390
([SUHVVLRQPillar of fire – from Auschwitz to Casa-
blanca
Nitza Davidovitch
'HSDUWPHQWRI(GXFDWLRQ)DFXOW\RI6RFLDO6FLHQFHV$ULHO8QLYHUVLW\
.LU\DW+DPDGD$ULHO8QLYHUVLW\,VUDHO
E-mail address: d.nitza@ariel.ac.il ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7273-903X
Ruth Dorot
6FKRRORI$UFKLWHFWXUH$ULHO8QLYHUVLW\
.LU\DW+DPDGD$ULHO8QLYHUVLW\,VUDHO
E-mail address: ruthd@ariel.ac.il ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1884-1743
Abstract
Aim. 7KLVVWXG\H[DPLQHVWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHLQGLYLGXDOVZKRJRRQWKHMRXU
QH\WR3RODQGZKLFKLVDNH\HOHPHQWRIWKH+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQFXUULFXOXPLQ,VUDHO
WKHLUSHUVRQDOFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH+RORFDXVWDVZHOODVWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDOGHYHORSPHQWV
LQ,VUDHOWKDWDWWHPSWWREULGJHWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKHYDULRXVSROHVLQVRFLHW\²EHWZHHQ
(DVWDQG:HVW
Concept. +RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQLQFOXGHVWKHIRUPDOSDUWZKLFKLVWKHKLVWRULFDOQDU
UDWLYHDQGWKHLQIRUPDOSDUWZKLFKLVWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQG7KLVVWXG\IROORZVWKH
GHYHORSPHQWRI+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQDQGFRPPHPRUDWLRQRIWKHYLFWLPVRIWKH+ROR
FDXVW²IURPWKHQDUUDWLYHRIWKH+RORFDXVWRIWKH-HZVRI(XURSHWRWKHQDUUDWLYHRIWKH
+RORFDXVWDPRQJWKHFRPPXQLWLHVRI1RUWK$IULFDQGHVFHQW
Results and conclusion.7KHÀQGLQJVRIWKHVWXG\LQGLFDWHDOLQNEHWZHHQIDPLO\
VXSSRUWDQGWLHVWRWKH+RORFDXVWDQGWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGZKLFKDSSHDUVWREH
LQOLQHZLWKÀQGLQJVRI1LW]D'DYLGRYLWFKDQG'DQ6RHQZKRIRXQGDFRU
UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH VWXGHQWV SDUWLFLSDWLQJ LQ WKH MRXUQH\ DQG WKHLU SHUVRQDO FRQ
QHFWLRQVWRWKH+RORFDXVWLQFRQWUDVWWRVWXGHQWVZLWKQRIDPLO\FRQQHFWLRQZLWKWKH
+RORFDXVW)RUDOOLWVLPSRUWDQFHWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGKDVEHHQIRXQGWRSHUSHWXDWH
VRFLDOSRODULVDWLRQ
Practical applications. 7KHFXUUHQWVWXG\KLJKOLJKWVWKHFKDOOHQJHRI+RORFDXVWHGX
FDWLRQLQRUGHUWREXLOGDEULGJHRIVKDUHGKLVWRULFDOGHVWLQ\WKURXJKWKLVVHPLQDOHYHQW
RIWKHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\
Originality. 7KLVZRUNVSDUNVWKHTXHVWLRQRIKRZWRPDNHWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGD
XQLI\LQJIDFWRULQFROOHFWLYHQDWLRQDOPHPRU\
Key words:+RORFDXVW1RUWK$IULFDPRQXPHQW3RODQGHGXFDWLRQUHPHPEUDQFH
doi:10.15503/jecs2021.1.390.412
Introduction
7KHGHEDWHRYHULQVWLOOLQJWKHPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWDVSDUWRIWKH-HZLVK
LGHQWLW\DQGFRQVFLRXVQHVVKDVEHHQSUHRFFXS\LQJOHDGHUVRI,VUDHO·VHGXFDWLRQ
V\VWHPVHOHFWHGRIÀFLDOVDQG,VUDHOLFLWL]HQVIRUTXLWHVRPHWLPH7KLVLVRQHRI
WKHPRUHFRQWURYHUVLDOLVVXHVURRWHGLQWKHSUREOHPDWLFQDWXUHRIWKH\RXQJHU
JHQHUDWLRQ·VGLVHQJDJHPHQWIURPLWV-HZLVKKHULWDJH7KHLVVXHRI+RORFDXVWHGX
FDWLRQDQGWKHFRPPLWPHQWWR+RORFDXVWUHPHPEUDQFHLVDOZD\VRQWKHDJHQGD
RIWKHVFKRROHGXFDWLRQV\VWHPDQGUHFHQWO\WKHLVVXHKDVDOVRUHVXUIDFHGLQD
UHSRUWSXEOLVKHGE\WKH1DWLRQDO$FDGHP\RI6FLHQFHVLQ,VUDHOKHDGHGE\3URI
,VUDHO%DUWDORQWKHVWDWHRI+RORFDXVWVWXGLHVLQDFDGHPLDLQ,VUDHO7KLV
UHSRUWVXSSOHPHQWVWKHUHSRUWRIWKH%LWRQ&RPPLWWHHIRUWKH(PSRZHU
PHQWRIWKH/HJDF\RI6HSKDUGLFDQG(DVWHUQ-HZU\LQWKH(GXFDWLRQDO6\VWHP
ZKLFKDOVRDGGUHVVHGWKHLVVXHRIWKH´(DVWHUQ3LOODURI)LUHµ
7KXVEDVHGRQRXUFRQYLFWLRQWKDWWKHHGXFDWLRQV\VWHPPDNHVDUHDOFRQ
WULEXWLRQWRVKDSLQJWKHFKDUDFWHURILWVJUDGXDWHVZKRKDYHD-HZLVKLGHQWLW\
NQRZWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHLUSHRSOHDQGDUHDZDUHRIWKH-HZLVKFRPPXQLWLHVWKDW
ZHUHDQQLKLODWHGDQGWKDWJDWKHUHGIURPDOOFRUQHUVRIWKHZRUOGWRHVWDEOLVKD
FRXQWU\IRUWKHPVHOYHVDVDQDWLRQZLWKDVKDUHGGHVWLQ\ZHIRFXVRQLQVWLOOLQJ
WKHKLVWRULFDOPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWRIWKH-HZLVKSHRSOHZLWKHPSKDVLVRQ
WKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFD
:LWKWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKH6WDWHRI,VUDHOWKH+HEUHZHGXFDWLRQV\VWHP
EHFDPHWKHLQIUDVWUXFWXUHRIWKH,VUDHOLHGXFDWLRQV\VWHPZKLFKZDVWDVNHG
ZLWKWKHDEVRUSWLRQRIDQHZSRSXODWLRQ²WKHLPPLJUDQWSRSXODWLRQFRQVLVW
LQJRIPXOWLSOHVXEJURXSV-HZVIURP(XURSHDQG-HZVIURP0XVOLPFRXQWULHV
UHSUHVHQWLQJDEURDGUDQJHRIFXOWXUHVDQGWUDGLWLRQV7KHQDVFHQWVWDWHVHWLWVHOI
DWDVNWRDEVRUEHGXFDWHDQGDVVLPLODWHWKHQHZSRSXODWLRQVLQ,VUDHOWKURXJK
WKHHGXFDWLRQV\VWHP7KHLPPLJUDQWVLQFOXGHG+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUVDQG-HZV
IURP1RUWK$IULFD%RWKRIWKHVHJURXSVSOD\HGDQDFWLYHUROHLQWKHFRQVWUXF
WLRQDQGWKHFXOWXUHRIWKHQHZFRXQWU\DVWKH+HEUHZVD\LQJJRHV:HFDPH
WR,VUDHOWREXLOGDQGWREHEXLOW%XWZKDWDERXW+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQ"
+DQD<DR]DGGUHVVHGWKHQHHGIRU+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQ
7KH+RORFDXVWLVWKHFHQWUDOWUDXPDRIRXUJHQHUDWLRQDQG+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQ
LVYHU\VLJQLÀFDQWIRUGHHSHQLQJVWXGHQWV·DWWLWXGHWRZDUGWKH-HZLVKSHRSOHDQG
LWVVXIIHULQJDVZHOODVIRUFUHDWLQJHPSDWK\ZLWK+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUV+RORFDXVW
HGXFDWLRQUDLVHVFRQFHSWXDOTXHVWLRQVDQGLQYLWHVFRPSOH[HPRWLRQDOH[SHULHQFHV
:HKDYHEHIRUHXVDQHGXFDWLRQDOLVVXHRIQDWLRQDOKLVWRULFDOVLJQLÀFDQFHZKLFK
PXVW EH UHÁHFWHG LQ WKH FXUULFXOD DQG LQ WKH WUDLQLQJ RI WHDFKHUV RI WKH 6WDWH RI
,VUDHO,QWKHÀUVWGHFDGHVRIWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKH6WDWHRI,VUDHOFODVVURRPWHDFKLQJ
LQOLWHUDWXUHDQGKLVWRU\OHVVRQVZDVYHU\OLPLWHGWKHUHZDVOLWWOHUHIHUHQFH>WRWKH
+RORFDXVW@LQWH[WERRNVDQGWKHWRSLFZDVDGGUHVVHGPDLQO\WKURXJK+RORFDXVW
'D\UHPHPEUDQFHFHUHPRQLHVS
,WVHHPVWKDWPRVWWHDFKHUVZHUHWUDSSHGLQDQDOLHQDWHGDQGSUREOHPDWLF
PLQGVHWYLVjYLVWKHIDWHRI(XURSHDQ-HZU\LQ:RUOG:DU,,LQÁXHQFHGE\
WKHPLQGVHWRIWKH-HZLVKFRPPXQLW\WKDWOLYHGLQ3DOHVWLQHEHIRUHWKH+ROR
FDXVWDQGZKDWLVPRUHWKHIDFWWKDW+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUVZKRFDPHWR,VUDHO
DVUHIXJHHVWHQGHGWRGLVWDQFHWKHPVHOYHVIURPWKHLUWUDXPDWLFSDVWLQRUGHU
WRLQWHJUDWHTXLFNO\DQGHIIHFWLYHO\LQWR,VUDHOLVRFLHW\DQGFXOWXUH$VKLIWLQ
WKHDWWLWXGHRI,VUDHOLVRFLHW\DQGFXOWXUHWRWKH+RORFDXVWRFFXUUHGLQWKHODWH
VDQGHDUO\VLQWKHZDNHRIWKH(LFKPDQQWULDOWKHWUDXPDRIWKH<RP
.LSSXU:DUDQGWKHLQÁXHQFHRIWKHVHFRQGJHQHUDWLRQ+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUV
RQ,VUDHOLFXOWXUH7KHFKDQJHZDVUHÁHFWHGLQWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIDWHDFKLQJ
XQLWLQ-HZLVKKLVWRU\IRUWKHXSSHUJUDGHVRIKLJKVFKRROVDQGLQWKHV
WKHOLWHUDWXUHFXUULFXOXPIRUUHOLJLRXVSRVWSULPDU\VFKRROVZDVH[SDQGHGWR
LQFOXGHD+RORFDXVWVWXG\XQLWWKDWFRXOGEHHOHFWHGDVDXQLWLQWKHPDWULFX
ODWLRQH[DPV7KLV+RORFDXVWOLWHUDWXUHFXUULFXOXPUHPDLQVWKHEDVLVIRUWKH
VWXG\XQLWRQWKHVXEMHFWWKDWLVXVHGWRGD\DVSDUWRIWKHPDWULFXODWLRQFXUULFX
OXPLQUHOLJLRXVSRVWSULPDU\VFKRROVDQGZDVHYHQLQFRUSRUDWHGZLWKPLQRU
FKDQJHVLQWRWKHFXUULFXOXPRI,VUDHO·VVWDWHKLJKVFKRROV
,QWKHDDPDMRUFKDQJHLQ,VUDHOLVRFLHW\·VDWWLWXGHWRZDUGWKH+ROR
FDXVWRFFXUUHG7KHUHLVDPRUHHPSDWKHWLFDWWLWXGHWRZDUGV+RORFDXVWVXUYL
YRUVPRVWRIZKRPDUHVHQLRUFLWL]HQVWKHVHFRQGJHQHUDWLRQKDVFRQVLGHU
DEOHLQÁXHQFHRQWKHVXUYLYRUVDORQJZLWKLQFUHDVHGLQWHUHVWRQWKHSDUWRIWKH
JUDQGFKLOGUHQPHPEHUVRIWKHWKLUGJHQHUDWLRQPDLQO\HYRNHGE\WKHVWXGHQW
MRXUQH\VWRFRQFHQWUDWLRQFDPSVLQ3RODQGWKDWDUHFRQGXFWHGZLWKWKHHQFRXU
DJHPHQWRIWKH0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQ/HY+RZHYHULWVKRXOGEHQRWHG
WKDWH[FHSWIRUDIHZFKDQJHVLQOLWHUDWXUHDQGKLVWRU\FXUULFXODQRQHZFXU
ULFXODLQWKHKLVWRU\DQGOLWHUDWXUHRQWKHVXEMHFWRIWKH+RORFDXVWZHUHLQWUR
GXFHGLQWKHSDVWGHFDGHDQGWKHWLPHKDVFRPHWRIRUPDWHDPRIUHVHDUFKHUV
DQG WHDFKHUV ZKR ZLOO SUHSDUH QHZ FXUULFXOD IURP D QHZ SHUVSHFWLYH WKDW
ZLOOVXLW,VUDHO·VFRQWHPSRUDU\UHDOLW\²IRUQHZLPPLJUDQWVDQGQDWLYHERUQ
,VUDHOLVIRU\RXQJSHRSOHIURPWKHFHQWUHRIWKHFRXQWU\DQGWKHSHULSKHU\²
IRUHYHU\RQH
7KHUHIRUHWKLVVWXG\WUDFHVWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQ²IURP
WKHQDUUDWLYHRIWKH+RORFDXVWRIWKH-HZVRI(XURSHWRWKHQDUUDWLYHRIWKH+RO
RFDXVWDPRQJFRPPXQLWLHVRI1RUWK$IULFDQGHVFHQWZKRDUHFRQVSLFXRXVO\
DEVHQWIURPERWKGLVFRXUVHDQGUHPHPEUDQFH+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQLQFOXGHV
WKHIRUPDOSDUWZKLFKLVWKHKLVWRULFDOVWRU\DQGWKHLQIRUPDOSDUWZKLFKLVWKH
MRXUQH\WR3RODQG7KHUHIRUHWKLVVWXG\VHHNVWRH[DPLQHWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFV
RIWKRVHZKRJRRQWKHMRXUQH\WKHLUSHUVRQDOFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH+RORFDXVW
DVZHOODVWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDOSURFHVVHVLQ,VUDHOWKDWDWWHPSWWREULGJHWKHJDS
EHWZHHQWKHYDULRXVSROHVLQVRFLHW\²EHWZHHQ(DVWDQG:HVW
Unbuilt monument and the untold story
%HIRUHLWLVWRRODWHZHPXVWFRPHWRWKHUHDOL]DWLRQWKDWWKH+RORFDXVWLVQRWWKH
REVHVVLRQRIWKHVXUYLYRUVDQGWKHFRPPXQLRQZLWKWKHVL[PLOOLRQYLFWLPVDQGWKH
OHVVRQRIWKHSHULRGLVQRWRQO\WKHFRQFHUQRIWKRVHZKRSHUVRQDOO\H[SHULHQFHGWKH
KRUURUVEXWUDWKHUSDUWRIWKHORQJWHUPFROOHFWLYHPHPRU\RIWKH-HZLVKSHRSOH
DQGWKH+RORFDXVWEHORQJVLQWKHKLVWRULFDOFRQVFLRXVQHVVRIHYHU\-HZLVKJHQHUD
WLRQ7KLVUHFRJQLWLRQLVRQHRIWKHWHQHWVRIFRQWHPSRUDU\-HZLVKLGHQWLW\VLQFH
ZLWKRXWLWLWLVGRXEWIXOZKHWKHULWLVSRVVLEOHWRDFKLHYHJHQXLQHLGHQWLÀFDWLRQ
ZLWKDSRVLWLYLVWOLYLQJDQGSURGXFWLYHIRUPRI-XGDLVP1RZPRUHWKDQHYHUWKH
IXWXUHRIWKH-HZLVKSHRSOHGHSHQGVRQWKH-HZV·DWWLWXGHWRZDUGWKHPVHOYHVDQG
WKHLUSDVWWKHLUJORULRXVKHULWDJHDQGWKHWHUULEOHWUDJHG\DORQJZLWKWKHVRXOVHDU
FKLQJWKDWWKLVKLVWRULFDOFRQVFLRXVQHVVGHPDQGV>@.RYQHUS
2QH PRQXPHQW LQ PHPRU\ RI WKH YLFWLPV RI WKH 1D]LV LQ :RUOG :DU ,,
ZDV DOPRVW EXLOW ,Q D VWXGHQW QDPHG 2OLYHU HPEDUNHG RQ D SHUVRQDO
DQGLQGHSHQGHQWSURMHFWWRHUHFWDPRQXPHQWLQPHPRU\RIWKH-HZLVK/*%7
YLFWLPVQHDUWKH0RURFFDQFLW\RI0DUUDNHVK7KHSURMHFWZDVPDGHSRVVL
EOHWKDQNVWRDKXPDQULJKWVRUJDQLVDWLRQFDOOHG3L[HO+HOSHUZKLFKRSHUDWHV
WKURXJKFURZGIXQGLQJ,WZDVSODQQHGWREHDODUJHDQGLPSUHVVLYHPRQX
PHQW7KHSURMHFWZDVLQLWLDWHGDIWHU2OLYHUGLVFRYHUHGKLVODVWQDPHRQWKH
OLVWVDW<DG9DVKHPLQ-HUXVDOHP7RKLVVXUSULVHKHIRXQGWKDWWKHRQO\PRQX
PHQWLQ$IULFDIRUWKHYLFWLPVRIWKH+RORFDXVWLVLQ6RXWK$IULFD7KHUHIRUH
KHIHOWWKHQHHGWRHVWDEOLVKRQHLQ0RURFFRLQ1RUWK$IULFDDVZHOORQHWKDW
ZRXOG FRPPHPRUDWH WKH IRUJRWWHQ +RORFDXVW RI WKH -HZV DJURXS WKDW KDG
EHHQLJQRUHGIRUPDQ\\HDUVDQGZDVQHYHUFRPPHPRUDWHG$QG\HWWKHLGHD
RIWKHPRQXPHQWIDLOHG7KH0RURFFDQJRYHUQPHQWGHFLGHGWRGHPROLVKLW
GXULQJLWVFRQVWUXFWLRQ
=LRQLVP DQG WKH LQLWLDWRU·V DIÀOLDWLRQ ZLWK WKH JD\ FRPPXQLW\ ZHUH WRR
PXFKWRDFFHSWLQDFRXQWU\ZKHUHEHLQJSDUWRIWKH/*%7FRPPXQLW\LVD
FULPH2IFRXUVHWKHRIÀFLDOUHDVRQZDVFRPSOHWHO\GLIIHUHQWWKHDXWKRULWLHV
FODLPHGWKDWWKHPRQXPHQWZDVEXLOWZLWKRXWWKHDSSURSULDWHSHUPLWV7KHUH
IRUHLWZDVGHPROLVKHGEHIRUHLWZDVFRPSOHWHG
0RQXPHQWVKDYHEHHQHUHFWHGLQ,VUDHODQGDURXQGWKHZRUOGWR´UHPHP
EHUDQGQRWWRIRUJHW«ZKDW$PDOHNGLGWR\RXµ'RURW&RPPHPR
UDWLRQLVLPSRUWDQWIRUYDULRXVUHDVRQVDQGHVSHFLDOO\LQWKHFDVHPHQWLRQHG
DERYHWKHIRUJRWWHQ+RORFDXVWRIWKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFD
3ULRUWRWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKH6WDWHRI,VUDHOPRUHWKDQVHYHQGHFDGHV
DJRLWZDVHLWKHUQRWNQRZQRUXQDFFHSWDEOHWRPHQWLRQWKDWH[WHUPLQDWLRQ
DQGODERXUFRQFHQWUDWLRQDQGIRUFHGODERXUFDPSVIRU-HZVDSDUWIURPKDYLQJ
EHHQHUHFWHGLQ(XURSHZHUHDOVRHVWDEOLVKHGLQ1RUWK$IULFD$ELWEXO
)RUPDQ\\HDUVWKHVXUYLYRUVRIWKHVHFDPSV²/LE\DQ-HZV7XQLVLDQV$OJH
ULDQVDQG0RURFFDQV²WKHSDUHQWVDQGJUDQGSDUHQWVRIWKHVHFRQGDQGWKLUG
JHQHUDWLRQ,VUDHOLVZHUHIRUFHGWRFRQFHDOWKHLU+RORFDXVWVWRULHV
7KLVIDFWDOVRHFKRHVWKHSOLJKWRI+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUVIURP(XURSHZKR
ZHUHDOVRIRUFHGWRNHHSWKHLUVXIIHULQJWRWKHPVHOYHV2QO\\HDUVODWHUZKHQ
WKHQDWLYHERUQ,VUDHOLVDFFHSWHGWKHPDVSDUWRIWKH6WDWHRI,VUDHOZDVWKHLU
VWRU\ UHFRJQLVHG DQGFRQVLGHUHG ZRUWK\ RI FRPPHPRUDWLRQ ZKLOH WKH VXU
YLYRUV RI WKH 1RUWK $IULFDQ IRUFHG ODERXU FDPSV FRQWLQXHG WR FRQFHDO WKH
DFFRXQWVRIWKHLUH[SHULHQFHV-DEORQND2QO\DIWHUWKH(LFKPDQQWULDO
LQGLGWKHDWWLWXGHWRZDUGV(XURSHDQ-HZVZKRZHUHH[WHUPLQDWHGLQWKH
+RORFDXVWFKDQJH8SWRWKDWWLPHWKH\KDGEHHQSHUFHLYHGDVKDYLQJJRQH
OLNHVKHHSWRWKHVODXJKWHU
'LUHFWRUDQGSURGXFHU'U5DPL.LPKLSXEOLVKHGDQDUWLFOHRQWKHVXEMHFW
in Haaretz RQ0D\,QKLVDUWLFOHKHOLVWVWKUHHUHDVRQVIRUWKHH[FOXVLRQ
RI6HSKDUGLDQG0L]UDKL-HZVIURPWKHFRQWH[WRIWKH+RORFDXVW'HVSLWHKLV
V\PSDWKHWLFDSSURDFKWRWKHWRSLFKHREMHFWVWRXVLQJWKHWHUP´+RORFDXVWµ
IRUWKHHYHQWVWKDWRFFXUUHGLQ1RUWK$IULFD$OWKRXJKKHEHOLHYHVWKDWWKHVH
HYHQWVVKRXOGEHUHPHPEHUHGDQGPHQWLRQHGWKH\VKRXOGQRWEHFDOOHGD
+RORFDXVW
The Germans in North Africa
,Q:RUOG:DU,,WKH1D]LVFKDUJHGDKHDGPHUFLOHVVO\DQGZHUHUHOHQWOHVVLQ
WKHDQQLKLODWLRQRIWKH-HZVRI(XURSH+LWOHUDQGKLVIDVFLVWDOOLHVDOVRV\VWHP
DWLFDOO\DWWHPSWHGWRHOLPLQDWH1RUWK$IULFDQ-HZU\GHVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWWKH\
ZHUHQRWLQFOXGHGLQWKH:DQQVHH&RQIHUHQFH$ELWEXO,Q-XQHWKH
*HUPDQVRFFXSLHG)UDQFH0LOLWDU\UXOHZDVLQVWLWXWHGLQWKHQRUWKDQGFHQWUH
RIWKHFRXQWU\DQGWKHUHVWRI)UDQFHZDVOHIWWR0DUVKDO3KLOLSSH3HWDLQZKR
HVWDEOLVKHG WKH 9LFK\ JRYHUQPHQW DQG DOVRFRQWUROOHG WKH )UHQFK WHUULWRULHV
LQ1RUWK$IULFD,Q0RURFFRZKHUH-HZVKDGFLYLOULJKWVQRDQWL-HZLVKODZV
ZHUHRIÀFLDOO\HQDFWHGEXWVXFKODZVZHUHHQDFWHGDJDLQVWWKH-HZVRI$OJHULD
ZKHUHWKH&UpPLHX['HFUHHZDVUHYRNHG$ELWEXOGHSULYLQJ-HZVZLWK
)UHQFKFLWL]HQVKLSRIWKHLUULJKWVDQGFLWL]HQVKLS
7KH ÀUVW DQWL-HZLVK ODZ ZDV SXEOLVKHG E\ WKH 9LFK\ UHJLPH LQ )UDQ
FHLQ2FWREHUZLWKRXWDQ\GHPDQGRQWKHSDUWRIWKH*HUPDQV7KLV
ODZZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKH1XUHPEHUJ/DZVGHÀQHV´ZKRWKH
-HZV DUHµ *HQLR )ROORZLQJ D VHULHV RI ODZV -HZV ZHUH EDQQHG
IURP HQJDJLQJ LQ WKH OLEHUDO SURIHVVLRQV DQG VXEVHTXHQWO\ WKHLU IUHHGRP
RIPRYHPHQWZDVUHVWULFWHG+HDY\ÀQHVZHUHDOVRLPSRVHGRQWKH-HZLVK
FRPPXQLWLHV LQ 1RUWK $IULFD E\ WKH 9LFK\ UHJLPH DQG WKH ,WDOLDQ IDVFLVW
JRYHUQPHQW ,Q ² ,WDOLDQ IRUFHV FRPPLWWHG PDQ\ DWURFLWLHV LQ
/LE\D%HUQKDUG
7KH FXOWXUDO DFWLYLW\ ZDV UHVWULFWHG DQG WKRXVDQGV RI -HZV ZHUH VHQW WR
FDPSVPDLQO\WRWKH-DGXFRQFHQWUDWLRQFDPSORFDWHGLQ/LE\D7KH-HZVRI
&\UHQDLFDZHUHDOVRVHQWWRWKH-DGXFRQFHQWUDWLRQFDPS7KLVZDVWKHÀUVW
VWDJHLQWKH*HUPDQSODQWRWUDQVIHUWKH-HZVWR,WDO\DQGIURPWKHUHWRWKH
H[WHUPLQDWLRQFDPSVLQ(XURSHWRZKLFKDOOWKH-HZVRI7ULSROLZHUHDOVRLQ
WHQGHG WR EH WUDQVIHUUHG WKH %DE\ORQLDQ -HZLVK +HULWDJH &HQWHU ZHEVLWH
ZZZOLYOXYRUJLO,Q-DQXDU\,WDOLDQDFWLRQVDJDLQVWWKH-HZVRI7XQLVLD
EHJDQ$ERXW-HZVIURPWKHWRZQVRI7ULSROLDQG%HQJKD]LZHUHVHQW
E\VHDWR,WDO\6LPRQRQDSHULORXVMRXUQH\WRDFRQFHQWUDWLRQFDPSLQ
,QQVEUXFN$XVWULDRU%HUJHQ%HOVHQLQQRUWKHUQ*HUPDQ\
7KH 9LFK\ DGPLQLVWUDWLRQ ZDV DQWL6HPLWLF DQG SDVVHG ODZV DJDLQVW WKH
-HZVRILWVRZQYROLWLRQ7KH*HUPDQVEHJDQWRFRQÀVFDWH-HZLVKDVVHWVDQG
PDQ\ZHUHUHFUXLWHGIRUIRUWLÀFDWLRQZRUNV7KH\ZHUHWUHDWHGGLVJUDFHIXOO\
DQGFRQVFULSWHGIRUIRUFHGODERXU0RUHRYHUWKH-HZVZHUHIRUFHGWRHVWDEOLVK
D ORFDO -XGHQUDW ZKLFK ZDV WDVNHG ZLWK WKH VHOHFWLRQ RI WKRXVDQGV RI -HZV
WREHFRQFHQWUDWHGLQODERXUFDPSV´,QIRUPDWLRQ$ERXWWKH+RORFDXVW<DG
9DVKHPZHEVLWHKWWSVZZZ\DGYDVKHPRUJ\YKHKRORFDXVWUHVRXUFHB FHQWHULQGH[DVS
,Q-XO\XQGHURUGHUVIURP*HUPDQ\)UHQFKSROLFHDUUHVWHGPRUHWKDQ
-HZVLQFOXGLQJDERXWFKLOGUHQ7KHUHLVQRHYLGHQFHWKDWWKH1D]L
UHJLPHVRXJKWWRDUUHVWFKLOGUHQEXWWKH9LFK\UHJLPHGHFLGHGWRWDNHWKHLQL
WLDWLYHDQGVHL]HWKHRSSRUWXQLW\7KH)UHQFK-HZLVKGHWDLQHHVZHUHKRXVHG
LQYHU\GLIÀFXOWFRQGLWLRQV´,QIRUPDWLRQ$ERXWWKH+RORFDXVW<DG9DVKHP
ZHEVLWH KWWSVZZZ\DGYDVKHPRUJ\YKHKRORFDXVWUHVRXUFHBFHQWHU
LQGH[DVSDQGIURPWKHUHWKH\ZHUHGHSRUWHGWR'UDQF\DQGWKHLUÀQDORQH
ZD\MRXUQH\²WR$XVFKZLW]
Jewish heroism in North Africa
2Q1RYHPEHUWKH$OOLHVLQYDGHG1RUWK$IULFDDVSDUWRI2SHUDWLRQ
7RUFK7KH*HUPDQVDQG,WDOLDQVH[SHULHQFHGPDQ\GHIHDWVLQEDWWOHDQGWKH
$PHULFDQVDQGWKH%ULWLVKKRSHGWKDWWKH*HUPDQDQG)UHQFKIRUFHVLQ1RUWK
$IULFDFRXOGEHUHSHOOHG
2QWKHGD\RIWKH$OOLHGLQYDVLRQRIWKH$OJHULDQFRDVWUHVLVWDQFHÀJKWHUV
VWDJHGDFRXSRQWKHVWUHHWVRI$OJHULDDJDLQVWVXSSRUWHUVRIWKH9LFK\UHJLPH
7KHYDVWPDMRULW\RIWKHXQGHUJURXQGÀJKWHUVZHUH-HZVDVZDVWKHOHDGHURI
WKHFRXS-RVp<RVHI$ERXONHUDQ$OJHULDQ-HZ.HVQHU 5RQHQ2YHU
QLJKWWKHXQGHUJURXQGÀJKWHUVWRRNFRQWURORIWHOHSKRQHH[FKDQJHVUDGLRVWD
WLRQVWKHJRYHUQRU·VKRXVHDQGWKHKHDGTXDUWHUVRIWKH)UHQFKIRUFHV$ELWEXO
7ZHQW\IRXUKRXUVDIWHUWKHFRXSE\WKH-HZLVKXQGHUJURXQGLQWKHFLW\
$PHULFDQIRUFHVDUULYHGDQGWKHFLW\JRYHUQRUVXUUHQGHUHG7ZRGD\VDIWHUWKH
$OOLHGODQGLQJLQ0RURFFRWKH9LFK\UHJLPH·VSXSSHWDUP\VXUUHQGHUHGDQG
WKHODQGLQJZDVFURZQHGDVXFFHVV.HVQHU 5RQHQ
,Q YLHZ RI WKH SDXFLW\ RI DYDLODEOH LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG OLPLWHG DZDUHQHVV
RIWKHVWRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWRIWKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFDWKHKHURLFVWRU\RI
WKH$OJHULDQXQGHUJURXQGDQG-RVp$ERXONHUVKRXOGEHEURXJKWWRWKHIRUH
<HKXGD.HVQHUDQG<HKXGLW5RQHQFULWLFLVHGWKHH[FOXVLRQRIVXFKLQIRUPDWLRQ
in Pe’amimDKLVWRU\MRXUQDOSXEOLVKHGLQ,VUDHO
7KHHGLWRULDOERDUGRIPe’amimFRQWULEXWHVWRWKHHOLPLQDWLRQRIWKH-HZLVKXQGHU
JURXQGLQ$OJHULDIURP,VUDHOLPHPRU\7KHHGLWRULDOERDUGRIPe’amimKDVIDLOHG
LQ RXU RSLQLRQ E\ GLVUHJDUGLQJ WKH LVVXH DQG WKHLU GLVUHJDUG UHHNV VWURQJO\ RI
VLOHQFLQJ$MRXUQDOGHGLFDWHGWRWKHVWXG\RI2ULHQWDO-HZLVKFRPPXQLWLHVVKRXOG
QRWFRQFHDOWKLVXQGHUJURXQGPRYHPHQWKLGGHQIURPLWVUHDGHUVEXWVKRXOGJLYH
WKHPDQRSSRUWXQLW\WREHFRPHDFTXDLQWHGZLWKLWS
,W PXVW EH VDLG WKDW WKHUH DUH DOVR FRQÁLFWLQJ RSLQLRQV DERXW WKH -HZLVK
XQGHUJURXQG·V KHURLF PRWLYHV 3URI +DLP 6DDGRXQ DQG 0LFKDHO $ELWEXO
ZHUHDZDUHRIDOOHJDWLRQV$ELWEXOWKDWWKHXQGHUJURXQGZDVEDVLFDOO\
GULYHQE\)UHQFKLQWHUHVWVDQGGLGQRWRSHUDWHRXWRI-HZLVKPRWLYHVDWDOO
7KH\ FODLPHG WKDW WKH XQGHUJURXQG DFWHG VROHO\ IRU )UHQFK DQG QDWLRQDOLVW
UHDVRQVWRUHVWRUH)UHQFKFLWL]HQVKLSWR$OJHULD·V-HZLVKUHVLGHQWVZKLFKKDG
EHHQUHYRNHGLQWKDWSHULRG
0DQ\SHRSOHIHHOWKDWWKHVWRU\RIWKHKHURLFFRXSRIWKH-HZLVKXQGHUJURXQG
LQ$OJHULDDQGLWVDVVLVWDQFHWRWKH$OOLHGIRUFHVWRZLQWKHEDWWOHKDVEHHQHUDVHG
IURP=LRQLVWPHPRU\DQGKDVEHHQVXEVXPHGXQGHURXUFROOHFWLYHPHPRU\RI
WKH+RORFDXVWDQGKHURLVP.HVQHU 5RQHQ)XUWKHUPRUHZHVKRXOGQHL
WKHUIRUJHWQRUGRZQSOD\WKHKHURLFVWRU\RIWKHJKHWWR-HZVZKLFKLVSHUFHLYHG
DVQHJOLJLEOHZKHQFRPSDUHGZLWKWKH$OJHULDQXQGHUJURXQGZKLFKFRRSHUDWHG
ZLWKWKH$OOLHGIRUFHVDQGWKHJRYHUQPHQWFRXSLQ$OJHULD'HVSLWHWKHLPSRU
WDQFHRIWKHXQGHUJURXQGWRWKHEHVWRIRXUNQRZOHGJHWKHUHDUHQRVLWHVLQ
,VUDHOQDPHGDIWHULWVPHPEHUVZKLOHWKHUHDUHVWUHHWVDQGDNLEEXW]QDPHGDIWHU
0RUGHFKDL$QLHOHZLF]DVZHOODVPRQXPHQWVRIWKH:DUVDZ*KHWWRXSULVLQJLQ
7HO$YLY+DLID.LU\DW0RW]NLQDQGHOVHZKHUHLQ,VUDHO)HZSHRSOHNQRZWKH
KHURLFVWRU\RIWKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFDLQFRQWUDVWWRWKHWUDJLFKHURLFVWRU\RI
WKH:DUVDZ*KHWWR8SULVLQJ7KH+RORFDXVWRIWKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFDPD\QRW
KDYHEHHQSURSHUO\WROGLWPD\QRWKDYHEHHQPDGHSXEOLF\HWZKDWLVFHUWDLQLV
WKDWWKLV+RORFDXVWGLGQRWEHQHÀWIURPWKHGHJUHHRISXEOLFLW\DVEHQHÀWHGWKH
:DUVDZ*KHWWRXSULVLQJ
North African Jewry’s exclusion from the context of the Holocaust
$IWHU:RUOG:DU,,WKH6WDWHRI,VUDHOZDVLQXQGDWHGZLWKLPPLJUDQWVIURP
DOORYHUWKHGLDVSRUDDQGWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHDEVRUSWLRQRIWKHYDULRXVFRP
PXQLWLHVLQWRWKH\RXQJ=LRQLVWVWDWHOHIWPDQ\VFDUV-DEORQND+ROR
FDXVWVXUYLYRUVWXUQHGWKHLUWUDXPDDQGPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWLQWRWKHLU
SHUVRQDOH[SHULHQFHVZKLFKZHUHQRWFRQVLGHUHGWREHRIDQ\SXEOLFLQWHUHVW
-DEORQND7KH+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUVZHUHUHOXFWDQWWRWDONDERXWWKHLU
H[SHULHQFHV DQG D ERQG RI VLOHQFH ZDV IRUJHG DPRQJ WKHP -DEORQND
7LORYLFK/HY\
7KHUHZDVKRZHYHUDQRWKHUUHDVRQIRUWKHVXUYLYRUV·VLOHQFH7KH$VKNH
QD]LHVWDEOLVKPHQWZKLFKGRPLQDWHG,VUDHOLQLWVHDUO\\HDUVVRXJKWWREULQJ
HYHU\RQHLQWRWKH,VUDHOLPHOWLQJSRWLQRUGHUWRFUHDWHDQHZLPDJHIRUWKH
QHZO\IRXQGHGQDWLRQDO=LRQLVWSURMHFW²WKHVRFDOOHGZDUULRUVDEUD-DEORQND
.LVHO'DYLGRYLWFK 6RHQ$VDUHVXOWWKHVXUYLYRUVRIWKH
+RORFDXVWLQ(XURSHWKH'LDVSRUD-HZVZHUHIRUFHGWRUHPDLQVLOHQWDQGZHUH
HYHQDVKDPHGRIWKHLUZHDNQHVVZKHQIDFLQJWKH1D]LV$WWKHVDPHWLPHDV
DUHVXOWRIWKLVDWPRVSKHUH0L]UDKL-HZVZKRZHUHJHQHUDOO\QRWDPRQJWKH
IRXQGHUVRI=LRQLVPRUFRQVLGHUHGDOHJLWLPDWHSDUWRIWKHFRXQWU\·VKHJHP
RQ\LQWKRVH\HDUV6KLPRQLZHUHIRUJRWWHQRUPDUJLQDOLVHGZKLFKDOVR
H[SODLQVWKHGLVUHJDUGIRUWKH+RORFDXVWRIWKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFD$OWKRXJK
PRVWRIWKHV\VWHPDWLFDWURFLWLHVDQGWKHLUFRQVHTXHQFHVWRRNSODFHLQ(XURSH
WKHHYHQWVLQ1RUWK$IULFDVKRXOGVWLOOEHPDUNHGDQGFRPPHPRUDWHG7KLVLV
KRZ'DYLG%HQ*XULRQWKH3ULPH0LQLVWHURIWKDWWLPHGHVFULEHGLWLQ
RQHRIKLVVSHHFKHV
7KRVHIURP0RURFFRKDGQRHGXFDWLRQ7KHLUFXVWRPVDUHWKHFXVWRPVRIWKH$UDEV
7KH\ORYHWKHLUZLYHVEXWEHDWWKHP>@0D\EHLQWKHWKLUGJHQHUDWLRQDPHPEHU
RIWKH-HZLVK0L]UDKLFRPPXQLW\ZLOOEHDOLWWOHGLIIHUHQWEXW,GRQRWVHHWKDW\HW
S
DQG
:HQHHGKXPDQEHLQJVZKRZHUHERUQWREHODERUHUV0RUHDWWHQWLRQVKRXOGEH
SDLGWRWKHORFDO0L]UDKLHOHPHQWWRWKH<HPHQLVDQGWKH6HSKDUGLF-HZVZKRVH
VWDQGDUGRIOLYLQJDQGGHPDQGVDUHORZHUWKDQWKRVHRI(XURSHDQODERUHUVDQGZLOO
EHVXFFHVVIXOLQFRPSHWLQJZLWKWKH$UDEVS
+DQQD -DEORQND DQG RWKHU UHVHDUFKHUV FRQVLGHU WKH (LFKPDQQ
WULDOLQ,VUDHOWREHDIRUPDWLYHHYHQWWKDWZDVDFFRUGLQJWR$ORQ*DQIRO
ORZHG E\ ´D SURFHVV RI ZDOOV FUDFNLQJ DQG WXPEOLQJ GRZQµ *DQ
*DQGHVFULEHGWKLVDVDVHULHVRIVRFLRSROLWLFDOSURFHVVHVWKDWDIIHFWHG,VUDHOL
VRFLHW\PDLQO\LQWKHVDQGV=DQGEHUJZKHQ,VUDHOLVRFL
HW\ZDVEHFRPLQJPRUHFULWLFDODQGSOXUDOLVWLFSRVVLEO\GXHWRWKHVWUHVVIXO
SHULRGRQWKHHYHRIWKH6L['D\:DU)HOGPDQRUWKHULVHRIWKH%ODFN
3DQWKHUVPRYHPHQWLQWKHVZKLFKSURWHVWHGWKHSOLJKWRI0L]UDKL-HZV
DQGWKHLUGLVFULPLQDWLRQE\WKH$VKNHQD]LHVWDEOLVKPHQWLQDVHULHVRIGHP
RQVWUDWLRQV VRPH RI ZKLFK LQFOXGHG DFWV RI YLROHQFH DQG YDQGDOLVP 7KH
SURWHVWRIWKH%ODFN3DQWKHUVSODFHGWKHSOLJKWRIWKH0L]UDKLFRPPXQLW\RQ
WKH,VUDHOLDJHQGDDQGFDXVHGDIXURULQ,VUDHOLVRFLHW\2QHRIWKHUHVXOWVRI
WKLVUHYROXWLRQZDVWKHVRFDOOHGDOOLDQFHRIWKHXQGHUSULYLOHJHGEHWZHHQ
0HQDFKHP %HJLQ DQG WKH 0L]UDKL -HZV ZKLFK OHG WR WKH SROLWLFDO WXUQD
URXQGRI'RQ<HKLDWKHWUDQVLWLRQIURPWKHUXOHRIWKHVRFLDOLVW
OHIWWRWKHUXOHRIWKHULJKW
0RUH UHFHQWO\ LQ KHU ERRN Away from the Railroad – Mizrahi Jews and the Holocaust +RORFDXVW KLVWRULDQ DQG UHVHDUFKHU -DEORQND PHQWLRQV WKH
VDQGWKHRXWEUHDNRIWKH)LUVW/HEDQRQ:DUDVDSRLQWLQWLPHDWZKLFK
0L]UDKL-HZVDWWHPSWHGWRZLGHQWKHFUDFNRIWKHVRFDOOHG$VKNHQD]L+ROR
FDXVWZKLFKVKHFODLPHGVHUYHGDVDNLQGRI´YLFWLPÀOWHUµWKDWKLJKOLJKWHG
WKHLUVXIIHULQJDQGÀOWHUHGRXWDOORWKHUVXIIHULQJV$FFRUGLQJWR*DQ
WKH´$VKNHQD]Lµ+RORFDXVWUDQNHGKLJKHVWRQWKH´5LFKWHU9LFWLP6FDOHµ*DQ
)DFHGZLWKWKLVVLWXDWLRQ0L]UDKL-HZVZHUHIRUFHGWRGRZQSOD\WKHLU
SDLQDQGGLVJUDFH-DEORQND
7KHPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWLQ,VUDHOIRFXVHVRQWKH+RORFDXVWRIWKH-HZV
RI(XURSHDQGQHJDWHVWKHVXIIHULQJRIWKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFDVRPHRIZKRP
ZHUHDOVRVHQWWRODERXUFDPSVDQGFRQFHQWUDWLRQFDPSVDQGVRPHRIZKRP
ZHUHHYHQPXUGHUHG,VUDHOLGLVFRXUVHRQWKH+RORFDXVWKDVPDGHQRURRP
IRUWKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFD$OJHULD/LE\D7XQLVLDDQG0RURFFR$OWKRXJK
WKHLUHIDWHZDVDSSDUHQWO\EHWWHUWKDQWKDWRIWKH(XURSHDQ-HZVWKLVLVQRWD
VXIÀFLHQWUHDVRQWRLJQRUHWKHPDQ\-HZVZKRZHUHDQQLKLODWHGLQWKHFDPSV
ZKRZRUNHGRUORVWUHODWLYHVWKHUH-DEORQND
/LDW6WH\HU/LYQLQRWHVWKDWLQDGGLWLRQWRVWUHDPLQJ0L]UDKL-HZV
WR ,VUDHO·V FXOWXUDO DQG JHRJUDSKLFDO SHULSKHU\ PDNLQJ WKH +RORFDXVW D
FHQWUDO FRPSRQHQW RI WKH ,VUDHOL LGHQWLW\ OHG WR WKH H[FOXVLRQ RI 0L]UDKL
-HZVIURPWKH,VUDHOLLGHQWLW\,QUHFHQW\HDUVWKH0L]UDKLFRPPXQLW\KDV
H[SUHVVHGDQHHGWREHDSDUWRIWKHFROOHFWLYHPHPRU\WKURXJKZKLFKWKH\
FDQFRQQHFWWRRWKHUVSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHVWUXJJOHWRJDLQDSURSHUSODFHLQ
VRFLHW\ DQG HVSHFLDOO\ LQ WKH VKDUHG PHPRU\ RI WKH XQLWHG QDWLRQ *DQ
&KDQJHVKDYHKRZHYHURFFXUUHG-DEORQNDDUJXHVWKDWVHFRQGJHQHUDWLRQ
0L]UDKL-HZV·GHVLUHWRKDYHDVKDUHLQ´EHLQJ,VUDHOLµDOVRDSSOLHVWRWKHFRO
OHFWLYHPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVW7KLUGJHQHUDWLRQ0L]UDKL-HZVXQOLNHWKHLU
SUHGHFHVVRUV FRQVLGHU WKHPVHOYHV WR EH OHJLWLPDWH SDUWQHUV LQ VKDSLQJ WKH
PHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWWKXVWKH\DUHFKDOOHQJLQJWKHH[LVWLQJSDWWHUQVRI
PHPRU\7KHPDQ\FKDQJHVWKDW,VUDHOLVRFLHW\KDVH[SHULHQFHGKDYHJHQHU
DWHGFKDQJHVLQWKHFRQFHSWXDOLVDWLRQRI+RORFDXVWPHPRU\DQGDVKLIWIURPWKH
SHUVRQDOVXIIHULQJRIVXUYLYRUVWRWKHVXIIHULQJRIDQDWLRQDQGDVKDUHGFROOHF
WLYHPHPRU\-DEORQND6WH\HU/LYQL*DQ
+RZFDQRQHIRUJHWRUDOORZRWKHUVWRIRUJHWDWUDJHG\RQWKHVFDOHRIWKH
+RORFDXVWZKHQWKHRSSUHVVRUKLPVHOIOHIWDQLQGHOLEOHPDUNLQWKHIRUPRI
D WDWWRRHG QXPEHU RQ WKH VXUYLYRUV· ÁHVK DORQJ ZLWK SDLQ DQG QLJKWPDUHV
HWFKHGLQWKHLUKHDUWV"7KHUHUHPDLQFRQYLQFLQJ´OLYLQJPRQXPHQWVµVXFKDV
WKHH[WHUPLQDWLRQFDPSVFUHPDWRULDEDUEHGZLUHIHQFHVDQGUDLOZD\WUDFNV
HQJUDYHGLQWKHLUVRXOV7KHUHIRUHRQHPXVWÀJKWWKHQDWXUDOWHQGHQF\DLPHG
DWIRUJHWWLQJRUHVFDSLQJIRUWKHVDNHRIEXLOGLQJDSUHVHQWDQGIXWXUHWKDWDUH
RVWHQVLEO\KHDOWK\DQGGHYRLGRIPHPRULHV
)URP WLPH LPPHPRULDO ZH KDYH EHHQ RUGHUHG DV LQGLYLGXDOV DQG DV D
QDWLRQWRUHPHPEHU7RUHPHPEHUDQGQRWWRIRUJHWEHFDXVHZLWKRXWWKHSDVW
WKHUHLVQRIXWXUHRXUIXWXUHDVLQGLYLGXDOVDQGDVDQDWLRQVWHPVIURPWKHSDVW
DQGLVFRQQHFWHGWRLW
7KHSRZHURIWKHQDWLRQLVLQLWVPHPRU\²LWLVPDQ·VXQLTXHQHVV$QGLIZHZDQW
WROLYHDQGLIZHZDQWDQGDVSLUHWREHTXHDWKOLIHWRRXUVRQVLIZHEHOLHYHZHKDYH
EHHQFRPPDQGHGWRSDYHDZD\WRWKHIXWXUHWKHQÀUVWZHPXVWUHPHPEHUDQG
UHFRUG'LQXUS
7KH DXWKRU $KDURQ $SSHOIHOG D +RORFDXVW VXUYLYRU ZKR KDV VSHQW KLV
HQWLUHOLIHWXUQLQJSXEOLFDQGSULYDWHHYHQWVLQWRDUWFODLPV
,I\RXZDQWWRFRQYH\DWRSLFDVZHLJKW\DVWKH+RORFDXVW\RXPXVWXVHLQWLPDWH
WKLQJV,QWLPDF\LVFUHDWHGLQWKHSHUVRQDOVWRU\EXWJUHDWHUPRUHVLJQLÀFDQWLQWL
PDF\LVPDGHSRVVLEOHWKURXJKDUW,QDUWWKHDUWLVWWDNHVWKHSHUVRQDOH[SHULHQFH
DQGWUDQVIRUPVLW2QO\WKLQJVWKDWKDYHDYHU\SHUVRQDOEDVLVFDQEHSDVVHGGRZQ
IURPRQHJHQHUDWLRQWRWKHQH[W,GHDVDEVWUDFWLRQVFRQFHSWVHWFDUHQRWWKLQJV
WKDWFDQEHSDVVHGGRZQ7\SLFDOO\RXUVWDUWLQJSRLQWLVWKDWWHVWLPRQ\LVFRQ
VLGHUHGDXWKHQWLFDQGDUWLVFRQVLGHUHGDQLQYHQWLRQ7KLVLVQRWWUXH:KDW\RX
VHHLQ\RXULPDJLQDWLRQLV\RXUSHUVRQDOLW\DVDZKROHPRUHWKDQMXVWDPHPRU\
0HPRU\ LV RQO\ RQH HOHPHQW :KHQ \RX LQYHQW D VLWXDWLRQ \RX PRELOL]H \RXU
HQWLUHSHUVRQDOLW\2QFH\RXDUHLQWKHZRUOGRILPDJLQDWLRQ\RXGLVFRYHUPRUH
VHHPRUHDQGIHHOPRUH$SSHOIHOGS
7KHPRVWFRPPRQZRUNRIDUWXVHGIRUFRPPHPRUDWLRQLVWKHPRQXPHQW
´,WLVFRPPRQWRFRQVLGHUDVDPRQXPHQWDQ\VWDWXHSLOODUSLOHRIVWRQHVRU
DUFKLWHFWXUDOVLWHWKDWFRQWDLQVDVHWRIPHDQLQJIXOV\PEROVFRPPHPRUDWLQJD
KLVWRULFDOHYHQWµ%UXWLQS
Holocaust historian
-DPHV<RXQJFODLPVWKDWZKHQKHZDQWHGWRH[DPLQHWKHGLIIHUHQWZD\VLQ
ZKLFKFRXQWULHVRUFRPPXQLWLHVSRUWUD\HGWKHGHVWUXFWLRQRI(XURSHDQ-HZU\
GXULQJ:RUOG:DU,,KHGLVFRYHUHGWKDWWKHGHÀQLWLRQRI´FRPPHPRUDWLQJWKH
+RORFDXVWµGHSHQGVYHU\PXFKRQLWVVKDSHDQGORFDWLRQ´)RUWKHQDWLRQDO
PHPRU\ RI ZKDW , PLJKW FDOO WKH 6KRDK YDULHV IURP ODQG WR ODQG SROLWLFDO
UHJLPHWRUHJLPH«,ZLOODOORZHYHU\VLWHWRVXJJHVWLWVRZQGHÀQLWLRQHDFKWR
EHJUDVSHGLQLWVORFDOFRQWH[WµS
,QVSLUHGE\<RXQJ·VSRVLWLRQLQWKLVDUWLFOH,LQFOXGHDOVRLQWKHGHÀQLWLRQ
RI´PRQXPHQWµDQ\HGXFDWLRQDODFWLRQWKDWFRPPHPRUDWHVWKHPHPRU\RIWKH
+RORFDXVW'RURW$FDVHLQSRLQWLVDZHOONQRZQHGXFDWLRQDODFWLYLW\
WKDWWDNHVSODFHLQ,VUDHOLHWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGZKRVHRIÀFLDOUROHLVWR
FRPPHPRUDWHWKH+RORFDXVWDQGHGXFDWHIXWXUHJHQHUDWLRQV
The monument – The journey to Poland
-RXUQH\V WR WKH JUHDW YDOOH\ RI GHDWK ORFDWHG LQ 3RODQG E\ LQGLYLGXDOV
JURXSV \RXWK DQG DGXOWV DUH RQH RI WKH PDLQ PHDQV RI LQVWLOOLQJ DQG SHU
SHWXDWLQJDZDUHQHVVRIWKHPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWLQ,VUDHO7KHMRXUQH\
WR3RODQGLVODGHQZLWKQDWLRQDOKLVWRULFDODQGHPRWLRQDOLPSOLFDWLRQV7KH
MRXUQH\RIWKH3UHVLGHQWRIWKH6WDWHRI,VUDHO<LW]KDN1DYRQZDVWKHKHUDOG
WKDWHQDEOHGWKHSODQQLQJDQGLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIDQH[SHULPHQWDOHGXFDWLRQDO
SURJUDPPHIRU WHHQDJHUV IRFXVLQJRQ D MRXUQH\ WR 3RODQG 7RGD\ \HDUV
ODWHUWKH0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQGHYHORSVDQGRSHUDWHVDXQLTXHSURJUDPPH
IRU \RXWK LQ KLJK VFKRRO DQG \RXWK PRYHPHQWV SULRU WR WKHLU HQOLVWPHQW LQ
WKH,VUDHO'HIHQVH)RUFHV,')7KH0LQLVWU\LVWKHPDLQRUJDQLVHURIWKHMRXU
QH\VDQGDOVRGHWHUPLQHVWKHVLWHVDQGWKHDLPVRIWKHMRXUQH\)HOGPDQ
'DYLGRYLWFK 6RHQ$MRXUQH\WR3RODQGODVWLQJGD\VZKLFKLV
WKHFOLPD[RIWKHHGXFDWLRQDO+RORFDXVWFRPPHPRUDWLRQSURFHVVEHJLQVZLWK
SUHSDUDWLRQVEHIRUHWKHMRXUQH\DQGFRQWLQXHVGXULQJDQGDIWHULWLQFROODERUD
WLRQZLWKFRPPHPRUDWLYHFHQWUHVVXFKDV<DG9DVKHPWKH*KHWWR)LJKWHUV
0XVHXP0DVVXDKDQGRWKHULQVWLWXWLRQV
$FFRUGLQJWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQRQHRIWKHJRDOVRIWKHMRXUQH\WR
3RODQGLV
«WRIHHODQGWU\WRPDNHWKHFRQQHFWLRQRI\RXQJ,VUDHOLVRQWKHHYHRIWKHLUHQOL
VWPHQWLQWRWKH,')GHHSHQWKHLULGHQWLÀFDWLRQZLWKWKHIDWHRIWKH-HZLVKSHRSOH
DQGLPSURYHDQGVWUHQJWKHQWKHLUVHQVHDQGUHFRJQLWLRQRIDSHUVRQDOFRPPLWPHQW
WR-HZLVKFRQWLQXLW\'DYLGRYLWFK 6RHQ
7KH\RXWKMRXUQH\WR3RODQGLVFRQVLGHUHGWREHRQHRIWKHPDLQ+RORFDXVW
HGXFDWLRQDFWLYLWLHVLQWKH,VUDHOLHGXFDWLRQV\VWHP,QUHFHQW\HDUVJRLQJRQ
WKHMRXUQH\LVFRQVLGHUHGDQDFFHSWDEOHDQGYHU\SRSXODUPRGHRIFRPPHPR
UDWLQJWKHPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWDPRQJVWXGHQWV6WHLQRZLW]/HY\
,WLVDQH[SHULHQWLDOOHDUQLQJMRXUQH\'DYLGRYLWFK 6RHQDQGSDUWLFLSD
WLRQWKHUHLQLVQRWPDQGDWRU\VWXGHQWVPDNHDFRQVFLRXVGHFLVLRQWRWUDYHODQG
VHHWKHKRUURUVRIWKH1D]LVZLWKWKHLURZQH\HV7KHMRXUQH\LQFOXGHVYLVLWVWR
WKHH[WHUPLQDWLRQFDPSV-HZLVKFHPHWHULHVRQHRUWZRV\QDJRJXHVDQGRWKHU
VLWHV7KH0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQFXUUHQWO\UHTXLUHVGHOHJDWLRQVWR3RODQGWR
YLVLWWKH$XVFKZLW]H[WHUPLQDWLRQFDPS
([WHQVLYH UHVHDUFK RQ WKH MRXUQH\V WR 3RODQG HJ 'DYLGRYLWFK 6RHQ
LQGLFDWHVWKDWDIÁXHQWVWXGHQWVJRRQWKHMRXUQH\PRUHRIWHQWKDQWKH
UHVWFRPSDUHGWR²VWXGHQWVIURPOHVVDIÁXHQWKRPHV1HYHU
WKHOHVVGHVSLWHWKHFRVWVLQYROYHGLQWKHMRXUQH\WKHUHLVDVWHDG\LQFUHDVHLQ
WKHQXPEHURIVWXGHQWVZKRFKRRVHWRSDUWLFLSDWH
7KLVMRXUQH\FDQSURYLGHDGHHSHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHFUXHOW\DQGH[WHQW
RIWKHWUDJHG\RIWKH-HZLVKSHRSOHWKURXJKV\QHVWKHVLD²LHDFRPELQHGXVHRI
WKHVHQVHVRIVLJKWVPHOODQGWRXFKZKLFKLOOXVWUDWHWKHKRUURUVDQGHYRNHHPR
WLRQVLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKWKHEUDLQ7KHMRXUQH\·VFRQVWLWXWLYHFRPELQDWLRQLVDQ
HGXFDWLRQDOH[SHULHQWLDOPHWKRGIRUVWXG\LQJDQGFRPPHPRUDWLQJWKHVXEMHFW
7KH OLWHUDWXUH LQFOXGHV D ODUJH QXPEHU RI VWXGLHV RQ WKH MRXUQH\ 7KHVH
VWXGLHVH[DPLQHWKHYDOXHVDQGUXOHVUHODWHGWRWKHNQRZOHGJHIHHOLQJVDQG
DWWLWXGHVRIWKH\RXWK)RUH[DPSOHDVWXG\FRQGXFWHGE\6KORPR5XPLDQG
0LFKDO/HYH[DPLQHGWKHORQJWHUPHIIHFWVRIWKHMRXUQH\RQWKHSDUWLFL
SDQWV·FRJQLWLYHDQGHPRWLRQDODWWLWXGHVRYHUDSHULRGRI²\HDUVDIWHUWKH
MRXUQH\,QWKHLUVWXG\SDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHGLYLGHGLQWRJURXSVDFFRUGLQJWRWKH
WLPHWKDWKDGHODSVHGVLQFHWKHLUMRXUQH\²\HDUVDQG²\HDUVZLWKD
FRQWUROJURXSRISDUWLFLSDQWVZKRGLGQRWJRRQWKHMRXUQH\DWDOO7KHVWXG\
ÀQGLQJVLQGLFDWHGWKDWWKHHIIHFWVRIWKHMRXUQH\SHUVLVWHGRYHUWLPHDQGGLI
IHUHQFHVZHUHIRXQGEHWZHHQWKH\RXQJSHRSOHZKRZHQWRQWKHMRXUQH\DQG
WKRVHZKRGLGQRW
$QRWKHU VWXG\ WKDWZDV FRQGXFWHG RQ YDULRXV W\SHV RI GHOHJDWLRQV DOVR
H[DPLQHGWKHMRXUQH\DVSDUWRIWKH:LWQHVVHVLQ8QLIRUPSURJUDP+DVNHO
'DYLGRYLWFK 6RHQ)LQGLQJVLQGLFDWHWKDWDIWHUWKHLUUHWXUQSDUWLFL
SDQWVUHSRUWHGWKHMRXUQH\WRKDYHH[SDQGHGWKHLUNQRZOHGJHRIWKHHYHQWVRI
WKH+RORFDXVWDQGWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIFRPPHPRUDWLRQ
'LQD3RUDWFRQGXFWHGDVLPLODUVWXG\RQWKHWRSLFWKDWUHÁHFWVWKHGLI
IHUHQWYRLFHVLQWKHPHPRU\GLVFRXUVHRI,VUDHOL\RXWKZKRDUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\
GHVFHQGDQWVRIVXUYLYRUVDQGFRPHIURPGLIIHUHQWVRFLDOVHFWRUV3DUWLFLSDQWV
RI WKLV VWXG\ZHUH VWXGHQWV LQ D VHFXODU VWDWH KLJK VFKRRO LQ D GHYHORSPHQW
WRZQ WKDW LV SRSXODWHG PDLQO\ E\ PHPEHUV RI WKH 0L]UDKL FRPPXQLW\ DQG
LPPLJUDQWVIURPWKH)687KHVHVWXGHQWVFRQVLGHUHGVSLULWXDOUHVLVWDQFHWREH
DOHVVHUIRUPRIUHVLVWDQFHFRPSDUHGWRRWKHUSDUWLFLSDQWJURXSV
7KLVLPSRUWDQWHGXFDWLRQDOMRXUQH\PLJKWKDYHSRWHQWLDOO\KHDOHGWRVRPH
GHJUHHWKHRSHQZRXQGRIWKHFRPPXQLW\RI1RUWK$IULFDQ-HZVDQGWKHLU
VHFRQGDQGWKLUGJHQHUDWLRQGHVFHQGDQWV,QDGGLWLRQWKLVHGXFDWLRQDOH[SH
ULHQWLDOHWKLFDOMRXUQH\PLJKWKDYHVHUYHGDVDPRQXPHQWWRWKHDWURFLWLHVVXI
IHUHGE\PHPEHUVRI0L]UDKLFRPPXQLWLHVIURP1RUWK$IULFD$FFRUGLQJWR
-DFNLH)HOGPDQVXFKDMRXUQH\VKRXOGKDYHEHHQDEOHWRFRQQHFWWKH
GLIIHUHQWQDUUDWLYHVRIWKHWZR´FDPSVµ$VKNHQD]L-HZVDQG0L]UDKL-HZV
7KLVVWXG\VHHNVWRH[DPLQHWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKRVHZKRJRRQWKHMRXU
QH\WKHLUSHUVRQDOFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH+RORFDXVWDVZHOODVWKHVRFLRSROLWLFDO
SURFHVVHVLQ,VUDHOWKDWDWWHPSWWREULGJHWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKHYDULRXVSROHVLQ
VRFLHW\²EHWZHHQ(DVWDQG:HVW
New recognition of north african Jews as holocaust
'HVSLWHZKDWKDVEHHQVDLGDQGGHVSLWHWKHGLVFULPLQDWLRQWKDWVWLOOSUHYDLOV
LQWKHFRPPHPRUDWLRQRI1RUWK$IULFDQ-HZU\DQXPEHURIDFWLRQVKDYHEHHQ
WDNHQLQUHFHQW\HDUVWRFKDQJHWKLVVLWXDWLRQ,QWKHÀUVWFRQIHUHQFHRILWV
NLQGZDVKHOGDWWKH+RORFDXVW0XVHXPLQ:DVKLQJWRQ'&ZKLFKFHQWUHGSUL
PDULO\RQWKHKLVWRU\RI1RUWK$IULFDQ-HZVLQ:RUOG:DU,,,QUHFHQW\HDUV
DUFKLYDOPDWHULDOVKDYHVKHGQHZOLJKWRQZKDWZDVNQRZQE\UHVHDUFKHUVXSWR
QRZDQGPDQ\QHZVWXGLHVDUHEHLQJFDUULHGRXW$VDUHVXOWDPRUHFRPSOHWH
SLFWXUHRIWKHHYHQWVWKDWEHIHOOWKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFDGXULQJ:RUOG:DU,,LV
VWDUWLQJWRHPHUJH<DG9DVKHP7KHFRQIHUHQFHZDVKHOGWRPDUNWKHth DQQLYHUVDU\RIWKHOLEHUDWLRQRI/LE\DIURPWKH,WDOLDQ*HUPDQRFFXSDWLRQDQG
WKHthDQQLYHUVDU\RI,VUDHO·VLQGHSHQGHQFH,WZDVRUJDQLVHGLQFROODERUDWLRQ
ZLWKWKH<DG<LW]KDN%HQ=YL,QVWLWXWHWKHFRQIHUHQFHRUJDQLVHUVLQFOXGHG'U
+DLP6DDGRXQDQH[SHUWRQWKH-HZU\RI$UDEDQG,VODPFRXQWULHV
,QWKHQDWLRQDOPHPRU\WKH+RORFDXVWZDVSHUFHLYHGDVDQH[FOXVLYHWUDX
PDWLFH[SHULHQFHIRU(XURSHDQ-HZU\6KLPRQL2QO\LQWKHUHZDV
DFRXQWHUUHDFWLRQWRWKHDFFLGHQWDORUGHOLEHUDWHREOLYLRQRUVLOHQFLQJLQWKH
IRUP RI WKH 'DYLG $PDU &HQWHU IRU WKH 6WXG\ RI -HZLVK +HULWDJH LQ 1RUWK
$IULFDZKLFKLVORFDWHGLQ-HUXVDOHP7KH&HQWHUGRHVQRWIRFXVVROHO\RQWKH
PHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWDVGRRWKHU+RORFDXVWLQVWLWXWHVLQ,VUDHO,QVWHDGLWV
DFWLYLW\LVGHGLFDWHGWRUHVHDUFKLQJWKHKLVWRU\RI1RUWK$IULFDQ-HZVLQFOXG
LQJWKHFROOHFWLRQRIWHVWLPRQLHVRIIDPLOLHVDQG+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUVFRQIHU
HQFHVFODVVHVSKRWRVDQGFXOWXUDOGRFXPHQWDWLRQPDLQO\RIWKHFRPPXQLWLHV
RI0RURFFR$OJHULD7XQLVLD/LE\DDQG(J\SW7KH&HQWHUPDLQWDLQVSHUPD
QHQWDQGURWDWLQJH[KLELWLRQVDQGDFDQWRULDOLQVWLWXWH
$QRWKHUWLHULQWKHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHLQMXVWLFHWRRNSODFHZKHQWKH/DZ
RI2IÀFLDO0HPRULDO'D\WR0DUNWKH'HSDUWXUHDQG([SXOVLRQRI-HZVIURP
$UDE&RXQWULHVDQG,VODPZDVHQDFWHGLQWKH.QHVVHWRQ-XO\WRPDUN
WKHGD\RIWKHGHSRUWDWLRQRI-HZVIURP$UDEFRXQWULHVDQG,UDQ7KH/DZVWDWHV
WKDWHYHU\\HDURQ1RYHPEHUWKHUHZLOOEHDGD\WRPDUNWKHGHSDUWXUHDQG
GHSRUWDWLRQRI-HZVIURP$UDEFRXQWULHVDQG,UDQRQWKLVGD\,QDGGLWLRQ
7KH0LQLVWHUIRU6HQLRU&LWL]HQVZLOOLVVXHDQRUGHUIRUWKHRSHQLQJRID
QDWLRQDOFHUHPRQ\
7KH0LQLVWHURI(GXFDWLRQZLOOHQFRXUDJHWKHKROGLQJRIHGXFDWLRQDODFWLY
LWLHVLQFRQQHFWLRQZLWKWKDWGD\
7KH 0LQLVWHU RI )RUHLJQ $IIDLUV ZLOO RUGHU DFWLYLWLHV LQFOXGLQJ WKURXJK
,VUDHOL PLVVLRQV DEURDG WR LQFUHDVH LQWHUQDWLRQDO DZDUHQHVV UHJDUG
LQJ -HZLVK UHIXJHHV IURP $UDE FRXQWULHV DQG ,UDQ DQG WKHLU ULJKWV WR
FRPSHQVDWLRQ
7KH.QHVVHWZLOOKROGDVSHFLDOGHEDWHRQWKHGD\PDUNLQJWKHGHSDUWXUH
DQGGHSRUWDWLRQRI-HZVIURP$UDEFRXQWULHVDQG,UDQ
2QWKHIDFHRILWWKH/DZLVLQWHQGHGWREHDWRNHQODZDQGLWVSXUSRVHLV
PDLQO\WRWU\WRFUHDWHHTXDOLW\EHWZHHQLPPLJUDQWVDQGUHIXJHHVIURP$UDE
FRXQWULHVDQG,UDQDQGWKRVHIURPRWKHUGLDVSRUDVLQDQHIIRUWWRDWRQHIRUKLV
WRULFDODQGHWKQLFJDSV
,QVHYHUDO\HDUVDIWHUWKH/DZZDVSDVVHGDWDFHUHPRQ\KHOGLQWKH
.QHVVHW3OHQXPWRPDUNWKH'D\RI'HSRUWDWLRQ0HPEHURI.QHVVHW.VHQLD
6YHWORYDDVNHG
,DPMXVWDVNLQJZK\GLGZHKDYHWRZDLWVRPDQ\\HDUVIRUWKH6WDWHRI,VUDHOWR
VWDUWWDONLQJRXWORXGDERXWWKHULJKWRI-HZLVKUHIXJHHV">@LWLVGRXEWIXOZKHWKHU
RXUFKLOGUHQWRGD\NQRZDERXW5DEEL6KDED]L":KDWFKLOGKDVKHDUGRIKLP"
,QWKHHDUO\VDVHYHUHGHSUHVVLRQSUHYDLOHGLQ,VUDHODQGWKH$XVWHULW\
5HJLPHSURPXOJDWHGUHJXODWLRQVIRUWKHDOORFDWLRQRIIRRGDQGEDVLFQHFHVVLWLHV
WRUHVLGHQWVRXWRIFRQFHUQIRUHQVXULQJWKHVHFXULW\RIWKHQHZO\HVWDEOLVKHG
6WDWHRI,VUDHO7KLVVLWXDWLRQFRXOGKDYHEHHQFKDQJHGZLWKWKHDUULYDORIFRP
SHQVDWLRQSD\PHQWVWR+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUVIURPWKH*HUPDQJRYHUQPHQW
'HVSLWH ZLGHVSUHDG RSSRVLWLRQ WR UHSDUDWLRQV WKH UHSDUDWLRQV DJUHHPHQW
WKH/X[HPERXUJ$JUHHPHQWZDVVLJQHGLQPRWLYDWHGE\:HVW*HUPD
Q\·VSROLWLFDODQGSXEOLFLW\LQWHUHVWVWRDWRQHIRUWKHFRXQWU\·VUROHLQWKH+ROR
FDXVWWKH*HUPDQZRUGwiedergutmachungPHDQVFRUUHFWLRQRILQMXVWLFHIRUWKH
KLVWRULFDOLQMXVWLFHDQGSUHVHQWLWVHOIDVWKHRWKHU*HUPDQ\)HOGPDQ1DW
XUDOO\KXJHUHSDUDWLRQVXPVWKDWÁRZHGIURP*HUPDQ\ZHUHXVHGE\WKH6WDWH
RI,VUDHOIRUWKHSXUFKDVHRIJRRGVDQGVHUYLFHVDVZHOODVPLOLWDU\DJULFXOWXUDO
DQGLQGXVWULDOHTXLSPHQW3HUVRQDOFRPSHQVDWLRQUHSDUDWLRQVZDVDOVRJLYHQ
WR+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUVZKRPHWFHUWDLQFULWHULDDQGZHUHDEOHWRSURYHWKHLUHOL
JLELOLW\WRÀOHFODLPVIRUFRPSHQVDWLRQDQGUHVWLWXWLRQRISURSHUW\
7KRVH ZKR ZHUH QRW LQFOXGHG LQ WKLV DJUHHPHQW DW DOO ZHUH WKH -HZV RI
1RUWK$IULFDZKRKDGEHHQLPSULVRQHGLQODERXUFDPSVXQGHU,WDOLDQDQG
)UHQFK9LFK\UXOHGXULQJWKHZDU7KH\ZHUHH[FOXGHGRQWKHJURXQGVWKDW
WKH\GLGQRWKDYHD´OLQNDJHWR*HUPDQFXOWXUHµKWWSVWUHDWLHVXQRUJ
$IWHU WKH XQLÀFDWLRQ RI *HUPDQ\ LQ WKH ODWH V 1RUWK $IULFDQ -HZV
EHJDQWRÀOHFODLPVEXWWKH\HQFRXQWHUHGPDQ\DGPLQLVWUDWLYHDQGSHUVRQDO
GLIÀFXOWLHV-DEORQND7KHUHVXOWRIWKLVLQMXVWLFHH[DFHUEDWHGWKHFODVV
GLIIHUHQFHVLQ,VUDHOWKDWZHUHFUHDWHGE\VRFLRHFRQRPLFGLIIHUHQFHVWKDWJUDGX
DOO\LQFUHDVHGRYHUWKH\HDUV
<HDUVODWHUFLYLOLDQSULYDWHHQWLWLHVDQGFRPPXQLWLHVRI-HZVRI1RUWK$IUL
FDQGHVFHQWPDLQO\WKHFKLOGUHQDQGJUDQGFKLOGUHQRIWKHUHIXJHHVDWWHPSWHG
WRQHJRWLDWHZLWKWKH6WDWHRI,VUDHODQGWKH *HUPDQJRYHUQPHQWUHJDUGLQJ
FRPSHQVDWLRQDQGWRJDLQUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKLVGLDVSRUDDV´IXOOÁHGJHGµ+ROR
FDXVWVXUYLYRUV
)ROORZLQJDUHDQXPEHURIOHJLVODWLYHFKDQJHVLQFKURQRORJLFDORUGHU
,QDQDGPLQLVWUDWLYHGHFLVLRQZDVPDGHIRUWKHFRPSUHKHQVLYHUHF
RJQLWLRQRI-HZVIURP/LE\DZKRDUHHQWLWOHGWREHQHÀWVXQGHUWKHODZ
HYHQLIWKH\GLGQRWGLUHFWO\VXIIHUIURPDFWVRIYLROHQFH
,Q WKH &RQIHUHQFH RQ -HZLVK 0DWHULDO &ODLPV $JDLQVW *HUPDQ\
DOVRNQRZQDVWKH&ODLPV&RQIHUHQFHZZZFODLPVFRQRUJDQRQSURÀW
RUJDQL]DWLRQHVWDEOLVKHGLQVHFXUHVPDWHULDOFRPSHQVDWLRQIRU+ROR
FDXVWVXUYLYRUVDURXQGWKHZRUOGEHJDQGLVEXUVLQJDRQHWLPHJUDQWWR
-HZV IURP 0RURFFR $FFRUGLQJ WR WKH QHZ DJUHHPHQW ZLWK WKH*HUPDQ
JRYHUQPHQWDRQHWLPHJUDQWZDVSDLGWR-HZVIURP0RURFFRZKRZHUH
VXEMHFWWRUHVWULFWHGIUHHGRPRIPRYHPHQWGXULQJ:RUOG:DU,,LQFOXG
LQJIUHHGRPRIPRYHPHQWLQSDUNVDQGSXEOLFVSDFHVZKLFKZHUHW\SLFDO
SURKLELWLRQVDJDLQVW-HZVXQGHUWKH1D]LUHJLPHDQGLWVDOOLHV$FFRUGLQJ
WRHVWLPDWHVE\WKH&ODLPV&RQIHUHQFHQHDUO\-HZVDUHH[SHFWHGWR
ÀOHFODLPV
2Q'HFHPEHU0LQLVWHURI)LQDQFH0RVKH.DKORQGHWHUPLQHGWKDW
0RURFFDQ DQG $OJHULDQ -HZV ZKR VXIIHUHG IURP UHVWULFWLRQV LQ YDULRXV
DUHDVRIOLIHXQGHUWKH9LFK\UHJLPHZLOOEHHQWLWOHGWREHQHÀWVDQGGLV
FRXQWVDQGDIXOOH[HPSWLRQRQWKHSXUFKDVHRISUHVFULSWLRQGUXJVLQFOXGHG
LQWKHKHDOWKVHUYLFHVEDVNHW7KLVVWHSLVDQRWKHUWLHURIWKHRIÀFLDOUHFRJQL
WLRQWKDWWKHVH-HZVDUH´IXOOÁHGJHGµVXUYLYRUV
-HZVZKROLYHGLQ$OJHULDEHWZHHQ-XO\DQG1RYHPEHUDQGVXI
IHUHGIURPSHUVHFXWLRQDWWKHKDQGVRIWKH1D]LVPD\EHHQWLWOHGWRRQH
WLPHFRPSHQVDWLRQRI½WKURXJKWKH&ODLPV&RQIHUHQFH
Mizrahi art and literature
*URZLQJUHFRJQLWLRQLVDOVRHYLGHQWLQWKHZRUOGRIFXOWXUH)URPWKHPLG
V RQZDUGV DQ LQFUHDVLQJ QXPEHU RI WH[WV GHDOLQJ ZLWK WKH +RORFDXVW
IURPD0L]UDKLSHUVSHFWLYHKDYHEHHQZULWWHQ%DW\D6KLPRQLSRLQWVWRD
GHYHORSPHQWWKDWKDVWDNHQSODFHLQUHFHQW\HDUVLQWKHZULWLQJRIZRUNVDERXW
WKH +RORFDXVW DQG UHPHPEUDQFH DQG GHVFULEHV 0L]UDKL ZULWHUV ZKR ZULWH
DERXWWKH+RORFDXVWZKRKDYHDFRPPRQGHQRPLQDWRUDOOWKH0L]UDKLZULW
HUVFRYHUHGE\6KLPRQLLQKHUDUWLFOHZHUHERUQDQGUDLVHGLQQHLJKERXUKRRGV
ZKHUH WKH ´ZRUOGYLHZ RI WKH ÀUVW -HZLVK SHRSOH WKH $VKNHQD]L -HZVµ ZDV
ÀUPO\URRWHGS,QKHUERRN-DEORQNDFDOOVWKHSURFHVVLQZKLFK
PHPEHUVRI0L]UDKL-HZVZKRDUHWKHVHFRQGJHQHUDWLRQ+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUV
LQWHUQDOLVHWKHPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWDVWKH´VHFRQGÁRRURIWKHPHPRU\µ
-DEORQND
)ROORZLQJWKHVWXGLHVE\'DYLGRYLWFKDQG6RHQEHORZZHSUHVHQW
WZRRIWKHPDQ\ZRUNVWKDWGHDOZLWK0L]UDKLKLVWRU\DQGWKH+RORFDXVWRI
WKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFDZKLFKPDGHWKHLUZD\LQWRWKH,VUDHOLPDLQVWUHDP
PHPRU\VLQFH
Night of Fools
.LPKL·VÀOPNight of FoolsZKLFKZRQWKH0LQLVWU\RI(GXFDWLRQDQG&XO
WXUH·V=LRQLVW$ZDUGLQUHODWHVWKHVWRU\RIWKH-HZLVKXQGHUJURXQGLQ
$OJLHUVWKHFDSLWDORI$OJHULD)RUPDQ\YLHZHUVWKLVLVWKHÀUVWWLPHWKH\DUH
H[SRVHG WR WKH KHURLF DQG FRPSOHWHO\ ORVW VWRU\ RI WKH -HZLVK XQGHUJURXQG
DQGLWVHIIRUWVWRRYHUWKURZWKH1D]LUHJLPHDQGRFFXS\WKHFLW\ZKHQ$PHUL
FDQIRUFHVLQ2SHUDWLRQ7RUFKHQWHUHGWKHFLW\$FFRUGLQJWRGLUHFWRU.LPKLD
PHGLDOHFWXUHUDW$ULHO8QLYHUVLW\
:ULWLQJDQGGLUHFWLQJWKLVÀOPDERXWWKH-HZVRI$OJHULDDQGWKHLUJUHDWFRQWULEX
WLRQWRWKH$OOLHGIRUFHVLQ:RUOG:DU,,²LVDFDOOLQJIRUPH7RWHOOWKHORVWVWRU\RI
WKHXQGHUJURXQG-HZVZKRVDGO\UHDOLVHGRYHUWKH\HDUVWKDWWKH,VUDHOLQDUUDWLYH
RIWKH+RORFDXVWVLPSO\VNLSSHGWKHPDQGWKHLUVWRU\Ynet-DQXDU\
Benghazi-Bergen-Belsen
7KH%UHQQHU3UL]HIRU/LWHUDWXUHIRUZDVDZDUGHGWR<RVVL6XFDU\·V
ERRNBenghazi-Bergen-Belsen7KLVERRNLVWKHÀUVWQRYHOLQWKHZRUOGWRWHOOWKH
VWRU\RID/LE\DQ-HZLVKIDPLO\DQGLWVWXPXOWXRXVWUDYHOVXQWLOWKH\PHHWWKHLU
GHDWKOLNHPDQ\DWWKHKDQGVRIWKH1D]LVLQ%HUJHQ%HOVHQ6XFDU\GHOYHV
GHHSO\LQWRWKHZRXQGVRIKLVIDPLO\DQGWKHZRXQGVRI,VUDHOLVRFLHW\LQWKH
SURFHVVRIH[FOXVLRQRI1RUWK$IULFDQ-HZV6XFDU\FRPPHPRUDWHVWKHDE\V
PDOJDSVLQKLVWRULFQDUUDWLYHVSUHYDOHQWLQ,VUDHOLVRFLHW\WRGD\DQGEULQJVWR
OLJKWWKHVLOHQFHGYRLFHVRIWKHSHRSOHRIWKLVUHJLRQ
The Biton Committee
7KHKLJKOLJKWRIWKHRIÀFLDODQGRYHUGXHUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKH-HZVRI1RUWK
$IULFDDQG$VLDRU0L]UDKL-XGDLVPZDVLQIDFWWKH%LWRQ&RPPLWWHHIRUWKH
(PSRZHUPHQWRIWKH/HJDF\RI6HSKDUGLFDQG(DVWHUQ-HZU\LQWKH(GXFD
WLRQDO6\VWHP7KHFRPPLWWHHZKLFKZDVKHDGHGE\(UH]%LWRQDSRHWDQG
ZLQQHURIWKH,VUDHO3UL]HIRU/LWHUDWXUHVHWLWVHOIWKHJRDORIUHVWRULQJWKHORVW
GLJQLW\ RI WKRVH -HZV RI 6HSKDUGLF0L]UDKL GHVFHQW &RPPLWWHH PHPEHUV
LQFOXGHG'U6KLPRQ2KD\RQGLUHFWRURIWKH'DKDQ&HQWHUIRUWKH+HULWDJHRI
6HSKDUGLFDQG0L]UDKL-HZU\
2QWKHLQVWUXFWLRQVRIWKHQ0LQLVWHURI(GXFDWLRQ1DIWDOL%HQQHWWWKHFRP
PLWWHHZDVHVWDEOLVKHGWRH[DPLQHWKHVWXG\PDWHULDOVRQ6HSKDUGLFDQG0L]
UDKL-HZU\XVHGLQWKHHGXFDWLRQV\VWHPDQGZKDWLVPLVVLQJIURPWKHP$Q
LQGHSWKH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHFXUUHQWFXUULFXODUHYHDOHGDSURIRXQGGHÀFLHQF\
LQDOODUHDVRIVWXG\KLVWRU\OLWHUDWXUH-HZLVKSKLORVRSK\FLYLFVLQERWKWKH
VWDWHHGXFDWLRQV\VWHPDQGWKHSXEOLFUHOLJLRXVHGXFDWLRQV\VWHP7KLVZDV
DOVRIRXQGWREHWKHFDVHLQDFDGHPLFUHVHDUFK
$V D UHVXOW WKH 3LOODU RI )LUH 79 VKRZ SURGXFHG WKUHH QHZ HSLVRGHV
RQWKHFRQWULEXWLRQRI0L]UDKL-HZU\WR=LRQLVPDQGWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI
WKH6WDWH7KHVHHSLVRGHVWHOOWKHVWRULHVRIWKH0L]UDKL-HZVLQWKHWUDQVLW
FDPSVWKHVWUXJJOHRIWKH%ODFN3DQWKHUVWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKHSROLWLFDO
SDUWLHV7DPLDQG6KDVDQGÀQDOO\WKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWKH+DNHVKHW+DG
HPRFUDWLW+DPL]UDKLW0L]UDKL'HPRFUDWLF)URQW2QHRIWKHIRFDOSRLQWV
RIWKHVHULHVLVDGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHVWUXJJOHIRUUHFRJQLWLRQDQGWKHFRQVWDQW
HIIRUWVVLQFHWKHSUH,QGHSHQGHQFHSHULRGWRGHVWUR\WKHEDUULHUVSODFHG
EHIRUHWKH0L]UDKL-HZVZKRZHUHH[FOXGHGIURPWKHVWRU\RIWKH=LRQLVW
HQWHUSULVH
The journey to Poland – between East and West 'LIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ0L]UDKLDQG:HVWHUQFXOWXUHVDQGVHFWRULDOLVVXHVKDYH
FUHDWHGDQGDUHVWLOOFUHDWLQJWHQVLRQLQVRFLHW\,Q,VUDHOLVRFLHW\WKHPHPRU\
RIWKH+RORFDXVWKDVEHHQVKDSHGRYHUWKH\HDUVDVDFROOHFWLYH(XURSHDQ$VK
NHQD]LPHPRU\DQGDVVWDWHGWKHPHPRU\RIWKH0L]UDKL+RORFDXVWKDVEHHQ
PDUJLQDOLVHG7RPDQ\WKHSKUDVH´0L]UDKL+RORFDXVWµDSSHDUVWREHDPDU
JLQDODQGQHJOLJLEOHWHUP-DEORQND
7KHLVVXHRIHWKQLFJURXSVLQ-XGDLVPLVQRWQHZ2QWKHFRQWUDU\LWZDV
GHHSO\URRWHGLQ,VUDHOLVRFLHW\HYHQEHIRUHWKHLPPLJUDQWVEHJDQWRDUULYHLQ
,VUDHO7KH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFDZHUHH[FOXGHGDQGWKHLVVXHZDVVLOHQFHGIRU
PDQ\\HDUV+RZHYHUWKHVHPLQDOHYHQWVLQ,VUDHO·VUHFHQWKLVWRU\HIIHFWLYHO\
EURXJKWWKH+RORFDXVWRIWKH-HZVRI1RUWK$IULFDWRFHQWUHVWDJH
6KLPRQLEHOLHYHVWKDWLQWKHVWKHHGXFDWLRQV\VWHPFRQVFLRXVO\
XVHGWKHPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWDQGWKHPHOWLQJSRWSULQFLSOHWRFUHDWHXQLW\
DQGWREULGJHWKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQ0L]UDKLDQG$VKNHQD]L-HZV6KHFODLPV
WKDW1RUWK$IULFDQ-HZVFRPSOHWHO\LGHQWLÀHGZLWKWKHVXIIHULQJRIWKH+ROR
FDXVWLQ(XURSH
0XFKKDVEHHQZULWWHQDERXWWKHVWDWXVRIWKH+RORFDXVWDVDNH\HOHPHQW
LQWKHKHJHPRQLF,VUDHOLLGHQWLW\6LQFHWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGKDVEHFRPH
RQHRIWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWSKHQRPHQDLQWKHVKDSLQJRI+RORFDXVWUHPHP
EUDQFHLQWKHODWHWZHQWLHWKFHQWXU\DQGLWLVWKHSLQQDFOHRI+RORFDXVWVWXGLHV
IRUDGROHVFHQWV'DYLGRYLWFK 6RHQ
)HOGPDQFDOOVWKHMRXUQH\D´SLOJULPDJHWR3RODQGµDQGD´ULWHRI
SDVVDJHµ IRU DGROHVFHQWV EHIRUH EHLQJ GUDIWHG LQWR WKH ,') 7KHVH MRXUQH\V
DQGVWXGHQWV·H[SHULHQFLQJWKHKRUURUVRI$XVFKZLW]7UHEOLQNDDQGWKHNLOO
LQJIRUHVWVKDYHEHFRPHDQREOLJDWRU\VWDJHLQWKHVRFLDOLVDWLRQRIDGROHVFHQWV
LQSUHSDUDWLRQIRUWKHLUHQOLVWPHQWLQWKH,'))HOGPDQ'DYLGRYLWFK 6RHQ6RPHRIWKHVWXGHQWVZKRJRRQWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGDUHWKH
WKLUGJHQHUDWLRQDQGVRPHWLPHVHYHQIRXUWKJHQHUDWLRQ+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUV
VRPHUHWHOOWKHSHUVRQDOVWRULHVRIWKHLUJUDQGSDUHQWVDWWKHFHUHPRQLHV)HOG
PDQZKLOHRWKHUVKHDUVXFKVWRULHVIRUWKHÀUVWWLPH
([WHQVLYHSXEOLFDQGDFDGHPLFGHEDWHVKDYHGHYHORSHGDURXQGWKHMRXU
QH\VZKLFKDUHDQLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKHGHEDWHRQ+RORFDXVWWHDFKLQJDQGLWV
SODFHLQWKHHGXFDWLRQV\VWHP7KHIDFWWKDWWKH+RORFDXVWDOWHUHGWKHIDFHRI
KLVWRU\ LQ JHQHUDO DQG -HZLVK KLVWRU\ LQ SDUWLFXODU LV RI JOREDO VLJQLÀFDQFH
7LORYLFK/HY\7KH1D]LVNLOOHGQRWRQO\-HZVEXWDOVRLQGLYLGXDOVZLWK
GLVDELOLWLHVJLSVLHVKRPRVH[XDOVDQGGLVVHQWHUV
7KHSUHVHQWVWXG\IROORZVWKHÀQGLQJVE\'DYLGRYLWFKDQG6RHQZKR
H[DPLQHGWKHFRQWULEXWLRQRIWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGLQVHYHUDOZD\VPDLQO\LQ
WHUPV RI FRPSDWLELOLW\ ZLWK WKH DFWLYLWLHV WKDW WDNH SODFH LQ WKH IRUPDO HGX
FDWLRQV\VWHPDQGDFWLYLWLHVLQLQIRUPDOVHWWLQJV7RH[WHQGWKHFXUUHQWERG\
RINQRZOHGJHZHH[DPLQHVHYHUDOIXQGDPHQWDOLVVXHVWKDWRIIHULQVLJKWVRQ
WKHGHSWKRIFRPPHPRUDWLRQWKURXJKWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQG²WKHPRQXPHQW
7KHVHLVVXHVDUHDUWLFXODWHGLQWKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVWKDWJXLGHGRXU
UHVHDUFK
Research Questions
'R MRXUQH\ SDUWLFLSDQWV KDYH FORVHU IDPLO\ WLHV WR WKH +RORFDXVW" 7KLV
VWXG\K\SRWKHVLVHVWKDWWKLUG²DQGHYHQIRXUWK²JHQHUDWLRQVWXGHQWVZKR
KDYHDSHUVRQDOFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH+RORFDXVWZLOOH[SUHVVDVWURQJHUGHVLUH
WRYLVLWWKHGHDWKFDPSV
,VWKHUHDFORVHUFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHVXEMHFWVZKRFKRVHWRJRRQWKH
MRXUQH\DQGWKHLUIDPLOLDORUÀQDQFLDOVXSSRUW"
:RXOGVWXGHQWVREMHFWWRUHSODFLQJWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGZLWKDOWHUQDWLYH
WULSVWRUHOHYDQWVLWHVLQ,VUDHORUDEURDG"6XFKREMHFWLRQVZRXOGVXSSRUW
WKHFODLPWKDWWKHUHLVQRVXEVWLWXWHIRUWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQG
'RSDUWLFLSDWLQJDQGQRQSDUWLFLSDWLQJVWXGHQWVGLIIHULQWKHOHYHOVRIIHDU
RUDSSUHKHQVLRQRIDVHFRQG+RORFDXVWIRUWKH-HZLVKSHRSOHRUHYHQIRU
DQ\RWKHUSHRSOH"
+RZGRHVWKHMRXUQH\DIIHFWWKHPHPEHUVRIWKH0L]UDKLFRPPXQLW\"
The research instruments 7ZRTXHVWLRQQDLUHVZHUHXVHGLQWKLVVWXG\
-RXUQH\WR3RODQG4XHVWLRQQDLUH
7RH[DPLQHWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVDTXHVWLRQQDLUHZDVDGDSWHGIRUWKLV
VWXG\IURPDTXHVWLRQQDLUHGHYHORSHGE\'DYLGRYLWFKDQG6RHQ7KH
VHOIUHSRUWTXHVWLRQQDLUHEULQJVVHYHUDORIWKHVHZHLJKW\WRSLFVWRWKHVXUIDFH
3DUWLFLSDQWVLQGLFDWHWKHLUDJUHHPHQWZLWKLWHPVRQDVFDOHIURPYHU\OLWWOH WRYHU\PXFK
'HPRJUDSKLF4XHVWLRQQDLUH
$VWDQGDUGGHPRJUDSKLFTXHVWLRQQDLUHJLYHVDEURDGHUSLFWXUHRIWKHSDU
WLFLSDQWVZKHWKHUWKH\ZHQWWR3RODQGDQGLQZKDWIUDPHZRUNDQGZDVLV
WKHLUSHUVRQDOFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH+RORFDXVW
Research process
3DUWLFLSDQWV1 ZHUHVWXGHQWVDW$ULHO8QLYHUVLW\ZKRKDGDQGKDG
QRWSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHMRXUQH\WKURXJKWKHLUVFKRRORURWKHUHGXFDWLRQDOVHW
WLQJV7KHTXHVWLRQQDLUHZDVGLVWULEXWHGRQOLQHYLD:KDWV$SSRQOLQHTXHV
WLRQQDLUHVRQ*RRJOH)RUPVZHUHDOVRXVHG'DWDZHUHSURFHVVHGXVLQJ6366
VRIWZDUH 3DUWLFLSDQWV ZHUH QRW UHTXLUHG WR DQVZHU WKH VWXG\ TXHVWLRQQDLUH
DQGZHUHJLYHQWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRVWRSFRPSOHWLQJWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUHDWDQ\
WLPH,QDGGLWLRQVWXGHQWV·DQRQ\PLW\ZDVPDLQWDLQHGWKURXJKRXWWKHVWXG\
Study findings Participants
2IDWRWDORISDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHPDOHDQGZHUHIHPDOH3DUWLFL
SDQWV·PHDQDJHZDV6' 0RVWRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHERUQLQ
,VUDHO
,Q WHUPV RI UHOLJLRXV GHÀQLWLRQ PRVW SDUWLFLSDQWV GHÀQHG WKHPVHOYHV DV
VHFXODU1 GHÀQHGWKHPVHOYHVDVWUDGLWLRQDODVUHOLJLRXVDQG
DV´RWKHUµ0RVWSDUWLFLSDQWVRUZHQWRQDMRXUQH\WR3RODQGLQD
VFKRROVHWWLQJRULQRWKHUVHWWLQJV,')1 \RXWKPRYHPHQWV1 RWKHU
1 7DEOH
Participants’ Religiosity
/HYHORIUHOLJLRVLW\ N
6HFXODU
7UDGLWLRQDO
5HOLJLRXV
8OWUD2UWKRGR[
2WKHU
Source:RZQVWXG\
2IDOOSDUWLFLSDQWVUHSRUWHGKDYLQJFRPSOHWHGWKHLUIXOOPLOLWDU\VHUYLFH
FRPSOHWHGSDUWLDOPLOLWDU\VHUYLFHVHUYHGLQWKHFDUHHUDUP\VHUYHGDV
RIÀFHUVDQGSDUWLFLSDQWVVWDWHGWKDWWKH\GLGQRWVHUYHLQWKH,')
7DEOH
Personal Connection to the Holocaust
*HQGHU )DPLO\PHPEHUZKRSHULVKHG
LQWKH+RORFDXVW
)DPLO\PHPEHUZKRVXUYLYHGWKH
+RORFDXVW
Male 1
1
Female 1
1
SourceRZQVWXG\
$WRWDORIPDOHSDUWLFLSDQWVVWDWHGWKDWRQHRIWKHLUIDPLO\PHPEHUVKDG
SHULVKHGLQWKH+RORFDXVWFRPSDUHGZLWKSDUWLFLSDQWVZKRVWDWHGWKDWQRQH
RIWKHLUIDPLO\PHPEHUVKDGSHULVKHGLQWKH+RORFDXVW$WRWDORIIHPDOH
SDUWLFLSDQWVVWDWHGWKDWRQHRIWKHLUIDPLO\PHPEHUVKDGVXUYLYHGWKH+ROR
FDXVW FRPSDUHG WR ZKR UHSRUWHG WKDQ RQH RI WKHLU IDPLO\ PHPEHUV KDG
SHULVKHGLQWKH+RORFDXVW
7RH[DPLQHWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUWKHUHLVDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLÀFDQWFRQ
QHFWLRQEHWZHHQJRLQJWR3RODQGDQGKDYLQJDIDPLO\FRQQHFWLRQZLWKWKH+RO
RFDXVWZHSHUIRUPHGWZRFKLVTXDUHGWHVWV7KLVTXHVWLRQZDVGLYLGHGLQWR
WZRSDUWVSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDVNHGWRUDWHWKHLUDJUHHPHQWZLWKWKHIROORZLQJ
VWDWHPHQW´2QO\WKRVHZKRKDGVRPHSHUVRQDOFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH+RORFDXVW
FKRVHWRJRRQWKHMRXUQH\µ,WVHHPVWKDWDPLQRULW\RISDUWLFLSDQWVGLVDJUHHG
ZLWKWKHVWDWHPHQW1 ZKLOHDPDMRULW\1 DJUHHGWR
VRPHH[WHQW
$QH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHK\SRWKHVLVWKDWWKHUHLVDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLÀFDQWFRQ
QHFWLRQEHWZHHQSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGDQGKDYLQJDIDPLO\
PHPEHUZKRSHULVKHGLQWKH+RORFDXVWLQGLFDWHVWKDWWKHUHLVDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJ
QLÀFDQWFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHYDULDEOHVp ') .UDPHU·V
FRUUHODWLRQFRHIÀFLHQWLQGLFDWHVDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLÀFDQW\HWZHDNDVVRFLDWLRQ
5& EHWZHHQSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHMRXUQH\DQGKDYLQJDIDPLO\PHPEHU
ZKRSHULVKHGLQWKH+RORFDXVW
7RH[DPLQHWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUWKHUHLVDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLÀFDQWFRQ
QHFWLRQEHWZHHQSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHMRXUQH\DQGKDYLQJDIDPLO\PHPEHUZKR
VXUYLYHGWKH+RORFDXVWZHSHUIRUPHGDQRWKHUFKLVTXDUHGWHVW7KHÀQGLQJV
LQGLFDWHWKDWWKHUHLVQRVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLÀFDQWFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHYDUL
DEOHVp! ') 7KHK\SRWKHVLVWKDWWKHUHZRXOGEHDVWURQJHU
DVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQWKRVHZKRZHQWRQWKHMRXUQH\DQGKDGDIDPLO\FRQQHF
WLRQWRWKH+RORFDXVWZDVSDUWLDOO\VXSSRUWHG
Family Support
,QRUGHUWRH[DPLQHWKHTXHVWLRQRIZKHWKHUWKHUHLVDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLÀ
FDQWFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQJRLQJWR3RODQGDQGKDYLQJIDPLO\VXSSRUWZHSHU
IRUPHGDFKLVTXDUHGWHVW7KHÀQGLQJVLQGLFDWHWKDWWKHUHLVQRVWDWLVWLFDOO\
VLJQLÀFDQWFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHYDULDEOHVp! ') .UDP
HU·VFRUUHODWLRQFRHIÀFLHQWEHWZHHQSDUWLFLSDWLQJLQWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGDQG
KDYLQJDIDPLO\PHPEHUZKRSHULVKHGLQWKH+RORFDXVWLQGLFDWHVDVWDWLVWLFDOO\
VLJQLÀFDQW\HWZHDNDVVRFLDWLRQ5& 7KLVK\SRWKHVLVZDVVXSSRUWHG
The Alternative Journey
7RH[DPLQHWKHK\SRWKHVLVWKDWDGLIIHUHQFHZRXOGEHIRXQGEHWZHHQWKRVH
ZKRZHQWRQWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQGDQGWKRVHZKRVXSSRUWDOWHUQDWLYHPHDQV
RIFRPPHPRUDWLRQZHFRQGXFWHGDWWHVWIRULQGHSHQGHQWVDPSOHV+RZHYHU
LWWXUQVRXWWKDWVWXGHQWVZKRSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHMRXUQH\VKRZHGORZHUVXS
SRUWIRUDOWHUQDWLYHVWRWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQG0 6 FRPSDUHGWR
WKRVHZKRGLGQRWSDUWLFLSDWH0 6' 2QHH[SODQDWLRQIRUWKLVÀQG
LQJLVWKDWWKHVLJKWVLQ3RODQGDUHGLIÀFXOWEXWYLVLWVWRRWKHUSODFHVZRXOGQRW
EHDEOHWRJHQHUDWHWKHHPRWLRQDOVKRFNRIWKHMRXUQH\WR3RODQG6HFRQGO\
DOWHUQDWLYHMRXUQH\VPD\EHVXSSRUWHGDVDOHVVH[SHQVLYHDOWHUQDWLYH
The Fear of a Second Holocaust
7RH[DPLQHWKLVTXHVWLRQDWWHVWIRULQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHVZDVSHUIRUPHG
7KHÀQGLQJVLQGLFDWHWKDWWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHOHYHORIIHDURIDVHFRQG+ROR
FDXVWEHWZHHQWKHJURXSRIWKRVHZKRSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHMRXUQH\DQGWKRVH
ZKR GLG QRW LV VWDWLVWLFDOO\ VLJQLÀFDQW t p$SSDUHQWO\WKH
PHDQ IHDU RI VWXGHQWV ZKR SDUWLFLSDWHG LQ WKH MRXUQH\ WR 3RODQG 0
6 LVKLJKHUWKDQWKDWRIWKHVWXGHQWVZKRGLGQRWSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHMRXUQH\
WR3RODQG0 6
Summary and conclusions
6WXGLHVRQ+RORFDXVWDZDUHQHVVLQ,VUDHOLVRFLHW\LQGLFDWHWKDWWKHPHPRU\
RIWKH+RORFDXVWLVDVHPLQDOHWKRVLQWKHFXOWXUDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRI,VUDHOL
VRFLHW\-DEORQND'DYLGRYLWFK 6RHQ7LORYLFK/HY\7KH
+RORFDXVWLVHWFKHGDVDWUDXPDWLFPHPRU\LQWKHKLVWRU\RIWKH-HZLVKSHRSOH
LQJHQHUDODQGDVDSHUVRQDOPHPRU\IRUVXUYLYRUVLQSDUWLFXODU$PRQJPHP
EHUVRIWKHVHFRQGJHQHUDWLRQLWLVHWFKHGRXWRIHPSDWK\ZLWKWKHSDLQRIWKHLU
SDUHQWV-DEORQND
$VSDUWRIWKLVVWXG\ZHH[DPLQHGWKHUHVHDUFKK\SRWKHVLVWKDWVLJQLÀFDQW
GLIIHUHQFHVZRXOGEHIRXQGEHWZHHQWKRVHZKRSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKHMRXUQH\WR
3RODQGDQGKDGDSHUVRQDOFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH+RORFDXVWDQGSDUWLFLSDQWVZKR
KDGFKRVHQQRWWRSDUWLFLSDWHLQWKHMRXUQH\3DUWLFLSDQWVZLWKDIDPLO\PHPEHU
ZKRSHULVKHGLQWKH+RORFDXVWIHHODVWURQJQHHGWRVHHIHHODQGDWWHPSWWR
LPDJLQHWKHDWURFLWLHVRIWKH*HUPDQVRQ3ROLVKVRLO7KHVHÀQGLQJVDUHVLPLODU
WRWKRVHRI'DYLGRYLWFKDQG6RHQZKRIRXQGDQDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQ
D SHUVRQDO FRQQHFWLRQ WR WKH +RORFDXVW DQG SDUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ WKH MRXUQH\ DV
RSSRVHGWRVWXGHQWVZLWKQRIDPLO\FRQQHFWLRQWRWKH+RORFDXVW
7KHSUHVHQWVWXG\DOVRH[DPLQHGZKHWKHUDQGLI\HVWRZKDWH[WHQWWKH
MRXUQH\WR3RODQGLVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIVRFLDOSRODULVDWLRQDQGDQLQYLWDWLRQWR
WKHVRFDOOHG´HWKQLFGHPRQµWKDWLVDOZD\VZDLWLQJWRUHDULWVXJO\KHDGRU
ZKHWKHUWKHMRXUQH\LVDXQLI\LQJHOHPHQWLQRXUQDWLRQDOFROOHFWLYHPHPRU\
7KHSUHVHQWVWXG\HPSKDVLVHGWKHFKDQJHVWKDWKDYHWDNHQSODFHLQ,VUDHOL
VRFLHW\DQGDPRQJVXUYLYRUVRIWKH1RUWK$IULFDQ+RORFDXVWZKLFKRFFXUUHG
VLQFHWKHVWXG\E\'DYLGRYLWFKDQG6RHQRQWKHMRXUQH\WRWKHGHDWK
FDPSVLQ3RODQGDQGWKHFKDQJHVLQWKHLUUHFRJQLWLRQDV+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUV
7KH HWKQLF WHQVLRQ EHWZHHQ $VKNHQD]L DQG 0L]UDKL -HZV LV RQH RI WKH
GHHSHVWULIWVLQ,VUDHOLVRFLHW\*DQ8QOLNHPDQ\RWKHUVWXGLHVH[DPLQ
LQJJHQHUDOYDOXHVUHODWHGWRNQRZOHGJHIHHOLQJVDQGDWWLWXGHVWRZDUGVWKH
MRXUQH\WR3RODQGLQWKHSUHVHQWVWXG\ZHLQYHVWLJDWHGKRZWKHMRXUQH\WR
3RODQGDIIHFWVVWXGHQWV·FRQQHFWLRQWRWKHPHPRU\RIWKH+RORFDXVWZLWKRQH
VLGHDSSURSULDWLQJWKHVXIIHULQJRIWKH+RORFDXVWDQGWKHRWKHUVLGHZDQWLQJD
VKDUHRIRZQHUVKLSDIWHUGHFDGHVRIPDUJLQDOLVDWLRQDQGH[FOXVLRQ$OWKRXJK
WKHMRXUQH\VWR3RODQGVWUHVVWKHVKDUHGH[SHULHQFHVRIWKH+RORFDXVWDQGFRO
OHFWLYHPHPRU\GLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHWUHDWPHQWRIPDWHULDOVUHODWHGWR$VKNHQD]L
DQG0L]UDKL+RORFDXVWH[SHULHQFHVUHPDLQ
7KHMRXUQH\VWR3RODQGIRFXVRQWKHGHVWUXFWLRQDQGGHYDVWDWLRQWKDWWKH
+RORFDXVWZURXJKWRQ(XURSHDQ-HZU\ZKLFKZDVDOPRVWFRPSOHWHO\DQQL
KLODWHG\HWWKH\GRQRWVXIÀFLHQWO\HPSKDVLVHWKHULFK-HZLVKOLIHLQSUHZDU
3RODQGMXVWDVWKH\FHUWDLQO\GRQRWVXIÀFLHQWO\PHQWLRQWKHHQWLUHFRPPXQL
WLHVGHVWUR\HGLQ*UHHFH6HUELD&URDWLD,WDO\DQG0DFHGRQLDZKHUHWKHDWURF
LWLHVRIWKH1D]LVZHUHH[SHULHQFHGWRDOHVVHUH[WHQWFRPSDUHGWRWKHUHVWRI
(XURSH7KHFRXQWULHVRI1RUWK$IULFD³7XQLVLD/LE\D$OJHULDDQG0RURFFR
³DUHDOPRVWFRPSOHWHO\H[FOXGHGIURPWKHGLVFRXUVH
)XUWKHUPRUHXQWLOQRZWHDFKHUVWUDLQLQJSURJUDPPHVDWXQLYHUVLWLHVDQG
FROOHJHV KDYH QRW HPSKDVLVHG WKH VXEMHFW DQG LWV WHDFKLQJ PHWKRGV <DR]
$QH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHVWDWHRI+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQLQSRVWSULPDU\VFKRROV
LQWKH6WDWHRI,VUDHODVZHOODVWHDFKHUVWUDLQLQJDQGLQVHUYLFHWUDLQLQJDWXQL
YHUVLWLHV DQG FROOHJHV SRLQWV WR DQ XUJHQW QHHG IRU D VLJQLÀFDQW G\QDPLF
DQG SUDFWLFDO FKDQJH LQ OLQH ZLWK QHZ DSSURDFKHV WR WKH FRQFHSWXDOLVDWLRQ
RI WKH +RORFDXVW DQG FRQWHPSRUDU\ PLQGVHWV SHUFHSWLRQV DQG DWWLWXGHV RI
DGROHVFHQWV
0DQ\TXHVWLRQVWKDWDURVHDVDUHVXOWRIWKHKLVWRULFDOSUHRFFXSDWLRQZLWKWKH
+RORFDXVWUDLVHGDZDUHQHVVRIWKHPXOWLGLPHQVLRQDOLW\RIWKH+RORFDXVW7KLV
LV UHÁHFWHG LQ LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ DSSURDFKHV WKDW FRPELQH KLVWRULFDO UHVHDUFK
ZLWKOLWHUDWXUHGUDPDÀOPDQGWKHSODVWLFDUWV3UHRFFXSDWLRQZLWKWKH+ROR
FDXVWLVEHQHÀWLQJIURPQHZSHUVSHFWLYHVDQGQHZWRROVIRUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
7KHUHIRUHFRQWHPSRUDU\FXUULFXODIRU+RORFDXVWWHDFKLQJUHTXLUHDQLQWHUGLV
FLSOLQDU\DSSURDFKWKDWQRWRQO\LQFOXGHVWHDFKLQJWKHVXEMHFWLQKLVWRU\DQG
OLWHUDWXUHEXWDOVRLQWKHDWUHÀOPDQGWKHSODVWLFDUWV1RZPRUHWKDQHYHU
,VUDHOLDGROHVFHQWVFRPPXQLFDWHYLDWHFKQRORJLFDOGHYLFHVDQGLQWHUGLVFLSOL
QDU\FRQFHSWDSSURDFKHVKDYHWKHSRWHQWLDOWREULQJWKHPFORVHUWRWKHKHULWDJH
RIWKH+RORFDXVWVXUYLYRUV
7RWKLVHQGDWHDPRIUHVHDUFKHUVDQGWHDFKHUVZLWKH[SHULHQFHLQ+ROR
FDXVW HGXFDWLRQ LQ WKH YDULRXV GLVFLSOLQHV PXVW EH IRUPHG DQG DQ LQWHUGLV
FLSOLQDU\FXUULFXOXPIRU+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQDWSXEOLFUHOLJLRXVDQGJHQHUDO
SRVWSULPDU\VFKRROVLQ,VUDHOPXVWEHFUHDWHG7KHVHHIIRUWVPXVWLQFOXGHERWK
H[SDQGLQJH[LVWLQJFXUULFXODDQGDGGLQJQHZFXUULFXODLQGLVFLSOLQHVLQZKLFK
WKH+RORFDXVWKDVQRWEHHQVWXGLHGVRIDUVXFKDVWKHDWUHDQGÀOP$WWKHVDPH
WLPHWKHUHLVDQHHGIRULQVHUYLFHWUDLQLQJIRUWHDFKHUVLQRUGHUWRSURPRWH
WKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIWHDPVRI+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQWHDFKHUVZKRXVHDQLQWHU
GLVFLSOLQDU\DSSURDFK+RORFDXVWHGXFDWLRQUHTXLUHVDQLQQRYDWLYHDQGPRUDO
DSSURDFKWKDWZLOOSUHVHUYHDZDUHQHVVRIWKHOHJDF\RIWKH+RORFDXVWIRUIXWXUH
JHQHUDWLRQV
:HEHOLHYHWKDWWKHWHDFKLQJDERXWWKH+RORFDXVWPRUHWKDQ\HDUVDIWHU
LWWRRNSODFHFRQVWLWXWHVDFRJQLWLYHHPRWLRQDODQGPRUDOFKDOOHQJHIRU,VUDHOL
VRFLHW\DQGDOOQDWLRQVDOLNH,QRXUPRGHUQVRFLHW\LVVXHVPD\DULVHZKLFKZH
DVDVRFLHW\KDYHUHIUDLQHGIURPJUDSSOLQJZLWKXSWRQRZ,QWKLVDUWLFOHZH
KDYHDWWHPSWHGWRDGGUHVVVRPHRIWKHVHLVVXHVZKLFKPXVWQRWEHOHIWXQUH
VROYHGXQGHUDQ\FLUFXPVWDQFHV'LVUHJDUGGRHVQRWOHDGWRKHDOLQJLWOHDYHV
WKHSUREOHPVLQWDFW,WLVSRVVLEOHWKDWLQRXUPRGHUQPXOWLFXOWXUDOVRFLHW\WKH
GLVFRXUVHJHQHUDWHGE\WKH+RORFDXVWDFWXDOO\FUHDWHVIHUWLOHJURXQGIRUDFWLRQ
E\WKH\RXQJHUJHQHUDWLRQZKRZLOOFRQWLQXHWRSUHVHUYHWKHPHPRU\RIWKH
+RORFDXVW$SSHOIHOG
References
>@ $ELWEXO0<HKXGHL$OJHULD7XQLVLD9L·PRURFFR>-HZVRI$OJHULD7XQLVLD
DQG0RURFFR@Pe’amim: Studies in Oriental Jewry
>@ $SSHOIHOG$Interview with Michal Sternin and Merav Janno at Yad Vashem5HWULHYHG
0DUFKIURPKWWSVZZZ\DGYDVKHPRUJKHDUWLFOHVLQWHUYLHZVDKDURQDSSHO
IHOGKWPO
>@ %DU=RKDU0%HQ*XULRQ+D·,VK0HDKRUHL+D·$JDGD²%LRJUDSÀD.HUHFK$OHSK>%HQ
*XULRQ7KHPDQEHKLQGWKHOHJHQG²$ELRJUDSK\9RO$@7HO$YLY$P2YHG
>@ %HUQKDUG3%HKLQGWKHEDWWOHOLQHV,WDOLDQDWURFLWLHVDQGWKHSHUVHFXWLRQRI$UDEV
%HUEHUVDQG-HZVLQ1RUWK$IULFDGXULQJ:RUOG:DU,, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 26
>@ %LWRQ&RPPLWWHHIRUWKH(PSRZHUPHQWRIWKH/HJDF\RI6HSKDUGLFDQG(DVWHUQ-HZU\LQWKH
(GXFDWLRQDO6\VWHPDuach Vaadat Biton Li’haatzamat Hamoreshet Shel Yahadut Sepharad Vi’hamizrach Bamaarechet Hahinuch>5HSRUWRIWKH%LWRQ&RPPLWWHHIRUWKH(PSRZHUPHQWRI
WKH/HJDF\RI6HSKDUGLFDQG(DVWHUQ-HZU\LQWKH(GXFDWLRQDO6\VWHP@5HWULHYHG0DUFK
IURPKWWSVHGXJRYLORZO+HE7LFKRQ5HIXUPRW+LQRFK'RFXPHQWVELWRQUHSRUW
SGI
>@ %UXWLQ % Hayim Im Zikaron–Andartaot La’Shoah BIYisrael >/LYLQJ ZLWK PHPRU\ ²
0RQXPHQWVWRWKH+RORFDXVWLQ,VUDHO@*KHWWR)LJKWHUV0XVHXP>+HEUHZ@
>@ 'DYLGRYLWFK1 6RHQ'0DVDRW0LWEDJULP/SRODQLD%DDG9L·QHJHG>7HHQDJHUV·
MRXUQH\V WR 3RODQG 3URV DQG FRQV@ ,Q 1 'DYLGRYLWFK ' 6RHQ (GV Zikaron Hashoah Nosim Vi’etgartim >+RORFDXVW UHPHPEUDQFH LVVXHV DQG FKDOOHQJHV@ SS $ULHO $ULHO
8QLYHUVLW\&HQWHU
>@ 'DYLGRYLWFK1 6RHQ'(GVLi’Gay Hatzalmevet: Nisayon Hashoah Mi’Perspectikva Rav-Thumit>7RWKHYDOOH\RIWKHVKDGRZRIGHDWK7KH+RORFDXVWH[SHULHQFHIURPDPXOWLGL
VFLSOLQDU\SHUVSHFWLYH@7HO$YLY5HVOLQJ
>@ 'LQXU%=.=HWQLNHadashot Yad Ve’Shem><DG9DVKHP1HZV@-HUXVDOHP<DG
9DVKHP
>@ 'RQ<HKLD(0HPRU\DQGSROLWLFDOFXOWXUH,VUDHOLVRFLHW\DQG+RORFDXVWStudy in Contemporary Jewry, 9
>@ 'RURW5$,Q1'DYLGRYLWFK '6RHQ(GVShoa and experienceSS 7HO$YLY$FDGHPLF6WXGLHV3UHVV
>@ 'RURW5%HWZHHQWKHSROLWLFDODQGWKHSRHWLF+RORFDXVWPRQXPHQWV,Q1'DYLGR
YLWFK '6RHQ(GVLi’Gay Hatzalmevet: Nisayon Hashoah Mi’Perspectikva Rav-Thumit [To the YDOOH\RIWKHVKDGRZRIGHDWK7KH+RORFDXVWH[SHULHQFHIURPDPXOWLGLVFLSOLQDU\SHUVSHF
WLYH@SS7HO$YLY5HVOLQJ
>@ )HOGPDQ-$ERYHWKHGHDWKSLWVEHQHDWKWKHÁDJ<RXWKYR\DJHVWR3RODQGDQGWKHSHUIRU- mance of Israeli national identity%HUJKDKQ%RRNV1HZ<RUN
>@ *DQ$Hakravatam hi Omanutam: Mi’ SiachKorbaniLi’SiachMamlachti>7KHLUVDFULÀFHLV
WKHLUDUW)URPDVDFULÀFLDOGLVFRXUVHWRDVRYHUHLJQGLVFRXUVH@. -HUXVDOHP7KH,VUDHO'HPR
FUDF\,QVWLWXWH
>@ *HQLR5<HKXGHL0DDUDY$IULND+DW]DUIDWLW%L·7NXIDW9LVK\>-HZVRI)UHQFK:HVW
$IULFDGXULQJWKH9LFK\SHULRG@Pe’amim: Studies in Oriental Jewry, 81