 6). The dip of faults found at the Knyszewicze site is in the range of 11–44°, which cor re sponds to a NNE di rec tion of the ad vance (Szymczuk, 2014; Rychel et al., 2015), be ing a field ev i dence con firm ing the palaeoglaciological in ter pre ta tion de rived from the anal y sis of morpholineaments ar range ment. The re sul tant az i muth of the dom i nant ice sheet ad vance (171°) is wide spread over the en - tire study area and likely cor re sponds to the main trans gres sion di rec tion from the NNW. The sec ond az i muth (23°) cor re - sponds to the thrust-fault mea sure ments made on the east ern wall of the Knyszewicze out crop (Rychel et al., 2015). This is in - di cated by the ice sheet move ment from the NNE in the Kny - szewicze re gion (Fig. 6).
Fig. 7. Re sults of se quen tial anal y sis of morpholineaments A – ac tive drain age sys tems, B – sec tors of po ten tial ac tive ice sheet lobes (B – Biebrza lobe, N – Neman lobe), C – D1–D5
stages of the area deglaciation, vide Ta ble 1
Postglacial morpholineaments as an in di ca tor of ice sheet dy nam ics dur ing the Saale Gla ci ation... 343
DISCUSSION
Char ac ter is tic el e ments of the mor phol ogy of the mar ginal part of Pleis to cene ice sheets on land were gla cial lobes, which rep re sented their most dy namic part (Booth et al., 2003; Mickel - son and Colagan, 2004; Winguth et al., 2004; Turkowska, 2006; Przybylski, 2008; Wysota and Molewski, 2011; Dzie - duszyñska et al., 2014). Mech a nisms of de vel op ment and evo - lu tion of ice sheet lobes in the Eu ro pean Low land and North Amer ica dur ing the Pleis to cene have been broadly dis cussed by many re search ers over the last de cades (Ev ans and Rea, 2005; Boulton and Hagdorn, 2006; Jennings, 2006; Narloch et al., 2013). The mor pho log i cal axis of the de vel op ing lobes are, e.g., de pres sions/old val leys ex ist ing in the land scape, on which the ice sheet ad vanced (Mickelson and Colagan, 2004;
Wysota and Molewski, 2011; Dzieduszyñska et al., 2014;
Herma no wski, 2015).
PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SAALE GLACIATION
IN THE SOKÓ£KA HILLS
As sump tions of the palaeoglaciological in ver sion model (Kleman and Borgstrom, 1996; Clark, 1997; cf. Benn and Ev - ans, 2010) were used in the re con struc tion of the vary ing Saale ice sheet dy nam ics and in set ting the rel a tive chro nol ogy of gla - cial events dur ing deglaciation of the Sokó³ka Hills area (Figs. 7 and 8). The in ver sion model, i.e. re con struc tion of the chro no - log i cal se quence of events, is pre pared based on the iden ti fi ca - tion of forms start ing from the youn gest (best pre served) ones and con tin u ing through the older forms whose level of pres er va - tion be comes worse.
The dif fer ences in the ori en ta tion of ter mi nal bas ins within the morainic pla teaux in the Sokó³ka Hills, the east ern part of the Bia³ystok Gla cial Pla teau, and the west ern part of the Grodno Pla teau are in dic a tive of the bipartition of ice sheet flow di rec tions in the study area, which may serve as in di rect ev i - dence for the ac tiv ity of two ice sheet lobes that cov ered its east ern (Neman lobe) and west ern (Biebrza lobe) parts (Ber et al., 2012). Like wise, Karabanov (1987) de scribed vari able di - rec tions of the Saale ice sheet ad vance in this re gion. His ob - ser va tions were based mainly on the anal y sis of glacio tectonic struc tures. The cen tral part of the Sokó³ka Hills is an area where the zones of im pact of the two lobes over lap, cre at ing ice-lobe con ver gence forms (Fig. 8) – “interlobate mo raines” (e.g., Punkari, 1980; Brennand et al., 1996). “Interlobate mo raines”
were formed in this zone (e.g., Punkari, 1980; Brennand et al., 1996). Ac cord ing to the DGMP, the mo raine junc tion zones in the Sokó³ka Hills are com posed of grav els, boul ders and gla cial tills of end mo raines, which build the high est el e va tions in the area (Boratyn, 2006; Wrotek, 2009). The li thol ogy of forms of such or i gin was also de scribed by Brennand et al. (1996) in north ern Que bec, Can ada. Forms cor re lated with the ice-lobe con ver gence zone of the Saale ice sheet were also dis tin - guished in the £ódŸ Pla teau (Turkowska, 2006; Dziedu szyñska et al., 2014).
Clus ter ing of re sul tant vec tors within the study area may also be no ticed in the ori en ta tion of the morpholineaments iden - ti fied as for mer subglacial chanels (Fig. 7A). A typ i cal ori en ta - tion for the west ern part of the study area (in the Biebrza lobe) is ca. 290 and 330°, whereas the east ern part (Niemen lobe) is rep re sented by re sul tant vec tors with a more north east ern
strike – ~40 and 5° (cf. Ta ble 1). The above sup ports the hy - poth e sis of two in di vid ual ice sheet lobes in the ana lysed area.
Morpholineaments re lated to the subglacial drain age group prove mul ti ple changes in the dy nam ics of the en tire ice sheet and re veal the mu tual re la tion ships be tween the in ferred ice sheet lobes. Trends in the chang ing ori en ta tion of the forms re - lated to the subglacial drain age en abled us to re con struct the range of the ice sheet lobes (Fig. 7B). Changes ob served in the subglacial drain age sys tem could be in di cated the pul sat ing na - ture of the ice move ment, and in di cate ep i sodes of in tense subglacial drain age, which was par tic u larly well-de vel oped in the west ern sec tor. Ep i sodes of in tense ice flow, which ended in the cre ation of a sys tem of subglacial chan nels, were prob a bly pre ceded by pe ri ods of crawl ing of ice masses.
A com plex ori en ta tion of the gla cial forms of the mar ginal zone sys tem within the in di vid ual sec tors en abled us to draw con clu sions on the chro nol ogy of the gla ci ation events. The pre - vail ing di rec tion from the NNW (290° – sec tor L4) seems to re - flect more cli ma tic rather than glacio-dy namic fac tors. The pro - gres sive im prove ment of the cli ma tic con di tions im posed a con - stant lon gi tu di nal se quence of deglaciation of the sub se quent sec tors across the study area. The se quence was only slightly mod i fied by the ac tive ice move ment or by the re-ad vance of the in di vid ual parts of the ice sheet. The pos si ble traces of the glacio-dy namic im pact from the NE, ~40° (cor re spond ing to the Neman lobe), are marked in the sys tem of mar ginal morpholineaments as a sec ond-level, cou pled, lower fre quency morpholineament sys tem. The anal y sis of the re sul tant di rec - tions of the mar ginal morpholineament sys tems in the in di vid ual sec tors and their re la tion ships within the morainic junc tions was used to re con struct a likely scheme of deglaciation isoch rones (Fig. 7C).
The Biebrza lobe has a fully de vel oped sys tem of post-gla - cial morpholineaments. Each of the sys tems is clearly rep re - sented and the num ber of morpholineaments is suf fi cient to per form a sta tis ti cal anal y sis. In the case of the Neman lobe, the num ber of morpholineaments re lated to the subglacial sys tem is low and there fore the re sults for these groups of morpho - lineaments should be con sid ered only as indicative.
STAGES OF THE SAALE ICE SHEET ADVANCE IN THE SOKÓ£KA HILLS
Based on MMA, the re con struc tion of MMA ad vances and re treats of the Saale ice sheet in the Sokó³ka Hills was per - formed:
Stage I – ad vance of the Saale ice sheet
The re sul tant di rec tions of ice ad vance, de rived from morpho lineaments, have re vealed that both the Biebrza and Neman ice lobes had a sim i lar flow di rec tion which sug gests that they might have used one re gional cor ri dor for the ice sheet flow. The vari able ac tiv ity of the in di vid ual ice sheet sec tors is as sumed to be a re sult of lo cal changes in the ice-mass bal ance and lo ca tion of the lo cal ice di vide.
The early phases of ice sheet ac tiv ity rec og nized in the Sokó³ka Hills are as so ci ated with the mu tual con flu ent flow within both sec tors of the ice sheet (Fig. 8A). The set ting up of the ter mi nal bas ins within the fu ture gla cial mo raine plains should be re lated to this pe riod. The range of the ice sheet at this stage of the Saale Gla ci ation in east ern Po land and west - ern Belarus prob a bly reached much fur ther to the south of the study area.
Fig. 8. Palaeogeographic re con struc tion of the last gla ci ation in the Bia³ystok Pla teau and Sokó³ka Hills
A – gla ci ation; B – flow of ice masses in the Biebrza lobe; C – flow of ice masses in the Neman lobe;
D – re or ga ni za tion of ice-mass flow in the Biebrza lobe; E, F – deglaciation, con flu ent ice sheet lobes
Postglacial morpholineaments as an in di ca tor of ice sheet dy nam ics dur ing the Saale Gla ci ation... 345
Stage II – ac ti va tion of the Biebrza lobe
The next event that could be iden ti fied was a con cen trated flow to wards the WNW within the Biebrza lobe, com bined with the de vel op ment of a chan nelled subglacial drain age sys tem (~290° – the older drain age sys tem; cf. Ta ble 1). This stage was prob a bly con tem po ra ne ous with the stag na tion within the Neman lobe – the east ern sec tor of the ice sheet (Fig. 8B).
Stage III – ac ti va tion of the Neman lobe
The re ac ti va tion of the Neman lobe oc curred in the fol low ing stage, which was re lated to the evo lu tion of the NE–SW (~40°) subglacial drain age sys tem iden ti fied in the south east ern part of the study area (Ta ble 1). This event may be re lated to the for - ma tion of glaciotectonic de for ma tions de scribed in a small lobe at Knyszewicze, which was a pro tru sion of the Neman ice lobe, roughly 12 km long and 4 km wide (Rychel et al., 2015). Dur ing this ep i sode, par tial re or ga ni za tion and over lap ping of the ter - mi nal bas ins sys tems might have oc curred within the morainic pla teaux in sec tors L6 and L7. Si mul ta neously, the de vel op - ment of proglacial out flows, re lated with a dis tinct mar ginal zone in the west ern part of the area, in di cates con tin u ous flow of the ice masses from the in te rior of the east ern sec tor of the ice sheet (Fig. 8C).
Stage IV – re or ga ni za tion of the Biebrza lobe
An other re ar range ment of the cou pled lobe sys tem took place dur ing the deglaciation and the ac com pa ny ing alimen - tation sys tem changes. The ice of the Neman lobe en tered a sta bi li za tion phase, whereas the in flow of the ice masses into the Biebrza lobe con cen trated in the axes of two ter mi nal bas - ins in the west ern and cen tral part of the area (Fig. 8D).
Stages V and VI – deglaciation
The sub se quent stages com prised suc ces sive deglaciation of the west ern area (with a no tice able trend to wards the for ma - tion of ice sheet lobes ex tend ing along the main ter mi nal bas ins axes) and the in creased ice sheet dy nam ics in the east ern sec - tor (Fig. 8E, F). The pat tern and the ori en ta tion of the post-gla - cial morpholineaments within the two ice sheet lobes in di cate slightly dif fer ent glacio-dy namic con di tions.
In the case of the Biebrza lobe, the chang ing ori en ta tion may be ob served both in the post-gla cial chan nels and in the morpholineaments of the mar ginal and intra-lobe sys tem. It may be re lated to the pul sat ing na ture of the ice in flow. Each ep i sode of the con cen trated flow (stream ing) of the ice sheet ends with the de vel op ment of a chan nelled subglacial drain age sys tem and a stag na tion pe riod. The re lief, ex ten sion and geomorphological ex pres sion of the mar ginal zones in the west are in dic a tive of the pro longed pe ri ods of dy namic equi lib rium of the ice sheet front, which could be achieved by con tin u ous alimentation of the ice mar gin by fresh ice (cf. Kozarski and Kasprzak, 1987). Con sid er ing the above state ments, one should as sume the ex is tence of mi nor dif fer ences in the move - ment rate of the ice body dur ing the con cen trated (ice-stream - ing) and nor mal ice flow. A con cen trated flow of the ice sheet is pos si ble dur ing pe ri ods of sig nif i cant im prove ment in the cli - mate con di tions, when the cli mate warm ing causes an in - creased supraglacial melt wa ter pro duc tion which, in turn, re - mains in re la tion to the rhe o log i cal con di tions in the ice sheet sole, caus ing more fa vour able con di tions for basal slid ing and other melt wa ter re lated forms of en hanced ice flow.
The morpholineaments pat tern of the Neman lobe im plies that the main area of its im pact was lo cated fur ther to the east, and only part of its mar ginal limit may be ob served in the study area. Low fre quency of the subglacial morpholineaments leads to the hy poth e sis of dif fer ent (more abrupt in its na ture) ice flow mech a nisms, i.e. surges. Both the ex pres sion of the mar ginal zones in the east ern part of the study area, and the pe ri ods of in creased ac tiv ity of the east ern ice sheet lobe (in ter preted on
the ba sis of the ori en ta tion of gla cial morpholineaments more vari able in the re sul tant di rec tion, cf. Ta ble 1) may be as so ci - ated with the cross ing of sub se quent rhe o log i cal bar ri ers by the ice sheet. In this in stance, ar eas of faster ice flow, marked by a dis tinct subglacial morpholineaments pat tern, may be ob served on the dis tal zones of base ment el e va tions.
INFLUENCE OF BASEMENT MORPHOLOGY ON THE ICE SHEET MOVEMENT
The lim its and dy nam ics of both the Biebrza and Neman ice sheet lobes and the smaller lobes in the mar ginal zones of the ice sheets (like those at Knyszewicze) are largely pre-de ter - mined by the base ment to pog ra phy and its geo log i cal struc ture (rhe o log i cal pa ram e ters of par tic u lar base ment lay ers and its con fig u ra tion). The Geo log i cal map of the north ern bor der land be tween Po land and Belarus at the scale of 1:250,000 (Marks and Karabanov, 2011) con tains a sup ple men tary geo log i cal map of the pre-Qua ter nary de pos its. A model of the Qua ter nary de pos its was gen er ated with the use of in ter po lated isolines of the Qua ter nary floor el e va tion (Fig. 9).
Dis tinct el e va tion dif fer ences within the Neo gene, Paleo - gene and the Cre ta ceous base ment had a sig nif i cant im pact on the di rec tion and rate of the ice sheet ad vance. Axes of both lobes, i.e. the Biebrza lobe and the Neman lobe, cor re spond to the out line of the main ter mi nal bas ins in this area. Now a days, the same align ment is rec og niz able in the net work pat tern of ma jor rivers, af ter which the lobes were named. The intra-lobe zones, where the ice mass was as sumed to be of greater thick - ness (al low ing faster ice flow rates), were lo cated in large de - pres sions, for in stance in the vi cin ity of Sztabin or Lipsk (north - ern sec tor of the study area). The mo raine junc tion zones, rec - og nized, e.g., near Gliniszcze Wielkie and Janów (Fig. 1), re - flect el e va tions or es carp ments of the pre-Qua ter nary base - ment. The ice sheet ad vance might have trig gered tec tonic move ments within the base ment, which is con firmed by the pres ence of glaciotectonically dis turbed zones, e.g. to the west and north-west of Grodno, where Cre ta ceous rocks were up - lifted and are at pres ent ex tracted in open pit mines. Such an ar - range ment is ob served mainly in the east ern sec tor, where the Neman lobe was de lim ited. As sum ing the over lap ping of the gla cial sedimentological suc ces sion and rep e ti tion of morpho - genesis over par tic u lar gla cial pe ri ods for cer tain re gions of north east ern Po land (Morawski, 2009b), the dy nam ics of the ice masses and spa tial lim its of the Neman lobe were con - strained by for mer struc tural el e ments which pre vented the de - vel op ment of broad mar ginal zones in the area and fast- ice-flow fea tures. The in flu ence of tec tonic struc tures on the or i gin of lobes dur ing the Main Stadial of the Vistulian Gla ci ation in north east ern Po land was also de scribed by Morawski (2005), and for the Saale ice sheet in cen tral Po land – by e.g. Turko - wska (2006) and Dzieduszyñska et al. (2014).
CONCLUSIONS
Anal y sis of the post-gla cial morpholineaments in the ar eas of the Bia³ystok Gla cial Pla teau and Sokó³ka Hills (NE Po land) has con firmed that the pres ent-day land scape of this re gion was cre ated dur ing one gla ci ation by the ac tiv ity of the Wartanian Stadial of the Odranian Glaciation.
The sec ond-level dif fer ences in the pat tern of morpho - lineaments have al lowed dis tin guish ing in di vid u al ized do mains
re lated to vary ing tem po ral dy nam ics of two ice sheet el e ments:
ice-mass flow of the Biebrza and Neman lobes in the north- east.
The most prob a ble model for the in ferred dy nam ics of the ice sheet lobes may be ex plained by a cy cli cal re verse feed - back where the greater ac tiv ity of one lobe re sulted in the stag - na tion of the sec ond lobe fed from the same alimentation area.
The pul sat ing ice sheet move ment dur ing the Wartanian Stadial in the Sokó³ka Hills is con firmed by the gen eral geo - morpho logical char ac ter of the area, where glaciotectonically dis turbed land forms (cre ated dur ing pe ri ods of in ten sive ice in - flow) are ac com pa nied by the zones of hummocky mo raines or kames, that is land forms cre ated in var i ous sed i men tary en vi - ron ments in ar eal deglaciation con di tions (ice sheet stag na - tion). Cor re la tion of the re sults of the struc tural mea sure ments made at Knyszewicze with the anal y sis of the morpho linea - ments ar range ment in the area pos i tively ver i fies the re mote method as in dic a tive for the reconstruction of the palaeo- ice - -sheet movement.
The ice sheet of the Wartanian Stadial of the Odranian Gla - ci ation (Saale – MIS 6) ad vanced on the area that had been cov ered by sed i ments of var i ous or i gins and with pre-Odranian re lief. Both the thick ness and the struc ture of the base ment af - fected the ice move ment dy nam ics (Dzier¿ek, 2009; Czubla, 2015). It is con firmed in the Horczaki Knoll that might have func - tioned as an el e va tion and a bar rier for the ice body dur ing the last ice sheet ad vance in the Knyszewicze area. This el e va tion func tions above Neo gene and Paleogene de pos its, which are tec toni cally dis placed.
The con tem po rary re lief cor re sponds to the main fea tures and struc tures de tected in the base ment of the Qua ter nary se - ries. The base ment re lief was a very im por tant fac tor dif fer en ti - at ing the dy nam ics of particular ice lobes.
Ap pli ca tion of the Geo graphic In for ma tion Sys tems (GIS) al lows a de tailed chro no log i cal re con struc tion of the se quence of events ac cord ing to the palaeoglaciological in ver sion mod - els. They en able col lect ing, pro cess ing and in te grat ing large Fig. 9. Re lief of the pre-Qua ter nary base ment
amounts of data from nu mer ous sources. Thus, the anal y sis of post-gla cial morpholineaments ap plied in this study may rep re - sent a uni ver sal tool for in te grated, (trans)re gional palaeo - geomorphological and palaeogeographical anal y sis, pro vid ing a new ap proach and op por tu nity to check vary ing hypothetical models of ice sheet development.
Ac knowl edge ments. We wish to thank B. Gruszka and V. Zelès for valu able sug ges tions that im proved the qual ity of this pa per. The re search was funded by the grant of the Pol ish Min is try of Sci ence and Higher Ed u ca tion (de ci sion No. 497/N- BIA£ORUŒ/2009/0) and re search pro ject No. UMO- 2013/09/B/ST10/02118.
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