Tsunami awareness: a comparative assessment between Japan and the USA

Delft University of Technology

Tsunami awareness

a comparative assessment between Japan and the USA

Esteban, Miguel; Bricker, Jeremy; San Carlos Arce, Ricardo; Takagi, Hiroshi; Yun, Nam Yi; Chaiyapa, Warathida; Sjoegren, Alexander; Shibayama, Tomoya

DOI

10.1007/s11069-018-3365-1 Publication date

2018

Document Version

Accepted author manuscript Published in

Natural Hazards

Citation (APA)

Esteban, M., Bricker, J., San Carlos Arce, R., Takagi, H., Yun, N. Y., Chaiyapa, W., Sjoegren, A., & Shibayama, T. (2018). Tsunami awareness: a comparative assessment between Japan and the USA. Natural Hazards, 93(3), 1507–1528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3365-1

Important note

To cite this publication, please use the final published version (if applicable). Please check the document version above.

Copyright

Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download, forward or distribute the text or part of it, without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license such as Creative Commons. Takedown policy

Please contact us and provide details if you believe this document breaches copyrights. We will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim.

This work is downloaded from Delft University of Technology.

1

Tsunami Awareness: A comparative assessment between Japan and the USA

1

Miguel Esteban, Jeremy Bricker, Ricardo San Carlos Arce, Hiroshi Takagi, NamYi Yun, Warathida 2

Chaiyapa, Alexander Sjoegren, Tomoya Shibayama 3

4

Esteban, M., Bricker, J., San Carlos Arce, R. et al. Nat Hazards (2018). 5

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-018-3365-1 6

7

Awareness about the threats posed by different types of coastal disasters has increased

8

throughout the world, as people are exposed to the nature of these hazards through media

9

reports on events in distant countries. This has resulted in coastal residents being aware about

10

the destructive power of tsunamis, despite no such events having taken place in their country

11

in recent times. Regardless of this increased awareness, it has been hypothesized that there is

12

still need for local governments to enact adequate policies to raise the awareness of local

13

residents, for example, by holding regular evacuation drills. The present research presents a

14

comparative assessment of tsunami awareness in two tourist destinations in Japan and the

15

USA, which was derived through structured questionnaire surveys of beach users in the city

16

of Kamakura and various coastal cities in Florida. The results show how despite relatively

17

high level of awareness tsunamis still pose a considerable risk to each of the communities, for

18

example, due to shortcoming in evacuation knowledge and infrastructure.

19

20

1. Introduction 21

The awareness of the risk associated with tsunamis throughout the world is increasing, due to

22

the large number of events that have taken place since the Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 (see

23

Shibayama, 2015, with recent events including the 2009 and 2010 tsunamis in Samoa,

24

Mentawai and Chile (Aranguiz, 2015, Mikami and Shibayama, 2015) and the 2011 Tohoku

25

Earthquake Tsunami, Mikami et al., 2012, Mori et al., 2012). The 2004 event can easily be

26

considered one of the greatest disasters of recent times, with the media broadcasting its

27

consequences and introducing the term “tsunami” to the vast majority of the planet’s

28

population (though it is worth noting that some countries, such as Japan or Chile, had a long

29

history of experience and awareness about such hazards, see Esteban et a., 2013).Subsequent

30

events have

led to the emergence of a heightened stage of tsunami awareness not only in the

31

countries that suffered from them, but also in others where no tsunamis have taken place for a

32

long time (Esteban et al., 2013, 2015).

Actually, awareness about tsunamis has become so

33

widespread that it appears to be higher than knowledge about other types of coastal flooding

34

hazards, such as for instance storm surges. In the case of typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in

35

2013, one of the strongest typhoons to have taken place in recent years (Mikami et al., 2015),

36

it seemed that local residents had a low level of awareness about the nature of storm surges

37

(Leelawat et al., 2014). The strong winds, together with the typhoon’s low central pressure

38

(895hPa), generated a devastating storm surge which inundated several coastal towns and

39

caused widespread damage (Takagi et al., 2015). Residents generally did not seem to

40

adequately understand the concept of a storm surge, and many thought that it would have

41

been better for authorities to describe it as a “tsunami” (Esteban et al., 2015, Leelawat et al.,

42

2014).

43

2

The awareness that the inhabitants of coastal areas and tourists have about such natural

45

hazards is clearly location specific, and depends on a variety of factors such as culture,

46

education, and the policies of local and national governments

(Esteban et al., 2013)

.

The

47

degree of awareness and preparedness can be reflected by various factors, depending on the

48

protection countermeasures in place, the willingness to evacuate and various other measures

49

taken by authorities or individuals (Esteban et al., 2013). However, literature on evacuation

50

behaviour has typically focused on tropical cyclone evacuation, and an understanding of

51

tsunami evacuation is still rather limited (Lindell and Prater, 2010). Although behaviour

52

models based on tropical cyclone evacuation could be applicable to distant source tsunamis,

53

near-shore events are significantly different given the short evacuation time available to local

54

residents.

55

56

Fig. 1 shows how the degree of disaster awareness in a given country is thought to change

57

throughout time, with recent events reinforcing awareness, but then this gradually fading with

58

time unless significant efforts are made in education and training. This idea was

59

conceptualized by Esteban et al., 2015, which shows how a given event (in a country or

60

region that has not experienced them for several generations) can very quickly raise

61

awareness. This awareness would then gradually decay as the following generations or

62

immigrants that arrive to the area replace individuals that had experienced the event directly,

63

though some degree of awareness might persist in the form of stories told from one

64

generation to the next (Esteban et al., 2015, Gaillard et al., 2008, Viglione et al., 2014).

65

Eventually, all memory of a given event would fade unless appropriate investments are made

66

in tsunami memorials, education, and training, which can succeed in maintaining a high state

67

of awareness, similar to that present the Tohoku areas in northern Japan in 2011 (Esteban et

68

al, 2015c, Suppasri et al, 2015). However, even if the best efforts are made, a certain decay in

69

awareness is probably inevitable, as even the best education system might not succeed in

70

reaching every member of society and/or certain people might think that a certain type of

71

hazard is unlikely to take place during their lifetime. There is also probably a limit to the

72

maximum level of awareness that mass media can create by itself, and it is unlikely that a

73

country can reach a “high” state unless disaster education and protection systems are

74

installed, which should form part of a multi-layer safety system (Shibayama et al., 2013).

75

Thus, an “education gap” exists (see Fig. 2), and even frequent and repetitive media exposure

76

to distant tsunami events is unlikely to succeed in bridging it (Esteban et al., 2015).

77

78

Recently, several studies have been carried out regarding evacuation intent in a variety of

79

countries, focusing on a variety of coastal hazards. For example, in the United States studies

80

have been carried out to investigate the intended or hypothetical evacuation behaviour from

81

wildfires (Mozumder et al., 2008) and hurricanes (Whitehead et al., 2000). Huang et al.

82

(2016) went one step further and provide a comprehensive statistical analysis of the

83

predictors of tsunami evacuation, and the actual behaviour of residents of coastal areas. Other

84

studies have alto looked at the willingness to evacuate of specific groups (see Gray-Graves et

85

al., 2010, regarding the evacuation of older adults). More recently a study in New Zealand

86

addressed the intended evacuation behaviour of residents and visitors at Napier City in the

87

event of a tsunami (Fraser et al., 2013). In Japan, Matsumaru and Kawaguchi (2015) studied

88

the awareness regarding tsunami disasters of visitors to the tourist site of Enoshima, close to

89

Kamakura. Other surveys on knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) have been carried out in

90

Trinidad and Tobago (Kanhai et al., 2016) or Vietnam (Esteban et al., 2014), or Japan after

91

disasters already took place (Yun and Hamada, 2015, Esteban et al., 2013).

92

3

However, in order to test the utility of the conceptual framework given by Esteban et al.

94

(2015), it is necessary to conduct a comparative analysis of differences in awareness between

95

the populations of two countries. The present study thus attempts to shed some further light

96

on whether there is some evidence for this conceptual framework by conducting a

97

comparative analysis of awareness in two tsunami-prone famous tourist destinations, namely

98

Kamakura in Japan (Fig. 3) and Florida in the United States (Fig. 4). Despite the differences

99

in tsunami risk and history in these two areas, both have in common that these are major

100

tourist destinations, and thus the type of disaster prevention measures that are possible are

101

limited. This helps explain why no tsunami wall is present in Kamakura, as local inhabitants

102

are against the alteration of the historical landscape of the town, which contrasts with the

103

monolithic structures protecting much of the Tohoku coastline. It is important to note how

104

visitors to these cities (either natives or foreigners) can be considered to be a high-risk

group

105

due the lack of awareness of the nature of local hazards (be it tsunamis or tropical cyclones).

106

The importance of tourists as a vulnerable group and the difficulties they face during

107

evacuation has been recognized by a number of authors (Drabek, 1995, Whitehead et al.,

108

2000, Mahdavian et al. 2015, Cahyanto et al., 2014). Matyas et al. (2011) point out the

109

importance of considering the tourist population in Florida, as it attracts a great number of

110

visitors that do not necessarily have a great knowledge about hurricane risks, may be

111

unfamiliar with their surroundings, and do not count with the support network of their local

112

community. Other disaster management studies that focused on tourists include Sharpley

113

(2005), who highlights the impact that the Indian Ocean Tsunami had on the world because

114

of the large number of tourists that were victims, and Faulkner (2001) and Rittichainuwat

115

(2013), who point out that despite tourist destinations being at risk not so much work had

116

been done on disaster management. Drabek (1995) emphasizes the need to establish

117

community partnerships between local emergency managers and those working in the tourist

118

industry, and for more training activities to be conducted with those working in the tourist

119

industry. In spite of this, Johnston et al. (2007) showed that training and preparedness for

120

tsunami and other hazards in coastal Washington was generally low, especially amongst

121

small operators.

122

123

The present work will thus attempt to shed further light on the degree of awareness of these

124

groups, and identify potential general gaps in awareness and preparedness.

125

126 127 128

4 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155

Fig. 1. Conceptualisation of disaster awareness and its decay with time in a country that directly 156

experiences a given event (Esteban et al., 2015b) 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 Awareness

Awareness decay with effective disaster education awareness programs High Coastal disaster event Natural awareness decay Medium Surrounding countries (mass media era)

1st generation (direct experience) 3rd generation (grandparents tales) 2nd generation (parents tales) Low Time

5 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191

Fig.2. Conceptualisation of disaster awareness and its decay with time in a country that does not 192

directly experience a given event, but learns about such events through mass media (Esteban et al., 193 2015b)1 194 195 196 197 198 2. Methodology 199 2.1. Study Areas 200

One particular tsunami-prone area in Japan (the city of Kamakura) was chosen for the case of

201

a country that has experienced repeated frequent events (see Table 1). Florida was chosen

202

because there are several potential seismic and volcanic sources in the Caribbean sea which

203

have created tsunamis in the past (Pararas-Carayannis, 2004, Kanhai et al., 2016), together

204

with potential distant sources such as the Canary Islands or the Azores-Gibraltar Fracture

205

Zone according to the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Tsunami Hazard Assessment Group,

206

2008). The continental United States has not experienced any major tsunami events in recent

207

years, and thus it represents a good case study of an area that will have only gained tsunami

208

awareness due to media exposure to events in other countries. In fact, the Caribbean region

209

has not experienced any tsunami since the Dominican Republic tsunami of 1946 (von

210

Hillebrandt-Andrade, 2013), though between 1498 and present an estimated 85-106 tsunamis

211

have been documented in the region (NOAA, 2016a, Lander et al., 2012). Thus, it is entirely

212

possible that a relatively low level event could affect Florida in the future and inundate large

213

1 _{One event might not fully raise awareness as it might be treated by the inhabitants of a nearby country as a “one-off” event,}

and only repeated events will fully raise awareness about the dangers of a given type of hazard. The green line indicates awareness if appropriate disaster education is provided, whereas the red line indicates awareness only from media exposure from disasters in nearby countries.

Awareness

Awareness level after disaster education

Coastal disaster In Foreign country in 1st generation (indirect experience) Natural awareness decay 2nd generation (parents tales) 3rd generation (grandparents tales) Time Low Medium High Coastal disaster In Foreign country Education gap Maximum Awareness level

6

extents of the low-lying coastal zones in the states, despite the threat being considered to be

214

low (Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 2016). Also it is worth noting that the

215

tsunami warning system for the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coasts of the United States

216

(NOAA, 2016b; NOAA, 2016c) is newer and less developed than that for the Pacific basin

217

(NOAA, 2016d; JMA, 2016).

218

219

220

Fig. 3. Location of survey site in Japan: Kamakura (Kanagawa Prefecture). The red oval indicates the 221

approximate source region of the Tonankai and Tokai tsunami sources (Forbes, 2012). 222

223 224 225 226

7 227

Fig. 4. Locations of survey sites in Florida, USA: Miami Beach, Fort Meyers Beach, and Clearwater 228

Beach. The red oval indicates one of the potential tsunami source regions in the Caribbean (McCann, 229 2006). 230 231 232 233

Table 1. Historical tsunami events in Kanagawa Prefecture (NOAA, 2015) 234

Tsunami Runup Deaths

Origin Name Year Earthquake

Magnitude Name Distance from source (km) Max Water Height (m) # JAPAN Kamakura , Sagami Bay 1241 7.0 KAMAKURA 18 YUIGAHAMA 18 JAPAN Sagami Bay, Japan 1257 7.0 SAGAMI BAY 0 JAPAN Kamakura , Sagami Bay, Tokaido 1495 7.1 KAMAKURA 24 5.00 YUIGAHAMA 21 200 JAPAN Sagami

Bay 1633 7.1 SAGAMI BAY 27

JAPAN

Off SW Boso Peninsula

1703 8.2 KAMAKURA 71 600

JAPAN Nankaido 1854 8.4 FUKUURA 495

YOKOHAMA 501 9 JAPAN Sagami Bay 1923 7.9 ENOSHIMA ISLAND 22 5.00 KAMAKURA 24 6.00 150 KATASE 23 1.50 50 YUIGAHAMA 21 6.00 100 ZUSHI 20 5.00 CHILE Southern Chile 1960 9.5 KAWASAKI 17,068 0.62 YOKOSUKA 17,072 0.54 235

8 236

237

2.2. Methodology 238

The authors conducted a series of structured questionnaire surveys with local residents and visitors in 239

Kamakura, Japan and Florida, USA (Figs. 3 and 4), with the intention of measuring the level of 240

awareness of beach users (either locals or visitors) to tsunamis. The interviews at Kamakura were 241

conducted on the 23rd August 2014, which resulted in a collection of 110 valid respondents, whereas 242

the surveys in Florida took placed between the 11th and 14th of February 2014 and resulted in 55 243

respondents, given considerable challenges in getting beach-goers to agree to complete the 244

questionnaires. The level of awareness was also contrasted with the countermeasures present in the 245

area, such as dykes, evacuation systems or elevated housing, in order to understand how prepared 246

were the various communities against possible coastal flooding events. The structured questionnaire 247

was originally drafted in English (used during the Florida surveys), and then a modified version was 248

translated into Japanese and distributed to individuals encountered in the survey locations on an 249

opportunistic basis, taking about 10 minutes per individual to complete. 250

In all areas, the enumerators (who were the authors themselves) actively sought respondents on the 251

beach and areas close to it. Respondents were divided into three categories, namely “locals”, “non-252

local natives” (i.e. citizens of the country where the survey was being carried out, but who were not 253

from that area, essentially domestic tourists) and “non-local foreigners” (i.e. foreign tourists). A fourth 254

category, that of “local foreigners” (i.e. foreigners who lived in the area) was possible: out of the 255

172,279 residents in Kamakura, 1,252 were foreigners in 2017 (Kamakura City Office Data, 2017). 256

However, in the present study none of the respondents belonged to this category, and thus it was 257

excluded in the final presentation of the results. Table 2 shows how about half of those interviewed in 258

Florida were non-local natives, compared to around 80% of those interviewed in Kamakura. Due to 259

the opportunistic nature of the survey it was difficult to obtain balanced demographic distributions 260

despite a moderate effort in attempting to do so. Hence, almost three quarters of respondents in 261

Florida were male, though a balanced distribution was obtained in Kamakura. 262

Figure 5 and 6 show the occupation of respondents in Florida and Kamakura. As table 2 also indicates, 263

respondents in Kamakura were young, with the age group “20-29” comprising 60% of respondents, 264

and most people defining themselves as “office workers” (47%) or “students” (21%). Conversely, less 265

than one-third of respondents in Florida were under the age of 50, and a large proportion being over 266

the age of 65 (which correlated well with many of them being retired, as indicated by 23% of 267

respondents). This can be considered typical of what could be expected of beach users in these regions, 268

as Kamakura is a well-known destination for Japanese youth in the summer months, and Florida has 269

become a tourist destination for other regions or a place to retire for the over 65s. 270

271

Table 2. Summary of demographic characteristics of respondents

272

Variable

Florida (n=55)

Kamakura (n=110)

Gender

Female

22%

47%

Male

71%

50%

Unclear/No answer

7%

3%

9

Local

26%

7%

Non-local native

45%

80%

Foreigners

29%

13%

Age

18-29

7.3%

72.7%

30-49

23.6%

21.9%

50-70

47.3%

2.7%

70+

21.8%

0%

Unclear/No answer

0%

2.7%

273 274 275 276 277

Fig.5. Occupation of respondents in Florida. The majority of the respondents in Florida had careers 278

other than those listed in the questionnaire forms, with “retired” forming the second largest group of 279

respondents (n=55) 280

281

Fig.6. Occupation of respondents in Kamakura. The majority of respondents in Kamakura 282

categorized themselves as office workers (n=110) 283 284 285 Office workers 2% Service workers/ Sales 11% Retired 23% Teacher 11% Self-employed 11% None/ unemployed 2% Other 40% Fishing/Fisheries 1% Housewife 2% Teacher 4% Fire fighter /policeman/milit ary 2% Office workers 47% Students 21% Service worker/sale 7% Labourer 2% Self-employed 2% None / unemployed 1% Others 7% No answer _4%

10 286

3. Results 287

3.1. Respondents’awareness of disaster risk and prior experience 288

In order to understand the degree of familiarity of respondents with possible flooding dangers, the 289

questionnaire first asked whether the place where the respondent lived was at danger of flooding from 290

the sea or rivers. Respondents were asked to quantify this on a Likert Scale of 1 (“no danger at all”) to 291

5 (“very strong danger) (with a value of 1). Both in Florida and Kamakura, most respondents 292

answered that their places were not in danger of flooding (1 “Not at all”), though the majority of this 293

category were non-local foreigners (see Fig. 7 and 8). Local people were in general more likely to 294

indicate that they lived in areas at danger of flooding (over 42% and 37% of respondents in Kamakura 295

and Florida indicated a “moderate” or higher danger, respectively). 296

297

Fig.7. Florida responses regarding whether the place where they lived was at danger of flooding from 298

the sea or rivers (n=55) 299

300

Fig.8. Kamakura responses regarding whether the place where they lived was at danger of flooding 301

from the sea or rivers (n=110)2 302

2

1.8% of all respondents chose not to answer this question

56, 4% 18, 2% 12, 7% 10, 9% 1, 8% 28, 6% 28, 6% 14, 3% 28, 6% 0, 0% 52, 0% 20, 0% 16, 0% 8, 0% 4, 0% 87, 5% 6, 3% 6, 3% 0, 0% 0, 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

1 (not at all) 2 (little) 3 (moderate) 4 (strongly) 5 (very strongly)

% o f re sp o nd e nts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners 46,4% 31,8% 11,8% 5,5% _{2,7% 1,8%} 25,0% 37,5% 25,0% 0,0% 12,5% 0,0% 44 ,3% 33 ,0% 12 ,5% 6,8% 1,1% 2,3% 71,4% 21,4% 0,0% 0,0% 7,1% 0,0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

1 (not at all) 2 (little) 3 (moderate) 4 (strongly) 5 (very strongly] No Answer

% o f r e sp o n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners

11

Despite such answers, only 14.5% and 6.4% respondents in Florida and Kamakura had experienced 303

some sort of flooding damage in the past, respectively(see Figs.9 and 10). This could be attributed to 304

the fact that neither of the areas had experienced a major event within the last few decades. 305

306

307

Fig.9. Distribution of respondents who had experienced some damage from previous flooding 308

disasters in Florida (an answer of “yes” indicates that they suffered some damage, n=55)3 309

310

311

Fig.10. Distribution of respondents who had experienced some damage from previous flooding 312

disasters in Kamakura (an answer of “yes” indicates that they suffered some damage, n=110) 313 314 315 316 3.2. Tsunami awareness 317

Despite the wide range of prior experiences and backgrounds, generally most respondents knew what 318

a tsunami is, with 96.4% and 82.7% of individuals in Florida and Kamakura indicating they were 319

3

1.8% of all respondents chose not to answer this question

14 ,5% 83,6% 1,8% 14,3% 85,7% 0,0% 16,0% 80,0% 4,0% 12,5% 87,5% 0,0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Yes No No answer % o f r e sp o n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners 6,4% 93,6% 12,5% 87,5% 5,7% 94,3% 7,1% 92 ,9% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Yes No % o f r e sp o n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners

12

aware of such phenomena, respectively (see Figs.11 and 12). Respondents were then asked to rate the 320

level of danger that a tsunami posed to them using a 5 point Likert scale, with an answer of 1 321

indicating little danger and 5 a very strong danger. In Florida, 50% or more of all types of respondents 322

replied that they did not feel they were in any danger (see Fig.13). However, in Kamakura, the most 323

common reply for the local and all respondents category was either “strong” or “very strong” danger 324

(representing over 58.2% of all respondents, and 62.5% of locals, as shown in Fig.14). This correlated 325

well with the evaluation of the risk that a tsunami could take place in the area where the respondents 326

were surveyed, with for example 71.4% of locals in Florida indicating that there was no risk or only a 327

small risk of a tsunami (see Fig.15). In Kamakura, the “strong” and “very strong” risk were the most 328

common answers (both over 30%), though it is worth noting that 25% of locals answered that there 329

was only a small danger, as shown in Fig.16. The authors would like to note that in the Japanese case 330

a “No answer” could be interpreted in a number of ways, including the possibility that they are aware 331

of the overwhelming nature of the danger, and have a rather confused life attitude towards it. 332

Focusing on the assessment of tsunami risk to respondents in Kamakura, 12.5% of locals provide no 333

answer, yet none provide no anwer to the danger of tsunami risk to Kamakura (98.9% indicating 334

moderate to very strong). Understanding more deeply the thought processes behind such issues is 335

outside the scope of this work, as it would require in-depth interviews with local residents, and which 336

will be the target of future research. 337

338

339

340 341

Fig.11. Proportion of Florida respondents who indicated that they knew what a tsunami is (n=55)4 342

4

1.8% of all respondents did not answer this question

96, 4% 1, 8% 1, 8% 100, 0% 0, 0% 0, 0% 92, 0% 4, 0% 4, 0% 100 ,0% 0, 0% 0, 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Yes No No Answer % o f r e sp o n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners

13 343

Fig.12. Proportion of Kamakura respondents who indicated that they knew what a tsunami is (n=110)5 344

345

346

Fig.13. Assessment of tsunami risk by respondents in Florida. Respondents were ask to rate the level 347

of danger that a tsunami posed to them. 348

349

350

Fig.14. Assessment of tsunami risk by respondents in Kamakura. Respondents were ask to rate the 351

level of danger that a tsunami posed to them. 352

5

2.7% of all respondents chose not to answer this question

82,7% 14,5% 2,7% 75,0% 12,5% 12,5% 80,7% 17,0% 2,3% 100,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Yes No No Answer % o f r e sp o n d e n ts All_Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners 54,5% 18,2% 12,7% 3,6% 9,1% _1,8% 50,0% 14,3% 21,4% 0,0% 14 ,3% 0,0% 60,0% 24,0% 4,0% 4,0% 4,0% 4,0% 50,0% 12,5% 18,8% 6,3% 12,5% 0,0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

1 (not at all) 2 (little) 3 (moderate) 4 (strongly) 5 (very strongly] No Answer

% o f r e spo n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners 9,1% 12,7% 17,3% 27 ,3% _30,9% 2,7% 0,0% 12,5% 12,5% 25,0% 37,5% 12,5% 9,1% 11,4% 17,0% 28,4% 31,8% 2,3% 14 ,3% 21,4% 21,4% 21,4% 21,4% 0,0% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

1 (not at all) 2 (little) 3 (moderate) 4 (strongly) 5 (very strongly] No Answer

% o f r e sp o n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners

14 353

354 355

Fig.15. Evaluation of tsunami risk in surveyed areas in Florida (n=55) 356

357

358

Fig.16. Evaluation of tsunami risk in surveyed areas in Kamakura (n=110). 359 360 361 362 3.3. Knowledge of evacuation 363

Three quarters of all respondents in Florida answered that they had no idea regarding the existence of 364

any evacuation and alarm systems in the area, though half of the local inhabitants of Kamakura knew 365

that there is indeed a warning system in the city (see Figs.17 and 18). The questionnaire also asked 366

respondents whether they had taken part in evacuation drills in the last 5 years, with only a minority 367

of respondents in Florida (less than 10% of all respondents, and only 14.2% of residents) having taken 368

place, through a further 18.2% responded that despite not having taken part they knew the evacuation 369

route, as shown in Fig. 19. The picture in Kamakura was completely different, with half of 370

respondents (and 87.5% of locals) indicating they had taken part in evacuation drills, and only around 371

10% of individuals responding they had neither taken part nor knew the evacuation route, as shown in 372 20,0% 32,7% 27,3% 9,1% 3,6% 7,3% 35,7% 35,7% 14,3% 7,1% 7,1% 0,0% 16,0% 32,0% 36,0% 12,0% 0,0% 4,0% 12,5% 31,3% 25,0% 6,3% 6,3% 18,8% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

1 (not at all) 2 (little) 3 (moderate) 4 (strongly) 5 (very strongly] No Answer

% o f r e sp o n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners 2,7% 6,4% 14,5% 33,6% 32,7% 10,0% 0,0% 25,0% 12,5% 37,5% 25,0% 0,0% 3,4% _1,1% 13,6% 34,1% 35,2% 12,5% 0,0% 28,6% 21 ,4% 28,6% 21,4% 0,0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

1 (not at all) 2 (little) 3 (moderate) 4 (strongly) 5 (very strongly] No Answer

% o f r e spo n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners

15

Fig.20. A chi-square test was performed between the sites, indicating that there are significant 373

differences between the sites (p < .001). The most interesting answers from the questionnaire 374

concerned the knowledge of how to evacuate, as 65% of Florida respondents said they knew how to 375

escape a tsunami, whereas 75% of locals in Kamakura (and 53% of all respondents in this area) did 376

not (see Figs.21 and 22). 377

378

379

Fig.17. Knowledge of Florida respondents about whether a tsunami warning system existed in the 380

area (an answer of “yes” indicated whether they knew if a warning system existed, n=55) 381

382

Fig.18. Knowledge of Kamakura respondents about whether a tsunami warning system existed in the 383

area (an answer of “yes” indicated whether they knew if a warning system existed, n=110) 384 14,5% 83,6% 1,8% 21,4% 78,6% 0,0% 16,0% 84,0% 0,0% 6,3% 87,5% 6,3% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Yes No No Answer % o f r e sp o n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives 22 ,7% 74,5% 2,7% 50,0% 37 ,5% 12,5% 18,2% 79,5% 2,3% 35,7% 64,3% 0,0% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Yes No No Answer % o f r e sp o n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners

16 385

Fig.19. Proportion of respondents who had taken part in evacuation drills in the last 5 years in 386

Florida (n=55). 387

388

Fig.20.Proportion of respondents who had taken part in evacuation drills in the last 5 years Kamakura 389

(n=110). Note that a small percentage of respondents (0.9%, in total, provided no answers to this 390 question) 391 392 393 5, 5% 5, 5% 18, 2% 70, 9% 7, 1% 7, 1% 14, 3% 71, 4% 8, 0% 4, 0% 24, 0% 64, 0% 0, 0% 6,3% 12, 5% 81, 3% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Yes, 1 time Yes, 2+ times No, but I know the

evacuation route/evacuation place

None of the above

% o f r e spo n d e n ts All Locals Non-local native Non-local foreigners 49% 0% 39% 11% 88% 0% 0% 13% 47% 0% 43% 9% 43% 0% 36% 21% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Yes, 1 time Yes, 2+ times No, but I know the

evacuation route/evacuation place

None of the above

% o f r e spo n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners

17 394

Fig.21. Proportion of Florida respondents who said they knew how to evacuate in the event of a 395

tsunami (an answer of “yes” indicates that they knew how to evacuate, n=55) 396

397

398

Fig.22. Proportion of Kamakura respondents who said they knew how to evacuate in the event of a 399

tsunami (an answer of “yes” indicates that they knew how to evacuate, n=110) 400

401

4. Discussion 402

Every major tsunami strongly imprints the memories of those who experienced it, though the extreme 403

devastation brought about by higher order (often referred to as “level 2” events, such as the 2004 404

Indian Ocean Tsunami or the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami) can raise awareness even in 405

countries that did not directly experience them, such as through TV footage or other media. This has 406

been hypothesized and described previously by Esteban et al (2015), and the present paper attempts to 407

ascertain whether this actually takes place. The results clearly show that awareness in Florida in 408

particular, and the United States in general, is surprisingly high, despite the country not having 409 65,5% 34,5% 64,3% 35,7% 72,0% 28,0% 56,3% 43,8% 0,0% 20,0% 40,0% 60,0% 80,0% 100,0% Yes No % o f r e spo n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners 40,9% 53,6% 5,5% 12,5% 75,0% 12 ,5% 42,0% 52,3% 5,7% 50,0% 50,0% 0,0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Yes No No Answer % o f r e sp o n d e n ts All Locals Non-local natives Non-local foreigners

18

experienced a tsunami for a long time, and Florida being at low risk (see Fig.11, where the practical 410

totality of respondents indicated that they knew what a tsunami is). In fact, other research also 411

reported that the awareness was much higher than a similar study conducted along the central coast of 412

Vietnam, where only around 80% of those surveyed indicated that they knew what a tsunami was 413

(Esteban et al., 2014). 414

415

The findings of this paper are thus significant, despite the relatively modest (n=55) number of 416

respondents in Florida. The profile of respondents in both locations (Table 2, Figs. 5-6) were typical 417

of the type of beach user that could be expected at each location. Typically, a young Japanese 418

population, mainly made up of office workers and students for the case of Kamakura, and an older 419

(often past retirement age) demographic group, mostly composed of individuals from other States 420

within the USA, for the case of Florida. Due to both areas being well connected (by public transport 421

for the case of Kamakura, and highways for the case of Florida) many respondents did not actually 422

live close to the sea, and thus there was a widespread range of answers regarding whether the place 423

where respondents lived was at danger of flooding (Figs 7-8). This, together with the fact that neither 424

area has experienced any major disaster recently, explains why few respondents answered that they 425

have experienced some damage from natural disasters (see Figs 9-10, note also that for the case of 426

Florida it is also likely that many respondents have previously lived –or continue to live, for the case 427

of visitors- in other, often landlocked, States). 428

429

However, Figs 19 and 20 show a clear difference in the level of preparedness of the authorities, which 430

would clearly influence the actual level of awareness of the population. Most of the inhabitants in 431

Florida (even over 70% of locals) had not taken part in evacuation drills in the last 5 years, compared 432

to almost 50% of those in Kamakura (which raises to 87.5% of locals). 433

434

The most surprising results from the survey would appear to, a priori, be suggested by Figs 14 and 22, 435

which indicate that despite having shown comparatively high awareness and preparedness against 436

tsunamis, most respondents in Kamakura then indicate that they do not know how to evacuate in the 437

event of a tsunami (only 40.9% of total respondents, and less than 12.5% of locals indicated that they 438

knew how to evacuate). This contrasts markedly with the results of Fig. 21, where despite probably 439

not having had much information about tsunamis, over half of respondents in Florida (66.5% of all) 440

indicated that they knew how to evacuate. However, for the case of Kamakura, a high level of 441

preparedness with respect to tsunamis appears to have only made residents aware of the complicated 442

nature of evacuation in the area, as some of the possible tsunami scenarios indicate waves that could 443

be of the order of 10m high and arrive within 30 minutes (Yamao et al., 2015). Against such scenarios, 444

and given the nature of the propagation of the tsunami (Sittichai, 2007) in the town (with multiple 445

rivers that can cut evacuation routes) higher awareness only appears to lead to a realization that there 446

is no effective way to evacuate, explaining the answers in Fig.22. Essentially, surveys by the city of 447

Kamakura put the number of residents in the area at risk of inundation at around 44,000, though the 448

peak number of visitors to Kamakura is around 150,000 per day (as indicated by the City Government 449

through committees in which one of the authors sits). Residents are typically well informed and have 450

their own plan and training systems which are organized by neighborhood associations (Cho-nai-451

kai). However, through the 2011 Tohoku disaster, residents are also aware that neither the capacity 452

nor the height of the evacuation buildings is sufficient to save them against the worst case scenarios, 453

and that they should try to evacuate to hill areas immediately after a seismic shock, though reaching 454

such areas in time would be challenging (Yun and Hamada, 2015). Therefore, Also, how to manage 455

the risk to tourists and those practicing marine sports is not clear, though evaluating the risks to this 456

group is outside the scope of this paper and should be dealt with in future research. 457

19 458

Residents in Florida are much less well-informed. The closest seismic tsunami source is the Caribbean 459

(Fig. 4), which would allow 3 hours of warning time (NOAA, 2018), and the inundation heights 460

would be limited. People would have more time to evacuate and access information on how to do so 461

than in Kamakura. However, the warning and evacuation system in Florida is built to reduce 462

casualties from hurricane storm surges, for which a much longer warning time is available. With a 463

warning system based on meteorological and storm surge simulations, such evacuations are typically 464

issued at least 2 days in advance (Miami Herald, 2017; Miami-Dade County, 2017). Evacuation 465

primarily relies on personal vehicular transportation, and roads and freeways are signed to indicate 466

hurricane evacuation routes. For residents who do not have access to personal vehicles or who are not 467

able to evacuate in time, local governments designate evacuation centers (Miami-Dade County uses 468

public schools for this purpose, while New Orleans famously used the Superdome during Hurricane 469

Katrina) and organize buses for transport to these centers. The 3 hour lead time of a Caribbean 470

tsunami would not allow this evacuation system to be implemented. Even evacuation orders would be 471

difficult to issue, as these are broadcast via television, radio, and other media, and not via sirens or 472

cellphones as they are in Japan. Even in the case of a far-field event that allows time to issue 473

evacuation orders, evacuation may not be effective because local roads and freeways are not designed 474

to handle the volume of cars that would be expected (for example, nearly 7 million people were 475

ordered to evacuate south Florida before Hurricane Irma in 2017); the problem of traffic jams during 476

evacuation has been shown to be a disincentive for residents to evacuate during future hurricanes as 477

well (Naples Daily News, 2017). Furthermore, attempting to evacuate too late using vehicles has been 478

shown to be the major cause of death in floods (Jonkman and Kelman, 2005), indicating that issuing 479

an evacuation warning with too short a lead time could cost more lives than would be saved. However, 480

local evacuation structures (schools) and hotels might be able to function as tsunami evacuation 481

centers, as these buildings are all built to the Florida Building Code, which for South Florida was 482

updated after Hurricane Andrew to require structural integrity in the face of extreme wind loading 483

(Structure Magazine, 2017). Though flood and wind loading are different, they both exert lateral 484

forces on buildings, and other low-lying, tsunami-prone, tourist-heavy areas such as Waikiki (in 485

Honolulu) also rely on similar buildings for vertical evacuation against tsunamis (Chock and Butler, 486

2014; FEMA, 2012). 487

488

The results of the present survey thus highlight the need to mainstream measures to improve disaster 489

resilience in the population of disaster-prone areas. Resilience is generally considered to have 3 490

components: agents (the people and organisations involved, including local authorities), institutions 491

(referring to the sets of rules that guide human behaviour) and systems infrastructure. Improving the 492

awareness of coastal residents is clearly necessary to minimise the loss of life during natural disasters 493

(Esteban et al., 2015). Thus, improving the role that institutions in rising awareness amongst agents is 494

of paramount importance. One of the most efficient ways to do this is through education, particulary 495

amongst the younger generations, and many examples of the role this played in the 2011 Tohoku 496

Earthquake Tsunami are documented in literature (Esteban et al., 2015). 497

498

However, it is also important for coastal residents not to overly rely on flood protection structures 499

(Viglione et al. 2014). Thus, modern disaster prevention systems should generally have multiple 500

safety layers, ensuring that there are a variety of protection measures in place to protect both residents 501

and property (National Water Plan of the Netherlands, 2012, Tsimopoulou et al., 2013). Both Florida 502

and Kamakura lack any significant layer 1 “hard measures” (essentially offshore breakwaters or 503

tsunami walls that can protect coastal settlements from an incoming tsunami), though spatial planning 504

(layer 2) and evacuation systems (layer 3) do not necessarily require large investments and can prove 505

20

to be highly effective against coastal disasters (Esteban et al., 2013). If adequately designed and 506

constructed, certain government buildings and other robust structures can survive tsunamis of 507

considerable height, and the building of such Evacuation Buildings should take place in all areas that 508

are at risk of suffering from coastal hazards (Shibayama et al., 2013). Furthermore, in New Zealand 509

people seemed receptive to the alternative of vertical evacuation (Fraser et al., 2013), although some 510

of the concerns expressed related to the integrity of the structures and appropriate height. However, 511

evacuation buildings (layer 3 measures, see Figs.23-24) that are high enough to shelter people against 512

level 2 tsunamis are still not available throughout Kamakura. Essentially, as Kamakura is a historical 513

and traditional residential area, residents have mutual agreements with neighborhood associations to 514

limit the height of buildings to maintain a good living environment. The maximum height is thus 515

restricted is 8-12 m, depending on the area. For the case of Florida, National Flood Insurance Program 516

(NFIP) regulations require residents of FEMA A (flood) and V (wave hazard) zones to raise all new 517

and substantially rebuilt (50%) structures above the Base Flood Elevation via piles, piers, landfill, or 518

appropriately designed non-residential first stories (FEMA, 2016), in order to protect against storm 519

surges (these would arguably be layer 2 measures). Construction not in compliance with NFIP 520

regulations cannot qualify for a mortgage. This is likely to also offer some protection against low 521

level tsunamis, though it could provide residents with a false sense of confidence, which in other 522

tsunami events has been responsible for the deaths of local residents (see Yun and Hamada, 2014, 523

describing the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake tsunami). 524

525

It is thus clearly important for local authorities to put in place effective layer 2 measures in order for 526

the population of coastal areas remembers past events and the construction of housing in areas that are 527

at high risk is prevented (Esteban et al., 2015). This can be established through adequate regulations 528

and zoning control, as well as financial incentives and education, all of which should prevent 529

development in potentially hazardous areas, while building practices can reduce the fragility of 530

vulnerability development (Lindell et al., 2006). Nevertheless, an early warning system is well-531

developed for the case of Kamakura, with flood drills being conducted in the area and hazard maps 532

visible throughout the town. Also, Japan has a very efficient tsunami warning dissemination system, 533

which can communicate to the population the likelihood of a tsunami within 3 minutes (Yun and 534

Hamada, 2015, 2014). Efforts at developing tsunami warning systems, as well as establishing zoning 535

and building regulations are occurring in the US also (Chock, 2016), but only on the west coast, and 536

in Alaska and Hawaii(Tang et al., 2008; Ge and Lindell, in press). 537

21 539

Fig.23. Evacuation building in Kamakura 540

541

Fig.24. Houses on piles in Florida 542

543 544 545 546

22 5. Conclusions

547

The high number of tsunami events in recent years has raised awareness about the destructive 548

potential of these phenomena throughout the world. It is clear that while in the past a given event 549

would have only raised awareness around the coastal regions that suffered from it, which might have 550

to some extent been passed on to latter generation through tsunami memorials or oral accounts, 551

modern communication technology allows even those in distant countries to also gain an 552

understanding. The results outlined in the present paper do indeed show how virtually the totality of 553

beach users in Florida, either locals or foreigners, stated that they knew what a tsunami is, certainly 554

from watching or reading about such events in foreign countries, given that no tsunami has affected 555

the continental USA in recent times (and Florida for a longer time). 556

However, watching news footage about an event on a distant shoreline does not mean that populations 557

at risk can fully understand how to evacuate. In this sense the present study showed how even in a 558

place like Kamakura, which has spent much time and effort preparing and educating the local 559

population, it is not immediately obvious what is the best way to evacuate against a tsunami. Thus, it 560

is imperative that more efforts are made to develop long-term strategies to improve the resilience of 561

coastal areas against tsunamis. This should involve further spatial planning measures that attempt to 562

locate the most vulnerable people away from danger, improved evacuation buildings that can 563

guarantee the safety of evacuees against level 2 tsunamis, and probably innovative defence strategies 564

that can hinder the progress of the tsunami wave, while not visually affecting the natural beauty of 565

places like Kamakura and Florida (both major tourist destination areas). 566

567

Acknowledgements 568

Funds for the field survey were provided by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science JSPS-569

NSF Cooperative Program for Interdisciplinary Joint Research Projects in Hazards and Disasters 570

project entitled “Evolution of Urban Regions in Response to Recurring Disasters”, the Global 571

Program on Sustainability Science Global Leadership Initiative (GPSS-GLI, The University of 572

Tokyo), a research grant from Tokyo Institute of Technology, and the Delta Infrastructure and 573

Mobility Initiative (DIMI) of Delft University of Technology. 574

575

References 576

Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Tsunami Hazard Assessment Group (2008) Evaluation of Tsunami 577

Sources with the Potential to Impact the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. A Report to the Nuclear 578

Regulatory Commission: U.S. Geological survey Administrative Report 579

Aranguiz, R., (2015) Tsunami Resonance in the Bay of Concepcion (chile) and the Effect of Future 580

Events. in Handbook of Coastal Disaster Mitigation for Engineers and Planners. Esteban, M., 581

Takagi, H. and Shibayama, T. (eds.). Elsevier, Amsterdam 582

Cahyanto, I., Pennington-Gray, L., Thapa, B., Srinivasan, S., Villegas, J., Matyas, C., & Kiousis, S. 583

(2014). An empirical evaluation of the determinants of tourist's hurricane evacuation decision 584

making. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 2(4), 253-265. 585

Chock, G., and Butler, R. (2014). Evacuation planning considerations of the city of Honolulu for a 586

great Aleutian tsunami. Tenth US national conference on Earthquake Engineering. Frontiers of 587

Earthquake Engineering. 588

Chock, G. Y. (2016). Design for tsunami loads and effects in the ASCE 7-16 standard. Journal of 589

Structural Engineering, 142(11), 04016093. 590

23 591

Drabek, T. E. (1995)

Disaster Responses Within the Tourist Industry. International Journal of

592

Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 13 (1) 7-23Esteban, M., Valenzuela, V. V. Namyi, Y.,

593

Mikami, T., Shibayama, T., Matsumaru, R., Takagi, H. Thao, ND., de Leon M., Oyama,

594

T. Nakamura, R. (2015)“Typhoon Haiyan 2013 Evacuation Preparations and

595

Awareness”., J-SustaiN 3 (1) 37-45

596

Esteban, M., Takagi, H. and Shibayama, T., (2015)

Handbook of Coastal Disaster Mitigation

597

for Engineers and Planners, Edited Book,

Butterworth-Heinemann (Elsevier), Oxford,

598

UK

599

Esteban, M. Tsimopoulou, V., Mikami, T., Yun, N. Y., Suppasri, A. and Shibayama,T.

600

(2013) “Recent Tsunami Events and Preparedness: Development of Tsunami Awareness

601

in Indonesia, Chile and Japan”, Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction

, pp. 84-97 602

Esteban. M. Thao, N. D., Takagi, H., Valenzuela, P., Tam, T. T., Trang, D.D.T. and Anh, L. T. (2014) 603

Storm surge and tsunami awareness and preparedness in central Vietnam. In: Thao, N.D., Takagi, 604

H. and Esteban, M. (eds) Coastal Disasters and climate change in Vietnam. Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 605

321-326 606

Esteban, M., Valenzuela, V. P., Matsumaru, R., Mikami, T., Shibayama, T., Takagi, H., Nguyen, D. 607

T., De Leon, M. (2015) “Storm Surge Awareness in the Philippines Prior to Typhoon Haiyan: a 608

Comparative Analysis with Tsunami Awareness in Recent Times”, Coastal Engineering Journal 609

(accepted) 610

Faulkner, B. (2001). Towards a framework for tourism disaster management. Tourism management, 611

22(2), 135-147. 612

FEMA (2012). Guidelines for design of structures for vertical evacuation from tsunamis. 613

https://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/14708. Accessed Apr 27, 2018. 614 FEMA (2016) http://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1386073605870-615 56034eb27952e04bd44eb84b72032840/SandyFS2OpenFoundation_508post2.pdf. Accessed 22 616 June 2016 617

Florida Department of Environmental Protection (2016)

618

http://www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/geologictopics/hazards/tsunamis.htm Accessed 15th Feb 2016 619

(page last updated 10 Nov 2014) 620

Forbes (2012), BTW Get Ready for a 34 m Tsunami.

621

http://www.forbes.com/sites/stephenharner/2012/04/02/btw-get-ready-for-a-34-meter-622

tsunami/#e7a632b2b4d9, Accessed 17th February 2016. 623

Fraser, S. A., Leonard, G., S and Johnston, D., M. (2013) Intended Evacuation Behaviour in a Local 624

Earthquake and Tsunami at Napier, New Zealand, GNS Science Report 2013/26, 55pp. 625

Gaillard, J. C., Clave, E., Vibert, O., Azhari, Defi, Denain, J. C., Efendi, Y., Grancher, D., Liamzon, 626

C. C., Sari, D. R., and Setiawan, R. (2008) Ethnic groups’ resonse to the 26 December 2004 627

earthquake and tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia. Natural Hazards 47, 17-38. 628

Ge, Y. & Lindell, M.K. (in press). County planners’ perceptions of land use planning tools for 629

environmental hazard mitigation: A survey in the U.S. Pacific states. Environment and Planning 630

B: Planning and Design. DOI: 10.1177/0265813515594810

631

Gray-Graves, A., Turner, K. W., & Swan, J. H. (2010). Sustainability of seniors: Disaster risk 632

reduction management. The Journal of Aging in Emerging Economies, 2(2), 64-78 633

Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) (2016), Tsunami Warning/Advisory and Tsunami Information, 634

http://www.data.jma.go.jp/svd/eqev/data/en/guide/tsunamiinfo.html, Accessed 17th February 635

2016. 636

Johnston, D. M., Becker, J., Gregg, C. E., Houghton, B. F., Paton, D., Leonard, G. S., & Garside, R. 637

(2007). Developing warning and disaster response capacity in the tourism sector in coastal 638

Washington, USA. Disaster Prevention and Management, 16(2), 210–216. 639

doi:10.1108/09653560710739531 640

Jonkman, S. N., & Kelman, I. (2005). An analysis of the causes and circumstances of flood disaster 641

deaths. Disasters, 29(1), 75-97. 642

Kamakura City Office Data (2017). 643

24

http://www.city.kamakura.kanagawa.jp/soumu/toukei/documents/jinkou2901.pdf, 644

https://www.city.kamakura.kanagawa.jp/shiminka/gaitoujinkou.html, Accessed 10th May 2018. 645

Kanhai, L. D. K., Singh, D, Lauckner, B., Ebi, K. L. and Chadee, D. (2016) Knowledge, attitude and 646

practices of coastal communities in Trinidad and Tobago about tsunamis, Natural Hazards. DOI 647

10.10007/s11069-015-2138-3 648

Lander, J. F. Whiteside, L. S., Lockridge, P. A. (2002) A brief history of tsunamis in the Caribbean 649

Sea, Science of Tsunami Hazards, 20:57-94 650

Leelawat, N, Mateo, C. M. R., Gaspay, S. M., Suppasri, A., Imamura, F. (2013) Filipinos “Views on 651

the Disaster Information for the 2013 Super Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines”, International 652

Journal of Sustainable Future for Human Security, J-SustaiN. Vol. 2 No. 2 pp. 61-73. 653

Lindell, M. K. and Prater, C. S. (2010) Tsunami Preparednes on the Pregon and Wshington Coast: 654

Recommendations for Research. Natural Hazards Review, pp 69-81 655

Lindell, M. K., Prater, C. S., Gregg, C. E., Apatu, E. J. I, Huang, S.K. and Wu, H. C. (2015) 656

Households’ immediate responses to the 2009 American Samoa Earthquake and Tsunami. 657

International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 12: 328-340. 658

Lindell, M.K., Prater, C.S. & Perry, R.W. (2006). Fundamentals of Emergency Management. 659

Emmitsburg MD: Federal Emergency Management Agency Emergency Management Institute. 660

Matsumaru, R. and Kawaguchi. R. (2015), "Awareness on Tsunami Disaster of Visitors - Case of 661

Enoshima, Katase and Kugenuma Area in Kanagawa, Japan", Proceedings for JSCE (Japan 662

Society of Civil Engineers) 2015 Annual Meeting (DVD-ROM), IV-044 (p87 - p88), JSCE, 663

September 2015. 664

Mahdavian, F., Koyama, M., Platt, S., & Kiyono, J. (2015, May) Factors affecting survival in tsunami 665

evacuation. 7th International Conference on Seismology and Earthquake Engineering. Tehran 18-666

21 May, 2015. 667

Matyas, C., Srinivasan, S., Cahyanto, I., Thapa, B., Pennington-Gray, L., & Villegas, J. (2011). Risk 668

perception and evacuation decisions of Florida tourists under hurricane threats: a stated 669

preference analysis. Natural hazards, 59(2), 871-890. 670

McCann, W. R. (2006). Estimating the threat of tsunamogenic earthquakes and earthquake induced-671

landslide tsunami in the Caribbean (pp. 43-65). World Scientific Publishing, Singapore. 672

Miami Herald (2017). http://www.miamiherald.com/news/weather/hurricane/article171780902.html. 673

Accessed Apr 27, 2018. 674

Miami-Dade County (2017). https://www.miamidade.gov/hurricane/library/guide-to-hurricane-675

readiness.pdf. Accessed Apr 27, 2018. 676

Mikami, T., and Shibayama, T., (2015) Tsunami Disasters in Remote Island: 2009 Samoan and 2010 677

Mentawai Island Tsunamis, in Handbook of Coastal Disaster Mitigation for Engineers and 678

Planners. Esteban, M., Takagi, H. and Shibayama, T. (eds.). Elsevier, Amsterdam 679

Mikami, T., Shibayama, T., Takagi, H., Matsumaru, R., Esteban, M., Nguyen, D. T., De Leon, M., 680

Valenzuela, V. P., Oyama, T., Nakamura, R., Kumagai, K. and Li, S. (2015) “Storm Surge 681

Heights and Damage Caused by the 2013 Typhoon Haiyan along the Leyte Gulf Coast”, Coastal 682

Engineering Journal (accepted) 683

Mikami, T., Shibayama, T., Esteban, M. and Matsumaru, R., (2012) “Field Survey of the 2011 684

Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami in Miyagi and Fukushima Prefectures”, Coastal Engineering 685

Journal (CEJ), Vol. 54, No. 1, pp. 1-26 686

Mori, N., Takahashi T. and The 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Joint Survey Group (2012) 687

“Nationwide survey of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake tsunami”, Coastal Engineering Journal, 688

Vol.54, Issue 1, pp.1-27. 689

Mozumder, P., Raheem, N., Talberth, J., & Berrens, R. P. (2008). Investigating intended evacuation 690

from wildfires in the wildland–urban interface: application of a bivariate probit model. Forest 691

Policy and Economics, 10(6), 415-423 692

Naples Daily News (2017). https://www.naplesnews.com/story/news/2017/09/17/irma-evacuation-693

nightmare-next-time-some-may-not-leave/675643001/. Accessed Apr 27, 2018. 694

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), (2016a) National geophysical data 695

center/world data service (NGDC/WDS): global histcorial tsunami database. 696

https://www.hgdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu_db.shtml. Accessed 15th February 2016 697

25

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (2016b), National Tsunami Warning 698

Center, http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/, Accessed 17th February 2016. 699

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (2016c), DART (Deep Ocean 700

Assessment and Recording of Tsunamis), http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/Dart/, Accessed 17th February 701

2016. 702

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (2016d), Pacific Tsunami Warning 703

Center, http://ptwc.weather.gov/, Accessed 17th February 2016. 704

National Water Plan of the Netherlands,

705

http://english.verkeerenwaterstaat.nl/english/Images/NWP%20english_tcm249-274704.pdf. 706

Accessed 10 August 2012 707

NOAA (2015). http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/ Accessed 31 July 2015 708

NOAA (2018). https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/tsu_travel_time_events.shtml. Accessed 27 Apr 709

2018. 710

Pararas-Carayanis, G. (2004) Volcanic tsunami generating source mechanisms in the Eastern 711

Caribbean Region. Science of Tsunami Hazards, 22:74-114. 712

Rittichainuwat, B. N. (2013). Tourists' and tourism suppliers' perceptions toward crisis management 713

on tsunami. Tourism Management, 34, 112-121. 714

Sharpley, R. (2005). The tsunami and tourism: A comment. Current Issues in Tourism, 8(4), 344-349. 715

Shibayama, T. (2015) 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami, in Handbook of Coastal Disaster Mitigation for 716

Engineers and Planners. Esteban, M., Takagi, H. and Shibayama, T. (eds.). Elsevier, Amsterdam 717

Shibayama, T., Esteban, M., Nistor, I., Takagi, H., Danh Thao, N., Matsumaru, R., Mikami, T., 718

Aranguiz, R., Jayaratne, R. and Ohira, K. (2013) Classification of Tsunami and Evacuation Areas. 719

Journal of Natural Hazards, 67 (2), 365-386 720

Sittichai, N. (2007) Risk Based Safety analysis for Coastal Area Against Tsunami and Storm Surge. 721

PhD Thesis, Yokohama National University, Japan. 722

Structure Magazine (2017). http://www.structuremag.org/?p=11809. Accessed April 27, 2018. 723

Suppasri, A., Abe, Y., Yasuda, M., Fukutani, Y. and Imamura, F. (2015) Tsunami Signs, Memorials 724

and Evacuation Drills in Miyagi Prefecture after the 2011 Great East Japan Tsunami, in 725

Handbook of Coastal Disaster Mitigation for Engineers and Planners. Esteban, M., Takagi, H. 726

and Shibayama, T. (eds.). Elsevier 727

Takagi, H. and Esteban, M. (2015) “Statistics of Tropical Cyclone Landfalls in the Philippines – 728

Unusual Characteristics of 2013 Typhoon Haiyan”, Journal of Natural Hazards DOI: 729

10.1007/s11069-015-1965-6 730

Tang, Z., Lindell, M.K., Prater, C.S. &Brody, S.D. (2008). Measuring tsunami planning capacity on 731

the U.S. Pacific coast. Natural Hazards Review, 9, 91-100. 732

Tsimopoulou, V., Vrijling, J.K., Kok, M., Jonkman, S.N., Stijnen, J.W., (2013) Economic 733

implications of multi-layer safety projects for flood protection, Proc. ESREL conference, 734

Amsterdam 735

Viglione, A., Baldassarre, G., Bradimarte, L., Kuil, L., Carr, G., Salina, J. L., Scolobig, A. and 736

Bloschl, G. (2014) Insights from socio-hydrology modelling on dealing with flood risk – Roles of 737

collective memory, risk-taking attitude and trust. Journal of Hydrology, 518, 71-82. 738

Whitehead, J. C., Edwards, B., Van Willigen, M., Maiolo, J. R., Wilson, K., & Smith, K. T. (2000). 739

Heading for higher ground: factors affecting real and hypothetical hurricane evacuation 740

behavior. Global Environmental Change Part B: Environmental Hazards, 2(4), 133-142. 741

Yamao, S., Esteban, M., Yun, N. Y., Mikami, T. and Shibayama, T. (2015) “Estimation of the current 742

risk to human damage life posed by future tsunamis in Japan” in Handbook of Coastal Disaster 743

Mitigation for Engineers and Planners. Esteban, M., Takagi, H. and Shibayama, T. (eds.). 744

Butterworth-Heinemann (Elsevier), Oxford, UK 745

Yun, N.Y. and Lee. S.W. (2014). Analysis of effectiveness of tsunami evacuation principles in the 746

2011 Great East Japan tsunami by using text mining, Multimedia Tools and Applications (first 747

online). doi: http://10.1007/s11042-014-2326-2. 748

Yun. N.Y. and Hamada. M. (2015). Evacuation Behavior and Fatality Rate during the 2011 Tohoku-749

Oki Earthquake and Tsunami, Earthquake Spectra, 31 (3), 1237-1265. 750