Waldemar KARWOWSKI
*A CONGRUENCE BETWEEN THE KNOWLEDGE
OF HUMAN FACTORS / ERGONOMICS
AND MANAGEMENT: AN ONTOLOGICAL APPROACH
This paper discusses the natural congruence between the knowledge of human fac-tors/ergonomics (HFE) and contemporary management. Such congruence is described in the context of the main elements of the knowledge base of the two disciplines, and modeled by mapping the main categories of management knowledge to specific categories of HFE knowledge. The meaningful relationships are demonstrated through relevant ontologies at both high-level general HFE and management knowledge, as well as detailed low-level HFE and business management processes.
Key words: human factors, macroergonomics, management,
1. INTRODUCTION
It is the basic premise of this paper that the knowledge bases of business pro-cess management and human factors and ergonomics (HFE) are intimately interre-lated. The contemporary field of HFE has evolved over the last 60 years as a unique and independent discipline that focuses on the nature of human-artifact interactions, viewed from the unified perspective of the science, engineering, de-sign, technology, and management of human-compatible systems, including a vari-ety of natural and artificial products, processes, and living environments [9]. HFE discipline promotes a holistic, human-centered approach to work systems design that considers physical, cognitive, social, organizational, environmental and other relevant factors [12, 17].
* University of Central Florida, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems, Institute for Advanced Systems Engineering.
On the other hand, contemporary management includes knowledge of: (1) plan-ning and decision making, (2) organizing, (3) leading, and (4) controlling, directed at an organization’s resources (human, financial, physical, and information) with the aim of achieving organizational goals in an efficient and effective manner [5, 15]. HFE knowledge plays an important role in achieving organizational goals in an effective and efficient way [8, 10]. Examples of the main elements of man-agement processes which are central to the mission of the HFE discipline include: (1) organizing, (2) human resource planning, and (3) effective and efficient achievement of organizational goals. In the context of safety and health manage-ment, such factors are: (1) work stress in context of the individual worker’s behav-ior, and (2) human resource management. Work stress may be related to four cate-gories of organizational and individual factors: (1) decisions related to task de-mands; (2) work environment demands including physical, perceptional and cogni-tive task demands, as well as quality of the work environment, that is adjustment of the tools and machines to human characteristics and capabilities; (3) role demands related to the relations with supervisor and coworkers; and (4) interpersonal de-mands, which can cause conflict between workers, e.g. management style, group pres-sure, etc.
Common to management and HFE knowledge are the issues of job design and job analysis. Job design is widely considered to be the first building block of an organizational structure. Job analysis, as a systematic analysis of jobs within an organization, allows to determine an individual’s work-related responsibilities.
Human resource planning is an integral part of human resource management. The
starting point for this business function is a job analysis that is a systematic analy-sis of the workplaces in the organization. Job analyanaly-sis conanaly-sists of two parts: (1) job
description, and (2) job specification. Job description should include a description
of the tasks’ demands and work environment conditions, such as: work tools, mate-rials and machines needed to perform specific tasks. Job specification determines abilities, skills and other worker characteristics necessary for effective and efficient task performance in a particular job.
The elements of management knowledge described above, such as job design,
human resource planning (job analysis and job specification), work stress man-agement, safety and health manman-agement, are also essential knowledge components
of the HFE sub-discipline called industrial ergonomics. Industrial ergonomics, which investigates the human–system relationships at the individual workplace (workstation) level or at the work system level, embraces knowledge that is also of central interest to management. From this point of view, industrial ergonomics focuses on the organization and management at the workplace level (work system level), through the design and assessment (testing and evaluation) of job tasks, tools, machines, and work environments, in order to adapt these to the capabilities and needs of workers [1].
2. MACROERGONOMICS AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
PROCESS
The basic knowledge of business process management, related to planning and decision making, organizing, leading, and controlling, constitutes an essential part of the HFE knowledge. Organizing is deciding which way of organizational ele-ments grouping is the best. Job design is the basic building block of organizational structure. Job design focuses on identification and determination of the tasks and activities that the particular worker is responsible for.
Another important part of HFE knowledge with respect to the central focus of business management design is macroergonomics [4, 11]. According to Hendrick and Kleiner [6], macroergonomics is concerned with the analysis, design, and eval-uation of work systems. Work denotes any form of human effort or activity. Sys-tem refers to sociotechnical sysSys-tems, which range from a single individual to a complex multinational organization. A work system consists of people interacting with some form of: (1) job design (work modules, tasks, knowledge and skill re-quirements), (2) hardware (machines or tools) and/or software, (3) internal envi-ronment (physical parameters and psychosocial factors), (4) external envienvi-ronment (political, cultural, and economic factors), and (5) organizational design (i.e., the work system's structure and processes used to accomplish desired functions).
3. THE CONGRUENCE BETWEEN THE DISCIPLINES OF HFE
AND MANAGEMENT
The natural congruence between contemporary management and HFE can be described in the context of the main elements of the knowledge base of these two disciplines. Such relationships are then modeled by mapping the main categories of management knowledge to specific categories of HFE knowledge (see Fig. 1), and extensions of such mapping at three levels of complexity. The meaningful relation-ships are demonstrated through relevant ontologies at both high-level general HFE and management knowledge, as well as detailed low-level HFE and business man-agement processes.
4. KNOWLEDGE ONTOLOGIES
An ontology relates a set of concepts, properties of those concepts, and the na-ture of relationships between those concepts. Ontologies describe specific knowledge domains, and can serve as vehicles for relating concepts between do-mains. Ontologies do consist of taxonomies, but they are not limited to strictly being hierarchies. Ontologies may span many layers of abstraction, and introduce terminology and logic that surpasses simple hierarchical relationships.
In the late 1990s “ontology” became an industry buzzword as it became rele-vant to many business strategic plans. It was embraced along with the other terms of the day, including enterprise modeling, e-commerce, knowledge management and meta-standards [16]. Ontologies were especially lauded for their role in knowledge sharing activities, a concept made possible by the proliferation and integration of wide area networks (WAN) into business. The modern meaning of “ontology” in a business setting is that of a “conceptual model.” This conceptual model can be further developed and modified at varying levels of abstraction to promote understanding of the domain under investigation.
5. HUMAN FACTORS AND BUSINESS PROCESS KNOWLEDGE
HFE and management knowledge ontologies are depicted below. These can be linked to each other, revealing powerful and subtle similarities and important rela-tionships between the two bodies of knowledge. The main categories of HFE and management knowledge are outlined in Tables 1 and 2.Table 1. Main Categories of Human Factors and Ergonomics Knowledge (adopted after Ergonomics Abstracts, 2014)
• General Ergonomics • Human Characteristics • Performance Related Factors
• Information Presentation and Communication • Display and Control Design
• Workplace and Equipment Design • Environment
• System Characteristics • Health and Safety
• Social and Economic Impact of the System • Methods and Techniques
Table 2. Main Categories of Management Knowledge (adapted after [5]) • Management • Environment • Planning • Organizing • Leading • Controlling
6. MAPPING LEVELS OF HFE AND MANAGEMENT
KNOWLEDGE
6.1. First level knowledge mapping
The first level of knowledge mapping illustrates a high-level dependency be-tween HFE knowledge and knowledge of management processes. Knowledge about human characteristics can help managers lead employees more effectively when informed about human performance characteristics. These general linkages organize underlying methods and procedures that can aid and improve management processes. Each of the concepts shown on the left of Figure 1 are further decom-posed and linked to specific elements of HFE knowledge.
Planning Organizing Leading Controlling System Characteristics Design of Documents and Procedures Workplace and Equipment Design Equipment Design Human Characteristics Performance Related Factors Information Presentation Work Design and Organization Methods and Techniques
Fig. 1. Relationships between High Level Human Factors Knowledge and Business Processes
6.2. Second level knowledge mapping
Management involves many planning operations. Planning work schedules and job design are well-suited for business planning processes and techniques. Know-ing human limitations, comfort levels and abilities has a direct influence on design-ing work systems and tasks and the processes that govern it. It should be noted that the explored relationships are in no means exhaustive.
Figures 2–7 shown below illustrate the second tier of the knowledge mapping classification scheme. The second level mapping of HFE and management knowledge relationships describes more low-level operations. The main HFE knowledge elements contain concepts such as age, gender and other defining char-acteristics that aid in human resource management. For example, knowing about individual differences can aid further in business operation actions, as well as in work/task assignment and job training.
Information and Decision Making Planning Processes and Techniques Error Prevention and Recovery Design of Documents and Procedures
Job Design Organizational
Design
Employment, Job Security, and Job Sharing
Hours of Work Law Information Presentation and Communication Social and Economic Impact of the System Work Design and Organization
The Planning Process Forecasting Contingency Planning Scenario Planning Benchmarking
Goal Setting and Goal Alignment Management by Objectives Knowledge Representation Decision Making and Risk Management Problem Solving and Reasoning Errors, Accuracy, and Reliability Attention, Time Sharing, Resource Allocation Performance Strategies Supervisory Control Job Involvement Modeling Human Characteristics Observation Techniques Human Characteristics Work Design and Organization Work Design and Organization Work Design and Organization
Organizing as a Management Function Traditional Organizational Structures Horizontal Organizational Structures Organizational Designs Innovation in Organizations Organizational Change Managing Planned Change Organizational Development Essentials Human Resource Management Attracting a Quality Workforce Developing a Quality Workforce Maintaining a Quality Workforce Group Factors Individual Differences Task Related Factors General Workplace Design Payment Systems Environment Job Design Training Productivity Supervision Education Political Comment and Ethical Issues Performance Related Factors Workplace and Equipment Design Work Design and Organization System Characteristics Social and Economic Impact of the System
Fig. 4. Organizing Concepts Related to Work Design and System and Organizational Design Characteristics
Perception Personality Attitudes Emotions, Moods, and Stress Individual Needs and Motivation Process Theories of Motivation Reinforcement Theory Motivation and Job Design Teams in Organizations Trends in the Use of Teams How Teams Work Decision Making in Teams Visual Process Auditory Process Cutaneous Processes Human Performance Behavioral and Social Processes Fear, Anxiety, Mood, and Emotion Mental Workload Physical Workload Personal Isolation Team Work Human Characteristics Performance Related Factors Work Design and Organization
Fig. 5. Managerial Leading Concepts related to Human Performance and General Human Characteristics
The Communication Process Improving Communication Conflict Negotiation Nature of Leadership Leadership Traits and Behaviors Contingency Approaches to Leadership Issues in Leadership Development Human Performance Behavioral and Social Processes Experience and Practice User’s Model, Mental Models, Cognitive Maps Cognitive Style Cognitive Processes Individual Differences Information systems and communication Modeling and Simulation Human Characteristics Performance Related Factors Social and Economic Impact of the System Methods and Techniques
Fig. 6. Managerial Leadership Concepts related to Human Characteristics, Performance, and Systems Impacts and Methods
Why and How Managers Control Steps in the Control Process Control Tools and Techniques Operations Management Essentials Value Chain Management Service and Product Quality Work Processes Human Performance Behavioral and Social Processes Work Capacity Experience and Practice Cognitive Style Trained vs Untrained Vigilance Stress Task Complexity Monotony and Boredom Work Procedures Job Characteristics Work Context Factors Human Characteristics Performance Related Factors Information Presentation and Communication Work Design and Organization
Fig. 7. Managerial Controlling Elements related to Human Performance Factors and Organizational Design
The knowledge of human performance and behavioral and social processes can be used to explain employee emotions, moods and stress. Behavioral and social processes can aid managers in predicting and managing various attitudes at work. For example, data on workloads, both mental and physical, can give managers more complete ideas of what is going on in regards to employee behavior under various working conditions. The field of HFE is also well-suited for providing useful models with regard to business process control. General data on human per-formance, human capacities and limitations, and related models can aid in the con-trolling process.
6.3. Third level knowledge mapping
Figures 8–16 below illustrate the third level of the knowledge mapping classifi-cation scheme. This mapping describes management processes and relevant parts of HFE knowledge that afford successful business process planning and execution. Knowledge representation, an area receiving increasing attention from educators and scientists, can aid in decision making, benchmarking, and employee develop-ment and training activities. Decision making and problem solving knowledge constructs aid most planning activities. Other relevant parts of HFE knowledge include modeling of human characteristics, performance strategies and resource allocation. These knowledge concepts contribute towards planning, goal setting and employee involvement in business activities. Finally, knowledge on reliability and errors can aid in forecasting and contingency planning.
HFE knowledge domains range from theories of behavior to individual traits to job satisfaction. These linkages demonstrate that relationships exist between specif-ic human factors knowledge elements and business processes. HFE knowledge also includes data on job planning, such as enlargement, enrichment and rotation. HFE knowledge continues to provide meaningful science to aid managers. For example, data on task analysis, job analysis and mental abilities can provide guidelines as well as specific behaviors for successful leadership.
Another important aspect of business activities is teamwork. HFE contains knowledge on autonomous work groups, which can aid managers in creating high performance, unsupervised teams. HFE knowledge can provide data on how teams work, as well as on psychological constructs such as fear, anxiety and motivation. Business management could greatly benefit from understanding human perfor-mance tendencies and capabilities in advance of team creation and employee selec-tion.
Information Needs and Organizations Types of Managerial Decisions Decision Conditions Creativity in Decision Making Individual vs Group Decision Making Ethical Decision Making Cognitive Processes Knowledge Representation Decision Making and Risk Management Problem Solving and Reasoning Errors, Accuracy, and Reliability Attention, Time Sharing, Resource Allocation Performance Strategies Supervisory Control Modelling Human Characteristics Human Characteristics
The Planning Process Planning and Time Management Long-Range and Short-Range Plans Strategic and Tactical Plans Operational Plans Forecasting Contingency Planning Scenario Planning Benchmarking Use of Staff Planners
Goal Setting and Goal Alignment Management by Objectives Participation and Involvement Job Enlargement Job Enrichment Job Rotation Team Work Job Involvement Pacing Repetitiveness and Cycle Time
Attention, Time Sharing, Resources Experience and Practice Aptitude Intelligence Task Complexity Achievement Work Procedures Allocation of Function Work Design and Organization Human Characteristics Performance Related Factors Work Design and Organization
Fig. 9. Managerial Planning Functions related to Human Characteristics, Performance, and Organizational and Work Design
Competitive Advantage Strategy and Strategic Intent Levels of Strategies The Strategic Management Process Analysis of Mission, Values, and Objectives SWOT Analysis of Organization, Environment Analysis of Rivalry and Industry Attractiveness Grand or Master Strategies Restructuring Strategies Strategic Portfolio Planning Management Practices and Systems Corporate Governance Strategic Leadership Resistance to and Effects of Change Introduction and Strategies of Change Evaluation and Cost Benefits of Change Statistical Analysis and Psychometrics Sensitivity Response Bias Ratings and Preferences Opinions Method Study Work Measurement Performance Strategies Intelligent Help Systems Work Design and Organization Work Design and Organization Work Design and Organization Methods and Techniques Human Characteristics Information Presentation and Communication
Fig. 10. Managerial Planning related to Methods, Human Characteristics, and Information Sharing
Psychological Contracts Perception and Attribution Perceptual Tendencies and Distortions Impression Management Big Five Personality Dimensions Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Additional Personality Traits Attitudes and Behavior Job Satisfaction Emotions Moods Stress Imagery Knowledge Representation Errors, Accuracy, and Reliability Personality and Temperament Job Involvement Visual Processes Cognitive Processes Attention, Time Sharing, Resources Fear, Anxiety, Mood, and Emotion Aptitude Achievement Human Characteristics v Human Characteristics Performance Related Factors Work Design and Organization
Fig. 11. Managerial Leading Elements Related to Human Performance, Characteristics, and Work Design
Hierarchy of Needs Theory ERG Theory Two-Factor Theory Acquired Needs Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Goal-Setting Theory Self-Efficacy Theory Reinforcement Strategies Positive Reinforcement Punishment Scientific Management Job Rotation and Job Enlargement
Job Enrichment Alternative Work
Schedules Job Enlargement Job Enrichment Job Rotation Job Involvement Person-to-Person Communication Information Presentation and Communication Work Design and Organization
Teamwork Defined Meetings Formal and Informal Groups Teamwork Pros and Cons Committees Project Teams, Task Forces Virtual Teams Self Managing Teams Team Building Autonomous Work Groups Team Work Participative Observation and Group Decision Making Culture and Ethnic Group Experience and Practice Trained Vs Untrained Regional and Geographical Differences Status Work Design and Organization Methods and Techniques Performance Related Factors
Fig. 13. Managerial Team Building Activities related to and aided by Human Performance, Methods, and Organizational Design Concepts
Team Inputs Stages of Team Development Norms and Cohesiveness Task and Maintenance Roles Communication Networks Ways Teams Make Decisions Team Decision Strategies Groupthink Creativity in Team Decision Making Autonomous Work Groups Team Work Participative Observation and Group Decision Making Visible Observation Unobtrusive Observation Culture and Ethnic Group Experience and Practice Trained Vs Untrained Regional and Geographical Differences Status Work Design and Organization Methods and Techniques Performance Related Factors
Fig. 14. Managerial Leading Activities aided by Performance, Work Design, and Methods
Importance of Controlling Types of Controls Internal and Externals Control Establish Objectives and Standards Measure Performance Results Compare Results with Objectives and Standards Take Corrective Action Employee Discipline Systems Project Management and Control Financial Controls Balanced Scorecards Pay and Security Pacing Skill Demands Workload Demands Knowledge of Results and Feedback Job Involvement Person-to-Person Communication Identification of Error Recovery from Error Prevention of Error Work Design and Organization Information Presentation and Communication
Fig. 15. Managerial Controlling Activities described through Work Design and Informa-tional Concepts
Manufacturing and Service Settings Productivity and Competitive Advantage Operations Technologies Value Chain Analysis Supply Chain Management Inventory Management Break-Even Analysis Customer Relationship Management Quality Management Statistical Quality Control Work Process Analysis Process Rengineering Process-Driven Organizations Workload Demands Economic Consequences Management Industrial Democracy and Goal Setting Industrial Relations Information Systems and Communication Method Study Performance Strategies Errors, Accuracy, and Reliability Work Measurement Repetitiveness and Cycle Time
Work Design and Organization Social and Economic Impact of the System Methods and Techniques Human Characteristics
Fig. 16. Managerial Controlling Processes related to Societal Concerns, Human Character-istics, and Specific Methods
7. CONCLUSIONS
The knowledge mapping processes outlined above demonstrate how varying domains of HFE can contribute to and benefit from the knowledge of business process management. The HFE knowledge that describes human performance is at its very essence applicable to all facets of human productive work activities. Final-ly, it should be noted that the mapping concepts presented above demonstrate how business management can elicit useful knowledge from the HFE domain. Such elicitation is increasingly important in today’s highly complex organizations and business processes.
LITERATURE
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SPÓJNOŚĆ POMIĘDZY ZNAJOMOŚCIĄ CZYNNIKA LUDZKIEGO / ERGONOMICZNEGO I ZARZĄDZANIEM: PODEJŚCIE ONTOLOGICZNE
S t r e s z c z e n i e
W artykule omówiono naturalną spójność między znajomością kryterium czynnika ludzkiego / ergonomicznego (HFE) i współczesnym zarządzaniem. Przedstawiono ją w kontekście głównych elementów wiedzy z zakresu obu dyscyplin i modelowano przez mapowanie w głównych kategoriach zarządzania wiedzą w odniesieniu do HFE. Znaczące relacje zostały wykazane poprzez odpowiednie ontologie, zarówno wysokiego poziomu wiedzy ogólnej HFE i zarządzania, jak i niskiego poziomu wiedzy szczegółowej HFE i procesów zarządzania przedsiębiorstwem.
