T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y
V o l. EE JANUARY, 1911. No. 1
T h e J o u r n a l o f I n d u s t r i a l
a n d E n g i n e e r i n g C h e m i s t r y PU B L ISH E D BY
T H E A M E R I C A N C H E M I C A L S O C I E T Y . BOARD OF EDITORS.
Editor:
W . D. R ich a rd so n . Associate Editors:
. G eo . P . A d a m so n , E . G . B a ile y , G . E . B arton , W m . B ra d y , W m . C am p b ell, F . B. C arp en te r, V ir g il C ob len tz, F ra n c is X. D up on t, W . C. E b a u g h , W m . C . G ee r, W . F.
H ille b r a n d , W . D . H o rn e, L . P . K in n ic u tt, K a r l L a n g e n b e c k , A . D . L ittle , P . C . M c llh in e y , E . B.
M cC re a d y , W m . M cM u rtrie, J. M er ritt M atth ew s, T . J.
P a rk e r, J. D . P e n n o c k , G eo . C . S to n e , F . W . T ra p h a g e n , E r n s t T w itc h e ll, R o b t. W a h l, W m . H . W a lk e r , M . C.
W h ita k e r , W . R . W h itn e y .
P u b lish e d m o n th ly . S u b s c rip tio n p ric e to n o n -m e m b e rs o f th e A m e ric a n C h em ica l S o ciety $6.00 y e a rly .
Vol. III. JANUARY, 1911. No. I
" e d i t o r i a l s .
A N T IQ U A T E D CUSTOM S.
Th e tim id ity of capitalists and m anufacturers is proverbial. W hen this tim id ity is coupled w ith the idea th a t a certain practice is profitable, the normal wise conservatism of practical men degenerates into the fetich worship of obsolete customs. The common alkalis depend for their usefulness in chem ical m anu
facture upon their alkalin ity— there is little possi
b ility of a chem ical argum ent about th at point. The determ ination of the value of a given shipment of alkalis would n atu rally involve an alkalim etric analysis and a calculation to the result to N a20 (the trade custom ), N aO H or N a,CO s as the case m ight be.
I t is custom ary to base the price of alkalis upon
“ 600 a lk a li” which means a h ypothetical alkali containing 60 per cent. N a,0. The price is then adjusted according to the analysis. In the purchase of caustic soda, no allowance is m ade for the small am ount (2-4 per cent.) of sodium carbonate alw ays present. These points, however, are not of the greatest importance in this connection. Instead of using the rational method of calculating the per
centage of N a20 present b y using the factor 31 (N a}0 = 62; 62/2 = 31), derived from the atom ic weights of the elements, it is custom ary in the trade to use methods of calculation which are known as the “ E n glish ,” “ N ew castle,” or “ L iverp oo l” “ tests.”
Pure sodium carbonate contains the equivalent of
58.49 per cent. NajO thus: —— — 10° = 58.49 per 53
cent. According to the “ N ewcastle " “ test,” however, it would contain 59.26 per cent, thus: = 59.26 per cent. According to the “ L iv e rp o o l” “ te st,” 54 the figure is higher yet, since the factor 32 is arbi
trarily used in place of 31. The calculation is:
58.49 p e r c e n t . Therefore, according 3i
to the Liverpool test, pure sodium carbonate would contain 60.37 per cent. N a20, instead of 58.49 as demanded b y theory! This amounts to an increase of 3 per cent, in round number. This practice is hoary w ith age, venerable and venerated b y the soda trade. M anufacturers and middlemen look upon it in the light of gospel and revelation. T h e chem ical trade is full of such customs, which have grown flat and stale b u t not necessarily unprofitable. A nother exam ple is the so-called “ refraction te s t ” or “ W est Coast m eth od ” which is applied to the analysis of commercial sodium nitrate, which is largely imported from Chile for use in the m anufacture of nitric acid, explosives and fertilizers. The valuable constituent in this chem ical is nitrate nitrogen, and this can easily be determined b y one of several good m ethods—
possibly best b y L un ge’s nitrom eter, or the Schloes- sing-W agner method. In the trade, however, no direct determ ination of nitrate nitrogen is recognized.
Instead the “ refraction te s t” — save the nam e!— is applied. The refraction test consists in determ ining moisture, insoluble m atter, sodium sulphate (calcu
lated from SO,), sodium chloride (calculated from Cl) and subtracting the sum of these from 100 per cent. N aturally the result shows more nitrate of soda than is actually present. There is no excuse for the continuance of obsolete trade customs such as these. T h ey are thoroughly unscientific and mis
leading. I t would probably be urged b y the pro
ducers and middlemen th at as prices are based on analyses and calculations made according to these so-called “ tests,” it would upset the trade to change the custom. A s h m atter of fa ct the price readjust
ment could be made overnight, and afterw ards would take care of itself. In m atters of this sort (and we have mentioned but two of a large num ber of bad trade customs) the conservatism of trade is alm ost if not quite identical w ith the inertia of stupidity.
T H E PH O SPH O R U S M A T C H .
Wi l l i a m H. Ta f t, President of the U nited States, in his Message to Congress of December 6, 1910, wrote in regard to the phosphorus m atch industry:
a T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y . Jan., 1911 I in v ite a tte n tio n ' to the v e ry serious injury' caused to all
those w h o are engaged in the m an ufactu re of phosphorus m atches. T h e diseases in cid en t to this are frigh tful, and as m atches can be m ade from other m aterials en tirely inocuqus, I believe th a t the injurious m an ufactu re could be discouraged and o u g h t to be discouraged b y the im position of a h e a v y fed eral ta x . I recom m end the adoption of this m ethod of stam p in g o u t a v e ry serious abuse.
A leading daily newspaper com mented editorially as follows on this p art of the President’s message:
In n ea rly e v e ry civilized cou n try e x c e p t the U n ited States, th e use of w h ite phosphorus in the m akin g of m atches is pro
hibited b y law . T h e cost of production is increased on ly a b o u t 5 per cent, b y the adoption of su bstitu tes for w h ite phosphorus, b u t because of co m p etitive conditions one m an ufactu rer can n o t a d o p t the safer and m ore exp en sive m ethod unless a ll will do th e sam e. T h e lead ing m an ufactu rers of m atches in this cou n try, i t is said, w ould w elcom e a n y legislation th a t w ill p u t an end to the use of w h ite phosphorus in their in du stry.
Legislation in harm on y w ith this w ise recom m endation ou gh t to be enacted a t the present session of congress. T h e im posi
tion of a p ro h ib itive federal ta x on th e m an ufactu re and sale of m atches con tain in g w h ite phosphorus w ould con stitu te the best m ethod of d ealing w ith the problem .
On the editorial page of another prom inent d aily newspaper appeared the following: .
I t is hoped th a t the present session of congTess, short as i t is to be, w ill see the passage of R ep resen tative E seh ’s bill directed a gain st poisonous m atches. Presiden t T a f t has again tak en sufficient in terest in the su b je ct to m ention the necessity of legislation relatin g to i t in his m essage. T h e A m erican F ed eration of L a b o r and other bodies are in terested in the abolition of the poisonous m atch fo r th e sa k e of th e m atch w orkers w ho are co n stan tly exposed to the d e a d ly phosphorus fum es.
M atches m ade w ith th e o n ly know n su b stitu te for w h ite phosphorus are con trolled b y a p a ten t held now b y the m atch trust. T h is p a ten t w ill exp ire in five years, b u t in the m ean
w h ile th e term s on w h ich the tru st allow s it to be used b y in dependent m an ufactu rers are such th a t the la tte r h ave n ot en erally tak en a d va n ta g e o f them . A n d in the m eanw hile ve y ears rem ain for th e w orkers to be exposed to the poison.
T h e tru st dem ands $100,000 for the rig h ts rem aining its prop
e rty . I f our chem ists can n ot d iscover anoth er process b y w hich to m ake m atches a t once good and safe, i t w ould be w orth th a t sum to save the w orkm en from five years of danger.
D istaste fu l as a p ro h ib itive ta x on m atches w ould be, it seems the o n ly rem edy in the circum stances. T h is co u n try is a w hole generation behind E u rop e in the regulation of this dan gerous trade. I t should eith er be m ade safe, or be ta x ed ou t of existence.
T hroughout the country the newspapers have gener
a lly given voice to their ideas in sim ilar outspoken tones. The universal attitud e in the m atter appears to be th a t the U nited States governm ent has been negligent in failing to protect the workers in the yellow phosphorus m atch industry. A t the same tim e the plea is m ade th at this protection be no longer withheld and th a t the E sch bill be passed.
Am erican m atches have not enjoyed the highest reputation possible in the past. Mr. Carl Baedecker, careful observer of international conditions for the benefit of the traveler, says in " T h e U nited States:
H andbook for T ravellers:” "T h e prices of m an y m anufactured goods are much higher in the U nited States than in E urope; and the traveler should, therefore, com e provided w ith an ample supply of all the articles of personal use he is lik ely to require, down to such sm all items a s ..., and m atches (often v e ry poor in A m erica).” This m erely in passing.
During the year 1 9 1 0 , the B ureau of L abor issued a m onograph from the pen of Dr. John B. Andrews, entitled “ Phosphorus Poisoning in the M atch In d ustry in the U nited States. ” This was published
in. B ulletin 86 of the B ureau of Labor, and was un
doubtedly the occasion for the paragraph in President T a ft’s Message quoted above. Dr. A ndrew s’ report was based on the results of a careful investigation into the w orking conditions in 15 out of the 16 fac
tories operating in the U nited States. D uring the prelim inary investigation, 16 cases of phosphorus necrosis were discovered in the factories and when the investigators, in an intensive stu d y of three factories, directed their atten tion to the homes of the workers, a total of 82 cases was discovered in the homes of the workers in these three factories. I t was ascertained th at a t least eight perfectly de
veloped cases occurred in tw o factories during 1909.
According to the report, 65 per cent, of the workers in the 15 factories investigated were w orking under conditions which exposed them to phosphorus fumes, and the women and children were much more e x posed than the men, the figures being 95 and 83 per cent, respectfully. In the 15 factories 3591 em ployees were a t work. Of these 2024 were men, 1253 were wom en and 314 children under 16 years of age. In a num ber of the factories, ven tilatin g and general san itary arrangem ents, such as washing facilities and eating places, were found to be fa r from satis
factory.
Exposure to the fumes of phosphorus gives rise to tw o forms of poisoning. The first is rare and is a m ild chronic form characterized b y cachexia, jaundice, anem ia and album inuria. In more ad
vanced cases there m ay be chronic enteritis, diarrhea, bronchitis and even a peculiar fra gility of the bones.
T h e ordinary form or phosphorus necrosis gives rise to periostitis and necrosis of the low er jaw . I t usu
ally begins, though not necessarily, from a decayed tooth or a lesion of the gum. T h e teeth becom e loose and drop out, the jaw becomes swollen and painful, and discharges large quantities of pus to
gether w ith pieces of dead bone. The rem oval of the entire low er ja w is often necessary to stop the course of the disease. D eath frequently results.
This form of poisoning is known to th e workers in m atch factories as "p h o ssy ja w .” I t is the elem ent phosphorus itself, and not its compounds, which produces the sym ptom s. I t has been found in the blood as such. Its oxygen acids are w ithout poi
sonous effect. P ractically all cases of phosphorus poisoning have been due to w hite (yellow) phos
phorus, since this is more volatile and more soluble than the red variety. Phosphorus sesquisulphide, P (S,, which is used in the French governm ent m atch factories, appears to be even safer than red phos
phorus, for the small am ounts of phosphorus released from it in the tissues are too sm all to induce sym ptom s.
In tabular form a brief statem ent of the history of the developm ent of chem ical and friction m atches would appear as follows:
1669 B rand (Ham burg) discovered phosphorus.
1771 Scheele prepared phosphorus from bone ash.
1812 Sulphur m atches tipped w ith K CIO , and sugar.
Ignited b y H 3SOt.
1816 Derosne made phosphorus mass for matches.
3 1827 Friction m atches (England) Sb,S3 and K C10a.
1837 Substitution of PbO , and P b (N O j), for K C10, in phosphorus m atch.
1845 Schrôtter (Vienna) discovered and identified red phosphorus.
1848 B ôttger invented “ safe ty m a tc h " containing no phosphorus, and striking on red-phos- phorus-coated striking surface.
1858 Lundstrôm m anufactured safety m atches in Jônkôping (Sweden).
1897 France prohibited use and m anufacture of yellow phosphorus match.
1903 G erm any prohibited yellow phosphorus match.
L a w effective Jan. 1, 1907.
1906 Berne tre aty. Prohibition of yellow phos
phorus m atch in France, Denm ark, Luxem burg, Ita ly, Sw itzerland, Netherlands, Ger
many.
1908 G reat Britain prohibited yellow phosphorus m atch. L aw effective Jan. i, 1910.
A t the present tim e there are three principal kinds of m atches m anufactured. F irst the “ s a fe ty ” m atch containing no phosphorus and designed to be struck on a prepared surface containing red phosphorus.
A characteristic com position for m atch heads of this sort contains potassium chlorate, potassium bichro
m ate, sulphur, manganese dioxide, iron oxide, glass powder, glue and gum arabic. T h e striking-surface com position contains red phosphorus, antim ony tri- sulphide, dextrin, and lam pblack. The second kind of m atch is the ordinary “ strike-anyw here ” or parlor m atch, containing yellow phosphorus and designed to light when rubbed against a n y rough surface.
A characteristic com position contains glue, g la s s . powder, iron oxide, lead oxide, and phosphorus. The principal v a rie ty of this kind of m atch is th at which lights only when rubbed on the tip, not on the side.
The third kind of m atch strikes anywhere b u t con
tains no elem entary phosphorus. The m ost suc
cessful m atch of this sort heretofore has been th at whose com position contained phosphorus sesquisul- phide, P ^ j. I t is stated th at 3.5 g. of this substance, corresponding to 6000 m atches, shows no harmful action. The French governm ent m atch factories, follow ing the procedure of Sévène and Cahen, use phosphorus sesquisulphide in form ulas containing also potassium chlorate, zinc oxide, ocher, glass powder, and glue. Various other substitutes for yellow phos
phorus in "strik e-an yw h e re” m atches have been suggested and tried,, w ith more or less success, in an endeavor to discover a better substance for the purpose than phosphorus sesquisulphide. T he latter has the disadvantage of decomposing when stored for some tim e in a damp place, giving rise to the offensive hydrogen sulphide gas. The list includes a m ixture of phosphorus trisulphidc and pentasulphide or triphosphorus hexasulphide, zinc thiophosphite, bright- red phosphorus (Schenk), phosphorus suboxide and cupro-barium polythionate. T h e list will no doubt be extended in the near future, and an en tirely un
objectionable substance found.
A s m any as five years ago m atches were manu-
factured and distributed in the U nited States con
taining no poisonous phosphorus, thus dem onstrating the p racticability of the process. E ach b ox bore the legend: “ These m atches do not contain phos
phorus. A new d iscovery." T h ey were found upon experim ent to strike perfectly on suitable rough surfaces such as wood and cloth and ordinary objects.
The following statem ents are quoted verbatim from Dr. Andrew s' report:
T hose w ho h ave follow ed the results of studies of the con
ditions surrounding industrial em p loym en ts w ith reference to. the effect upon the health of the em ployees are im pressed b y the possibilities of a scientific m ovem ent to im p rove w o rkin g conditions and reduce occup ation al dangers. T h e m an u fac
ture of m atches in the U n ited S ta te s beyon d a n y other in d u stry presents an op p o rtu n ity to im prove conditions and easily to m ake a m ost dangerous in d u stry en tirely harm less.
Peculiar to this in d u stry is a disease w hich, w ith o u t great expense, w ith o u t a long stru ggle a gain st p o v erty , indifference, ignorance, and neglect, m ay be a b so lu tely elim inated b y the prohibition of the use of w h ite phosphorus. T h is disease, know n to m edical and dental professions as phosphorus ne
crosis, con tin u ally threatens those w ho w o rk in m atch factories where poisonous phosphorus is used. T h e phosphorus m ost fre q u e n tly a tta ck s the ja w bones, and som etim es necessitates the rem oval o f an entire ja w b y surgical operation. A harm less su bstitute for the poison th a t is com m ercially p racticable is rea d ily available. W h y, then, do our m an ufacturers n ot use this su bstitute? M an y w ould g la d ly do so, b u t i t costs ju s t a little m ore to m ake nonpoisonous m atches. C ondition is so keen th at a single m anufacturer can n o t p lace him self a t n atu ral d isad van tage w ith his rivals in business.
In the lead ing countries of E urope the governm ents h a v e com e to th e aid of both w orkers and m anufacturers b y requiring all m an ufacturers to discontinue th e use of th e poison. In these countries the m anufacturers are all on an equal footin g in com petition and the danger of phosphorus poisoning is en tirely elim inated.
A n d again further on:
T h e com p an y ow ning the p a te n t rights for the use of ses
quisulphide of phosphorus in the m an ufacture of m atches in A m erica b elievin g this article to be a rem edy for the p revailin g trouble in m an ufactu rin g m atches, n am ely phosphorus ne
crosis, has expressed (in w riting) its w illingness to perm it the use of the sesquisulphide of phosphorus b y other m an u
factu rers on equ al term s, if the use of w h ite phosphorus is prohibited b y law .
It would seem th at the tim e has come when the governm ent must take definite and positive action which w ill lead to the prohibition of the poisonous phosphorus m atch. Regulation will not suffice. P ro
hibition is necessary. If President T a ft ’s recom mendation for a prohibitive ta x is the best form for the legislation to take, the needed law should be passed w ithout delay.
T H E P R IC E OF G LY C E R IN E .
C r u d e , C . P. and dynam ite glycerine have com manded high prices during the year 1910. During the latter part of the year C . P. glycerine was selling for 24 3^c. per pound in drums, the price not including the package. In early November, soap lye crude glycerine reached the astonishing price of 17c. per pound, basis of 80 per cent., and saponification crude sold proportionally higher. The causes of these high prices have been variously stated b y different observers. A m ong the explanations advanced are the following: the prevailing high prices of all com m odities; the high prices commanded b y fats and fa tty oils; the great demand for explosives for con
struction work on the Panam a canal; general a c tiv ity
4 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y . Jan., 1 9 1 1 in construction and m ining requiring the use of ex
plosives. W hatever the im mediate cause, undoubtedly the demand for glycerine to be used in the m anufacture of nitroglycerine explosives is the determ ining factor.
T he United States is a great producer and consumer of glycerine. In spite of the fact th a t this country produces enormous quantities of glycerine in soap and candle factories, v e ry large quantities of crude and refined glycerine are im ported from all parts of the world. A considerable p art of the glycerine im ported from foreign countries is prob ably derived from fats and oils originally exported from the United States. A t the same time, A ustralia, A rgentina and R ussia are large producers of anim al fats, and tropical oils are entering the European m arket in constan tly increasing volum e. A t present prices, when glycerine sells for tw o or three times the price of the raw m aterial from which it is derived, it m ust be considered as som ething more than a by-product— it becomes one of the principal products of the saponification of fats, even in the com mercial sense. The am ount of glycerine left behind in soap and not won from fats in the autoclave becomes of greater relative im portance. Of the total glycerol theoretically yielded b y fats (about 10.6 per cent, for neutral tallow ), good soap factory practice will recover from 80 to 90 per cent, and of this the still will w in 97 per cent, or more. These are good yields and the percentages in m an y factories w ill not run so high.
In the autoclave, 95 per cent, can usually be recovered.
Nevertheless there appears to be an opportunity here to im prove the practice in such a w ay, th a t to the future chemist, present-day yields w ill appear low and present-day practice wasteful. For some months, the soap-factory chem ist has been w atching the soap k ettle closely to obtain greater yields and studying m ethods to reduce the percentage of glycerol in cold-made soap (of no apparent use th ere ); and beyond a doubt the soap factories all over the world are obtaining higher yields of glycerol to-day than th ey were tw o years ago. Thus m ay the enhanced value of a product stim ulate chem ical control to the point of developing im proved practice w ithout any new discoveries or innovations in m anufacture.
O R IG IN A L P A P L R 5 .
W A S T E W O O D AND ITS U T IL IZ A T IO N . B y Ge o r g e B. Fr a n k f o r t e r.
The U nited States is the m ost w asteful nation in the world: w asteful in living, w asteful in m anufac
turing, and w asteful in conserving its natural re
sources. This prodigality of the nation’s w ealth has been largely due to ex travagan t methods of m anu
facture. A quarter of a century ago, when economical m ethods were not considered essential to industrial life, p ractically e v ery industry in the whole country was the v e ry synonym of w aste and extravagance.
O ur unparalleled w ealth of natural resources, together w ith high tariff walls, m ade it unnecessary for manu
facturers to utilize by-products in order to earn large dividends or to com pete w ith other nations.
I t is a rem arkable fa ct th at while these great store
houses of natural products had becom e necessary to the w orld’s industrial progress, in only a few cases were the raw m aterials converted into m arketable products a t home. On the contrary, th ey were sent abroad to be worked up b y highly technical in stitu tions, and returned a t m an y tim es the value of the crude products. In the early years of our industrial developm ent, the ve ry idea of utilizing w h at was then called industrial waste, seems to have been distasteful to the whole nation. Our m anufacturers did not understand the new by-p roduct m ovem ent which had given the European nations industrial suprem acy; neither were th ey w illing even to try to understand it. T h ey saw only the great treasures stored up in our mines, our forests or in our great fertile plains. T h e y would not see the small bu t no less im portant things which belonged to the new by-p roduct m ovem ent. I t was doubtless this unfor
tunate condition which kep t the highly technical chem ical industries from the rapid grow th which would have followed under more favorable conditions. W ith everyth ing a t our doors for which a nation could ask, and w ith a dem and for the products which can only be made from by-p roduct waste, it seems strange to the chem ist of to-d ay th at our industries should have remained so long in this undeveloped condition.
T he only logical conclusion which m ay be drawn is th at the Am erican people were either not desirous or not capable of developing the industries to th a t degree which has m ade the German Em pire w h at it is to-day.
It should be stated here, in justice to the chemists of the present, and out of genuine respect for the pioneers of the last generation, th at the undeveloped condition of our chem ical industries can in no w a y be attrib uted to them . A s a m atter of fact, chemists have, throughout the 'whole of our industrial life, occupied a peculiar position. Their w ork has been largely a labor of love, a love for the science and a love for m ankind; a t any rate, th ey have received little else for their labor. T h e y have repeatedly sounded w arning notes of w aste and extravagan ce to the industries and incidentally urged them to em
p loy the new economical m ethods of m anufacture if the U nited States were to be considered in the in
dustrial race of the future. This frantic appeal to the people of the country to stop the wanton destruc
tion of our national resources has, until recently, been entirely ignored. T h e classical w ork of the chemists of the E ast, w ith their cam paign of indus
trial education, is h aving a m ost wholesome influence upon the eastern industries. The work in the Middle W est, North, W est and South is likewise h avin g a salutary effect upon the m anufacturers, for th ey are beginning to see th a t it is better to save a t the spigot than it is to save a t the bung. On the whole, there is hope of a great industrial revival such as th at which has made G erm any the greatest of the industrial world-powers.
5 It is a t least encouraging to the chem ist at the
present tim e to find th a t industrial conditions are changing for the better. W h at changes one can safely predict in the near future m ay be inferred from the great industrial chem ical w ave which swept over G erm any during the latter half of the 19th cen
tury. T h a t m agical change which enabled the Ger
man people to spring from the fourth to the ve ry first of the industrial world-powers, was due to the wonderful developm ent of their chemical industries and to the am azing methods of conserving their natural resources. Germs of this same reconstruction period, I think, m ay be found in our own conservation m ove
ment. W aste in m anufacturing is no longer entirely overlooked b y the industries as it was a quarter of a century or even a decade ago.
• N otw ithstanding the m arked im provem ent in our present industrial condition, it is still evident th at industrial conservation will be ignored b y the m a
jority of m anufacturers unless th ey have convincing proof th a t conservative methods mean greater profits and less expense. Their one thought, perhaps a logical one, seems to be of profits. U nfortunately, th ey have not recognized the fundam ental fact th at an industry is of v ita l im portance as a national asset only when it conserves the nation’s resources and produces the greatest possible returns for the least possible consumption of natural products.
The Wood Industry.— T h at a revolution of our in
dustrial world has been going on is evident from a stu d y of any one of our great industries. 1 W e have already reached the reconstruction period, as is evi
dent from a glance a t the greatest of our conserva
tion problem s— the wood industry. Fifteen years ago it was impossible to interest lumbermen in any of the wood by-product industries. The real reason seems to have been th at the lumbermen found it un
necessary to build up highly technical by-product plants in order to earn large dividends, either in home or foreign markets.
Of the great wastage problems before the Am erican people to-day, wood refuse probably stands first.
Pew realize the aw ful waste in the processes used at the present tim e b y the lumbering industries. The industrial chem ist is astonished to find th at millions of cords of good wood are being burned, either on the ground, where it took hundreds of years to grow, or in huge burners built a t the mills for the express pur
pose of destruction. He is more than astonished to find th at laws have been enacted in some of the great tim ber states compelling the lumbermen to burn all w aste wood left on the ground after the logs h ave been removed. These laws were ostensibly passed for the prevention of forest fires, but doubt
less w ithout fu lly realizing the actual value of the millions of cords of waste.
T he term tim ber has a distinct!}’ local significance.
In its broadest meaning, and especially in the great lum bering states of the North, W est and South, it represents the forests capable of being converted into lumber. On the Pacific coast, the term is ap plied only to those m ighty forests which have been
growing for a thousand years. On the western plains, an y grow th of trees, scrub, oak, elm, ash or birch, is called timber. T h e term is little used in the Mid
dle States, since the depletion of the virgin forests. I have used the word in its broadest sense, as represent
ing trees of all kinds, large or small, which m ay be converted into m arketable products.
Concerning the stu d y of the tim ber industry of the middle, northern and western states, the w riter has had exceptional opportunities. His early years were spent in close touch w ith lum bering industry of the middle states. Later, on the great plains of the west, he learned the true value of tim ber. On com ing to one of the greatest tim ber states some seventeen years ago, he realized more fu lly than ever the frightful w aste in the conversion of tim ber into lumber. W ith this alm ost criminal waste of over half of the great forests v iv id ly in mind, he decided to devote some time, a t least, to the wood by-product industry. In these early years the task proved so herculean th a t grave doubts often arose as to whether waste wood from the logging and m illing industries could ever be u til
ized. The work was all the more discouraging on ac
count of the indifference of the lumbermen. T h ey were too busy with the industry as it then existed to give any attention to w aste problems. Furtherm ore, th ey sincerely believed th at wood w aste was un
avoidable and th a t its utilization was an absolute im possibility. During these early years, about the only hope of the chemist was in m aking the lum ber
men realize th at better and more economical m eth
ods were possible and impressing upon them the im
portant fa ct th at wood waste, w ith proper encour
agem ent, would become the greatest by-product in
d ustry in the world.
The im portant questions which natu rally occur to the industrial chem ist in these days of conserva
tion are: first, to w hat extent are the great industries actually w asting our natural resources, and second, can our present industrial methods be so im proved as to m aterially reduce this waste? I t requires b u t a glance to convince one th at the w aste attending logging and m illing industries is the most colossal ever recorded in the history of m anufacture. Here, then, is such an opportunity for conservation m eth
ods as occurs in no other industry in the country.
It is impossible to even estim ate the waste which followed the lum bering industries a single decade ago. A general idea m ay be obtained of the w aste at present, however, b y glancing a t any of the large mills. The best th a t these model mills can do to day, b y most rigid econom y and b y using all the mod
em im provements know n to the industry, is to save a scant 40 per cent, of the total w eight of wood in lumber, lath and shingles. Fifteen years ago the average was probably not over 30 per cent.
The Logging Industry.— T h at the w'aste wood prob
lem m ight be more thoroughly investigated, the whole tim ber industry was studied. Logging, now considered as an entirely separate industry, n aturally came first. I t was studied in the Middle W est and later on the western coast. If the chem ist is sur
6 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y . Jan., 1911 prised a t the waste produced b y the mills, he is sim ply
appalled a t the w aste which follows the logging in
dustry. I t is impossible to give a clear idea of the am ount of wood destroyed through the present m eth
ods of logging, w ithout details regarding m achinery, q u ality of tim ber and m ethods used in different locali
ties, all of which are too technical for this short paper.
The Proportion of Lumber to Waste.— E a rly in these investigations it was found th a t no one, not even the lum berm en them selves, knew w h at proportion of the tree was converted into lum ber and w h at proportion was waste. T h a t a t least approxim ate results m ight be obtained, several determ inations were made, w eighing the whole tree so far as possible and the am ount of lum ber obtained.
The following is an average of three trees:
L bs.
T o ta l w eig h t o f tre e s ... 6600 T o ta l w eig h t of lu m b e r... ... .. 2300 W a s te ... 4300
P er cent, of lumber, 34.84; per cent, of waste, 6 5 .16 .
Stum ps, tops, slabs and saw dust are included un
der waste, b u t not leaves, twigs, small limbs and sm all roots. No attem p t was m ade to determine the relative w eights of lum ber a n d 'w aste in the large trees of the W est, on account of the m agnitude of the undertaking, of which one m ay get an idea from the actual size of the tree. F or instance, a Douglas fir stum p from the Pacific coast was blasted out and shipped to Minneapolis for experim ental purposes.
T his large stum p m ade nine large d ray loads of wood when cu t up. T o have determ ined the ex a ct propor
tion of lum ber and w aste in this tree w ould have been a difficult task. E xp ert lum berm en are inclined to thin k th a t the percentage of lum ber in these large trees will be som ew hat greater than th a t given above.
This w ill doubtless depend upon conditions. In the case of resinous fir, the trees are frequen tly cu t from ten to fifteen feet above the ground in order to elim inate the resin which exists largely in the roots and the low er p art of the trunk. The w aste in such cases w ill exceed the above results.
Waste Wood as Slabs and Sawdust.— W hile waste wood in the form of stum ps and tops represents a large proportion of the total w eight of the tree, proba
b ly not far from the total w eight of the lumber, the actual loss produced in sawing the logs is considerable.
From 5 to 15 per cent, of the logs goes into slabs. A p art of these slabs is cu t into shingles and lath. There is still, however, considerable loss from this source, although less than from the sawdust. The old-fash- ioned circular saw of th irty years ago cu t as high as three-eighths of an inch and the old blade saw even more than that. The w aste in sawdust, using a three- eighths inch saw, would prob ably am ount to one- third of the w eight of the whole log. The cut has been reduced nearly one-half b y the introduction of band, gang and band-gang saws. T he waste, how
ever, is still great, not far from 20 per cent, when inch lum ber is sawed.
In order to p u t the w aste wood problem in such
form as to give a general idea of the am ount of wood destroyed annually b y the lum ber industries, I have chosen a single locality and a single lum bering plant, calculating results from actual lum bering data. The great mills of the C. A. Sm ith T im ber Com pany, a t Marshfield, Oregon, have been selected because th ey are recognized b y lum ber experts throughout the . country as the m ost econom ical mills in existence.
These mills are using e very know n device which will save a single foot of lum ber or a single d a y ’s labor.
T h e y are am ong the largest in the w orld and have been repeatedly called “ models of econom y.” A v e ry brief description of some of the economical m achinery will, I am sure, be of some interest to the industrial chemist. T he mills are located, as are p ractically all of the great mills of the country, so th at the logs m ay be transported a p art of the w ay, a t least, b y water. T h e trees are felled, cu t into as g reat lengths as possible, and. brought down the m ountains b y means of cables and donkey engines to the logging railroads. T h e y are loaded on spe
cially constructed cars and hauled to the nearest stream s of water, where th ey are throw n in and floated to the mills in booms. A t the m ill th e y are cut to proper lengths and split into forms called slips or fliches, b y great band saws. These saws are capable of handling logs 80 feet in length and 8 feet in diam eter. The slips then go directly to the band-gang or tandem saws. The band-gang saws are entirely new inventions. T h ey are not only more rapid than the old circular and gang saws b u t also far more econom
ical, w asting approxim ately 30 per cent, less wood than the old circular saw. From the band-gang saws the lum ber is finished b y going through the edgers and trimmers.
O f special interest is the lath m achinery, consist
ing of horizontal band saws, which are also an entirely new invention. These saws w ork autom atically and cut 25,000 lath e very ten hours. The great im por
tance of this new m achinery is its com parative econ
om y. P rob ab ly 20 per cent, more lath m ay be cut from the w aste than b y the old form.
The Destruction of Waste Wood.— In the early de
velopm ent of the lum bering industries, one of the serious problems which confronted the lumbermen w as the disposal of the m ill waste, including the saw
dust, slabs and bark. In the older mills of fifty years ago, this was hauled aw a y and dumped. A little of it, of course, was used in the m ill for fuel, b u t it has alw ays been regarded b y the lum berm en as a nuis
ance, largely on account of the danger from fire.
W hen the great mills of the Middle W est were built, the q u an tity of sawdust, slabs and b ark was so great th a t the question of its disposal becam e a serious one. F or v e ry good reasons, lum berm en were not perm itted to dump a n y of the. w aste into rivers or lakes. Some simple means of disposal becam e abso
lu tely necessary. T h e so-called w aste burner, which was finally devised, has becom e a regular fixture in the m odem lum bering mill. I t consists of a vertical cylinder, the size of w hich depends upon the am ount of w aste to be burned. The largest is more than
7 100 feet high, from 40 to 50 feet in diameter, and so
constructed th at the wood is carried p art w a y to the top and dropped down on the fire below. W ith a strong draught, the wood bum s v e ry rapidly. One m ay get some idea of the am ount of wood burned from the fa ct th a t a single large burner will destroy from 800 to 1000 cords in ten hours. T w en ty years ago, w hen the lum bering industry was a t its height in Minnesota, there were destroyed at Minneapolis and the neighboring mills 1500 to zooo cords of waste daily, or enough to have supplied the farmers of the whole state of Minnesota w ith fuel.
These figures include w astage only from the trees actu ally felled and transported to the mills for lum ber. T h e y do not include the millions of young trees which are destroyed, either b y the large falling trees or b y the fires which follow in the w ake of the log
gers. T h e Bureau of Forestry has called attention to the fa ct th at this destruction of young tim ber, although minimized b y the lumbermen, is, in reality, more v ita l to the nation than the actual lum ber w aste, because it seriously menaces the lum ber indus
try of the future generations.
The A nnual Wood Wastage.— It seldom occurs, even to the chemist, th a t wood is b y far the most abundant organic substance in the world. The weight of wood or vegetable fiber, as com pared w ith animal m atter, is prob ab ly not far from a hundred thousand to one. W ood, then, is one of the nation’s greatest assets, and its conservation and preservation means the conservation and preservation of the nation’s wealth.
The Marshfield mills will again give one a general idea of the waste which accompanies the lumbering industry. This plant saws, on an average, 100,000,- 000 feet of lum ber a year. The average w eight of 1000 feet (board measure) of lum ber is about one and one-half tons. T h e annual output of this mill, then, is approxim ately 150,000 tons of lumber. On the basis of 60 per cent, of waste, the enormous quan
tit y of 225,000 tons of wood are burned, either on the ground where hundreds of years were required for its growth, or in engines of destruction a t the mills. A ve ry conservative estim ate of the standing tim ber in this locality, which will eventually be cu t b y these mills, is 30,000,000,000 feet. Assum ing th at this tim ber will all be cut on the above basis, there will be the astounding equivalent of 45,000,000,000 feet of waste which, converted into weight, w ill am ount to the colossal sum of 67,500,000 tons. These figures are enormous, bu t th ey seem sm all when compared w ith the lum ber output during the last decade or even the y ea rly output. There were cut in 1907, accord
ing to the Bureau of Forestry, 40,256,154,000 feet of lumber. On the above basis, there were in th at year over 100,000,000,000 feet and over 150,000,- 000 tons of wastage.
Wood Analyses.— A t the tim e this work was begun there were no analyses of either N orw ay pine or Doug
las fir. The first work on these species was a stu d y of the physical properties of the wood, followed b y analyses, including the distillation products, fiber,
the resin and the terpenes. The physical properties of the wood showed a striking variation, even in wood from the same tree. I t was not uncommon to find the extrem e wood lim its of specific g ra v ity in the same tree. A series of determ inations on differ
ent parts of the same tree gave the following:
F ir. N orw ay.
Specific g ra v ity of v e ry lean w ood . . . . 0 .6 0 7 4 0.6 0 2 5 Specific g ra v ity of m edium w ood... 0,6711 0.5432 Specific g ra v ity o f resinous w ood... 0.8 2 2 5 0.7 9 8 4 Specific g ra v ity of v e ry resinous w o o d . 0 .9 4 5 6 0.9 3 2 2 Specific g ra v ity of g reen ro o ts, v e ry
resin o u s... 0 .9 7 4 6 0.9721
The above averages of five different determ inations indicate th at the two species are quite similar. There w as a difference, however, in distribution of the resinous m atter. The N orw ay pine was quite uni
form, the stumps and the roots being nearly alw ays resinous. The fir, on the contrary, was extrem ely variable. I t was not uncommon to find parts of fir trees containing as high as 50 per cent, of oleoresin, while other parts of the same tree contained as low as 3 per cent.
The first resin and terpene analyses were made for the purpose of determ ining the relative am ounts of resin and terpenes in the various samples of wood, and further for the purpose of studying the physical and chemical properties of the resin and the terpenes themselves. These determ inations were m ade b y extracting the wood in large modified forms of Soxhlet extractors, using the various organic solvents. A n average of some tw en ty analyses g ave the following:
L e a n R esinous A verage
w ood. w ood. wood.
P e r c en t, o f oleoresin in N o rw ay p in e 6 43 , 14
P e r cen t, of oleoresin in D ouglas fir. 4 46 16
The am ount of oleoresin in the average wood will be seen to be considerably less than the mean of the lean and the rich wood. This was found to be due to the fa ct th at the greater portion of the wood was lean. These results were all obtained from stumps.
Analyses of the trunks them selves gave considerably low er results. Parts of the tree near wind-shakes, however, gave even higher results than the stum ps.
A single analysis of a resinous wind-shaken tree from the P uget Sound district gave 52.5 per cent, of oleo
resin. T h e oleoresin was finally subjected to steam distillation and the amounts of resin and terpenes determined:
F ir. N orw ay.
P e r c en t, of resin in oleoresin f r o m . . . . 78 78 P e r c en t, o f te rp e n e s ... 22 22
These results are an average of m any determ ina
tions and indicate th a t the proportions of resin and terpenes are p ractically constant in oleoresin fresh from the tree. T h e terpenes decrease slow ly on exposure to the air. A n analysis of wood from a stum p tw en ty years after the tree had been cut showed 42-4 per cent, of resinous m atter, 21 per cent, of which was turpentine. T he only p art of this stum p which seemed to have changed was the sur
face; here the resinous m atter had become hard and im pervious to both air and water.
8 T H E J O U R N A L O F I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G C H E M I S T R Y . Jan., 1911 The Ter penes.— The term s terpenes and turpentine
h ave been used synonym ously for the reason th at the turpentine from the northern species is com plex, containing several high boiling terpenes. Common turpentine has been so closely associated w ith so m an y branches of industrial art that, were it taken aw ay, the loss w ould be irreparable unless some good substitute could be found. A t the present tim e nearly all the turpentine is obtained from the forests of the South. The old m ethod of boxing sooner or later kills the tree. In the early history of the indus
try , three or four years was the average life of the boxed tree. Much better results are now obtained b y j t h e new m ethods of turpentine orcharding. A few years ago, the destruction of the forests of the South was so rapid th at the U nited States govern
m ent becam e alarmed lest the turpentine industry should be com pletely destroyed.
A t the present time, the northern and western states p lay a ve ry small part in the resin and turpen
tine production of the country, but, as has already been stated, these northern species contain large quantities of both resin and turpentine. Owing to the peculiarities of the species, however, their recov
ery becomes strictly a problem of b y-p roduct chem is
try. In fact, resin and turpentine' are abundant enough in both the N orw ay pine and the Douglas fir to m ake them an im portant factor in the resin and turpentine output of the country, if economical m ethods for their recovery were used.
Using again the lum bering plan t above mentioned, some idea m ay be obtained of the am ount of resin and turpentine wasted b y the lum bering industries .of the W est. P rob ab ly one-fifth of the fir and N or
w a y pine w aste wood is rich enough in oleoresin to m ake its recovery profitable, even b y the old process of destructive distillation. W hile the average of oleoresin in the northern species of pine can only be approxim ated, over one hundred analyses of wood of all kinds and degrees of resinousness indicates th a t one-fifth of the fir wood w aste from the P u get Sound district contains tw en ty per cent, of oleoresin. On the above basis, there are 45,000 tons of rich resinous wood, containing 9,000 tons of oleoresin, of which 1,980 tons are turpentine, destroyed ann ually b y the above-m entioned mills. This does not include the resinous m atter in the other four-fifths of the wastage.
If the standing tim ber in the locality be again taken at 30,000,000,000 feet, the w astage would a t the present rate of lum bering am ount to 67,500,000 tons. One-fifth of this waste, or 13,500,000 tons, is sufficiently rich in resinous m atter to w arrant the use of an y good method for its recovery. Assum ing th at this am ount will average even 10 per cent, of oleo
resin, there would be the enormous sum of 1,350,000 tons of resinous m atter, of which 22 per cent., or 297,- 000 tons, are turpentine. Translated into common terms, it reaches the colossal sum of over 80,000,000 gallons. A gain, assum ing th a t the annual consum p
tion of turpentine is 21,000,000 gallons, the above am ount w ould supply the whole w orld for nearly four years.
Present Methods of Utilizing Waste Wood.— There are numerous m ethods of utilizing w aste wood a t the present time, b u t thé more im portant m ay be grouped under the following heads :
1. Fuel, yielding heat and power.
2. D estructive D istillation, yielding charcoal, and distillates, as tar, wood alcohol and pyroligneous acid.
3. E xtraction , yielding resinous m atter, turpen
tine, wood pulp.
F u el.— The present generation is tru ly one of con
servation, for men are beginning to estim ate e very
thing from the energic point of view . Coal, for in
stance, is bought to-d ay largely on the basis of the am ount of heat energy it -will produce. W aste wood becomes significant even when considered from the standpoint of heat energy for the am ount of energy wrapped in our forests is incalculable. A n idea of the loss of energy in w aste wood m ay be obtained b y determ ining the am ount of heat energy liberated when wood burns. The heat of com bustion of aver
age fir wood is about 7,800 B ritish therm al units per pound of wood. This heat energy m ay be converted into ergs or into horse power, a more fam iliar term ; or better, it m ay be converted into the equivalent of bitum inous coal. Good coal yields about 13,000 British therm al units per pound of coal. One ton of wood will then be equivalent to six-tenths of a ton of coal. If the total annual waste, above mentioned, be translated into the equivalent of bitum inous coal, it will am ount to the enormous sum of 90,000,- 000 tons.
Destructive D istillation.— D estructive distillation of wood has been- used for centuries. Prim arily, the object was to obtain charcoal, although in some cases distillation of hard wood was carried on for the purpose of obtaining the distillates. D estructive distillation in retorts on a large scale is a d istin ctly modern process and is one of the m ost im portant b y-p roduct industries. The distillation of coal b y the closed retort process yields by-products of greater , value than the coke itself.
A t the tim e these experim ents were begun, the only means of utilizing waste wood of an y kind in th is country, so far as I am aware, was b y destructive dis
tillation. I t was soon found th at the distillation of pine wood was quite a different process from the dis
tillation of hard wood. In the distillation of hard wood, it m akes com paratively little difference how the heat is applied to the retort so long as the tem perature is raised sufficiently high to drive off all the distillates. The distillation of pine wood, on the contrary, is different. T he nature and the yield of tar, and more especially terpenes, were found to be largely dependent upon the m anner of heating the wood.
In order th at definite results m ight be obtained concerning the m anner of heating the wood, experi
ments were made in a sm all retort, so arranged that, the retort could be heated to a red heat in a few minutes. The am ount of turpentine, ta r and acids, was g rea tly reduced b y this rapid heating. A sam-
9 pie of wood containing 30 per cent, of oleoresin, 22
per cent, of which was turpentine, was suddenly heated to a bright red heat, yielded less than half of the total w eight of resin in tar and only a quarter of the total am ount of turpentine. The yield in the same sample of wood was nearly doubled b y slow and cautious heating.
H aving found th at the yield of by-products is largely dependent upon the m anner of heating, experim ents were n ext m ade w ith different shaped retorts, in order that the best and m ost efficient form m ight be deter
mined. T he one which gave best results was so con
structed th at the tem perature of the wood could be gradually raised to the distilling point. This was accomplished b y using a long inclined cordate tube retort, the lower end of which could be heated to a red heat, w hile the upper end could be kep t m od
erately cool. T h e retort was arranged so th at the wood was adm itted a t the upper or cool end, grad ually passing dow nward b y g ra v ity and b y a m echan
ical device until it reached the lower or red hot end of the retort. B y this means, the least possible amounts of both resin and turpentine were decomposed. The retort was also constructed so th at the oleoresin could escape from the retort w ithout being distilled.
To accom plish this, openings were m ade in the cord
ate lobes of the upper end of the retort, in order that the oleoresin when rem oved from the wood, b y “ tr y ing o u t,” m ight pass through these bottom openings instead of passing through the ones in the top of the retort b y vaporization. It was found th a t a portion of oleoresin could be rem oved b y this process with b u t slight indications of decomposition. The amount of tar was increased, its qu ality im proved and nearly all of the turpentine was recovered.
In order to obtain as accurate data as possible, waste pine wood from the forests and mills of the North and W est was subjected to destructive distilla
tion and the distillates as well as the charcoal deter
mined. The following table is a comparison of the results obtained b y distilling the three common species:
N orw ay S o u th ern D ouglas
pine. pine. fir.
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
W eig h t of wood ta k e n ... ... 100 100 100 C h arco al... ... 24 22 24 G aseous p ro d u c ts '... ... 25 26 24 T a r a n d te rp e n e s ... ... 14 14 14
P y roligneous acid, inclu d in g w ater. 37 38 3S
From these results it w ill appear th at the three species of pine are v e ry nearly alike. E ach sample was w hat would be called resinous wood. The sam ples of the northern and western wood were largely taken from the stum ps although some were from the resinous part of the tree. The southern samples were confined to the trunks of several trees brought from the turpentine forests of Florida. The yield of turpentine in each case was som ewhat less than the total am ount existing in the wood or obtained b y either steam distillation or b)' extraction. The loss was found to be due to the decomposition of the oleo
resin b y heat. This was especially noticeable when the distillation took place rapidly. F or instance,
wood containing 5 per cent, of turpentine only yielded 2 per cent, b y rapid distillation.
W hile the retort described g ave v e ry satisfactory results so far as by-products were concerned, the chief difficulty la y in the m arket value of the prod
ucts. T h e tar, w hich has a real value abroad and even in the South, was found to be p ractically worths less in the N orth and W est, despite the determ ined efforts to utilize it in the paint, wood preservation and other industries. Most of the distillation plants of the North and W est a ctu a lly b u m the tar and throw aw ay the pyroligneous acid. A s pine wood yields only a trace of alcohol, the only m arketable products left are the turpentine and charcoal. The latter, however, has little value, hence the whole process of pine wood distillation in the N orth resolves itself into the recovery of the turpentine. A s a con
siderable q u an tity of the turpentine is lost, even b y the most im proved processes of distillation, other methods of utilizing the waste wood seemed absolutely necessary. The above experim ents are of some in
terest, however, because th ey were the first made on the wood of the northern and western species of pine and incidentally show th at the yield of gaseous as well as other products is dependent largely upon the method of distillation.
Realizing, after years of labor in perfecting appara
tus for the econom ical distillation of pine wood, th at some other process than distillation must be found if the waste wood of the North and the W est is to be converted into products of any econom ical value, the whole plan was changed from distillation to e x traction. The reason for the change is evident from a comparison of the products obtained b y the two processes. A s has already been stated, the only real m arketable product obtained b y distillation is tur
pentine. B y the extraction process, p ractically all of the wood is converted into com mercial products, nam ely, resin, turpentine and wood fiber, a n y one of which is worth more a t least in the N orth than all of the distillation products.
A t the tim e this w ork was begun there was little hope of an extraction process which could be used for the recovery of both the resin and the terpenes.
The cost, w ith the losses which necessarily follow a process of this kind, excluded the use of all of the common solvents. The first experim ents made along this line were w ith steam . It was found th at the terpenes could be easily rem oved from the wood b y superheated steam. T h a t definite results m ight be obtained, retorts w ere built so th at steam could be passed through them under pressure. The wood was chipped into small pieces, placed in these retorts and distilled w ith superheated steam. The terpenes were quickly and q u an titatively removed. The difficulty w ith this process was th at the resin still remained in the wood and some method for its recov
ery was necessary before the process could be con
sidered satisfactory. The only solution, therefore, was in the use of the common solvents.
A s the steam process required two separate opera
tions, experim ents w erejm ad e, excluding the steam
