The Webcomic Dimension for Our Millennial Space: Translation Queries in theContext of Contemporary Theoretical Investigation

Faculty of Modern Languages Institute of English Studies

Elżbieta Niewiadoma

The Webcomic Dimension for Our Millennial Space: Translation Queries in the Context of Contemporary Theoretical Investigation

PhD dissertation written under the supervision of dr hab. Barry Keane

Warsaw 2022

Introduction….…………….………..……….1

Chapter One: Webcomics as Online Works: History, Taxonomy and Multimodality……..…...6

1.1. A History of Webcomics: Definitions and Characteristics……….……….6

1.1.1. Overview of Webcomic History……….…….8

1.1.1.a. Part One: Webcomics and the Pre-2000s………..….8

1.1.1.b. Part Two: Webcomics, the Post-2000s and Scott McCloud……….13

1.2. The Taxonomy Of Webcomics. Josip Batinić and Ernesto Ramirez: Enhanced And Non- Enhanced Webcomics and the Taxonomic Division Of Comics Online……….21

1.3. The Print / Digital Binary and Ergodic Literature: Are the Differences That Important?……...32

1.4. Webcomics, Comics Theory and Multimodality……….38

1.4.1. What is Multimodality?………39

1.4.2. Comics and Webcomics as Multimodal Works………41

1.4.3. Multimodality and the Comic Theories of Scott McCloud, Neil Cohn and Thierry Groensteen………45

1.4.3.a. Scott McCloud and Neil Cohn……….………45

1.4.3.b. Thierry Groensteen…...…………….………...….53

1.4.4. Webcomics, Translation and Multimodality: Thierry Groensteen, Scott McCloud, Neil Cohn and Gerard Genette………..……….58

1.4.4.a. Goodbrey's The Ghosts of the Great Mistake (2017-2021): Translation and Theory Application……….60

1.5. Establishing the Imagetext as a Source and Target Point of Translation Reference.……..…....68

Chapter Two: Webcomics and Translation: Current and Past Approaches, Semiotics, Localization, and Functionalist Translation Theory…………………..…...77

2. 1. Comics and Translation: Past and Current Approaches.……………….………………………..79

2.1.1. Past Approaches………79

2.1.2. Current Approaches: Polish and International Academia……….83

2.2. The Contemporary Internet Landscape: Platforms Studies, Media Archeology, Online Translation Models, and their Relevance to Webcomic Translation………….…………….……….93

2.2.1. The Role of the Internet User in Translation: Crowdsourcing and Massive Online Translation (MOT)….………96

2.2.2. Platform Studies and Media Archeology………104

2.2.3. Relevance to Webcomics: Conclusion………107

2.2.3.a. Examples………...110

2.3. Semiotics and the Translation of Comics and Webcomics………115

2.4. Localization………...127

2.4.1. Localization and Comics………130

2.4.2. Localization and Webcomics………..131

2.5. The Functional Approach in Translating Webcomics………....136

2.5.1. Katharina Reiss' Text Types………137

2.5.2. Skopos Theory.……………141

2.5.3. Nord's Synthesis of Functionalist Theory………...149

Chapter Three: Case Studies. Digger (2011) and These Memories Won't Last (2015)………..156

3.1. Introduction: Current State of Online Comic translation………..156

3.2. Case Study 1: Digger (2003-2011)..………..………..…164

3.2.1. Author Introduction..……………………………………164

3.2.2. Analysis of the English-Polish Translation of Vernon's Work: Zamek zadzior (2019).…...167

3.2.3. Digger (2003-2011)- English-Polish Translation Analysis…….………………….175

3.2.3.a. Proper Names……….………….……..180

3.2.3.b. Fantasy Terminology.…………..……….…186

3.2.3.c. Lore.………………...…...193

3.2.3.d. Humor and Tone………...199

3.2.3.e. Onomatopoeia………..221

3.2.3.f. Dialect………..………...….228

3.2.3.g. Concluding Comments………..………..241

3.3. Case Study 2: These Memories Won’t Last (2015)………………242

Conclusion.…………..252

References………....258

List of Tables………….…………...301

List of Figures…………^……….….302

Introduction

The following dissertation is dedicated to exploring aspects of webcomics, a type of comic that has developed online since the early 1980’s, and which has now become a fully established presence not only in the realm of entertainment, but also in the realm of literature. Webcomics have become an extension of the comic medium, and yet represent a fraction of the massive and rapid development of a comic medium supported by the advancement of digital media and the Internet. Indeed, as Charles Hatfield and Bart Beaty (2020), mention in their introduction to Comic Studies: A Guidebook Paperback, it is a challenge to keep up with the comic medium in academia due to the explosive growth of comic studies (p. 1). As they comment: “the vitality of comics studies reflects the fact that comics itself, as a communicative medium and art form, has gained new ground and, indeed, undergone a drastic change in status within our culture” (p. 2). As a result, this thesis presents a section of relevant fields of comic studies that demonstrate just how complex this field of studies is, especially within the digital realm. This is not hyperbole; for instance, as of early 2022, the well-known digital comics platform ComiXology has been replaced with Amazon’s Kindle Comics, impacting the well-known guided reading feature, wherein a reader could view a comic through the support of dynamic transitions. Furthermore, as of January 2021, Flash has become defunct online, effectively impacting a plethora of webcomics. Changes within the realm of print comics are perhaps slower, but still impactful; Hatfield and Beaty (2020) mention for instance the overwhelming influence of Japanese comics (p. 4), while Garfield Benjamin (2018) talks about the influence of Korean webtoons (p. 3).

However, this thesis does not look only at webcomics as a part of comic studies. It also looks at their translation, and by extension, the translation of works that are digital in form and presented online. This involves a fairly wide sphere of topics, including semiotics, the question of multimodality, issues regarding taxonomy, and naturally, translation theory and studies. It is worth noting that comic translation studies is a subfield of translation studies that has seen gradual development over the past years, and is one that is regularly impacted by the dynamic emergence of various comic forms. Early approaches to comic translation studies saw any non-linguistic components as obstacles to be overcome during the translation process (Zanettin 2008a, pp. 19-20;

Zanettin 2011, p. 39; Mayoral et al., 1988, p. 356). It is a somewhat ironic approach, given that one of the earliest comprehensive definitions of comics defines them as “sequential art” (Eisner, 1985, p. 4), with contemporary definitions emphasizing the sequentiality of imagery combined with narration (McCloud, 1993, p. 200; Ramírez, 2010, p. 61) as well as their complexity; tendencies regarding spatiality, pacing, formatting, and word and image blending are mentioned in 21^st century academia (Groensteen, 2007; Goodbrey, 2015). The current approach to comic translation has indeed begun to take into account these complexities in a greater manner, although one-

dimensionality does still occur: “Many studies regarding the translation of comics take their roots on text analysis, which is against the nature of comics whose power of expression arises from the interaction or <interplay> between pictorial and verbal elements” (Öztürk & Tarakçıoğlu, 2020, p.

129).

The goal of this thesis is therefore three-fold: 1) to provide a coherent, expansive academic presentation of webcomics as an important contemporary comic form 2) to address comic translation studies within the backdrop of functional translation studies, contemporary media, semiotics, and the concept of localization in order to frame it within webcomic translation 3) to demonstrate webcomic translation from a practical point of view through case studies. The thesis ventures frequently into the referencing of comic studies and translation studies so as to provide a comprehensive approach and framework for potential webcomic translation, and account for all manner of aspects and context. Notable for this thesis was Sean Kleefeld’s (2020) book on the topic, titled simply Webcomics, as well as Ernesto Ramírez’s (2010) thesis that included important distinctions between digital/online comics and print comics; as well as Josip Batinić’s, Klaus Kaindl’s, Neil Cohn’s, Scott McCloud’s and Daniel Merlin Goodbrey’s scholarly works dedicated to non-print variations of comics. Thus, this thesis is also an effort to present a consolidated academic cross-section of academia pertinent to webcomics and other comics influenced by technological advances in the realms of art and literature.

This dissertation has been divided into three main chapters with appropriate subchapters; the first chapter is descriptive in nature, the second theoretical-practical, while the third presents two case studies which have been developed through the use of a translation blog. This is followed by a conclusion that summarizes the presented content, outlining the potential for future studies in the realm of contemporary comics studies and translation dealing with online digital works.

The first chapter is dedicated to discussing the phenomenon that are webcomics, their characteristics and their place in comic studies. Having appeared in the 1980s when the Internet became commercially available, the form has had a short but rich and varied history. The chapter goes on to describe a possible comic taxonomy; but rather than emphasizing the differences between print and non-print comics, attention is drawn to the differences between types of non-print comics themselves. A basic division is drawn, that is between enhanced and non-enhanced webcomics, which is determined to be useful for academic purposes and translation studies. Further on, the concept of multimodality is discussed, along with the highly important comic theories of Scott McCloud, Neil Cohn and Thierry Groensteen, which have then been applied to select examples of webcomics. Even though the theories have been largely developed for print comics, the thesis strives to show that the differences between print and non-print comics are not as great as has been sometimes exaggerated. Furthermore, existing theories can be applied to comics for translation, academic, literary, and artistic use, especially if the inherent multimodality of comics in

general is understood. The chapter ends with the proposition of using the concept of the imagetext as a point of translation reference, particularly for the purposes of this thesis. Unlike the term source text or target text that is rooted in linguistic translation studies, the concept of a source imagetext and a target imagetext at minimum draws attention to the two primary modes that can be encountered in comics- images and texts. The term itself was originally coined by William J.T.

Mitchell in 1986, who wanted to emphasize how verbal and visual aspects frequently work together as a whole, and not as two separate modes. Although Mitchell did not intend for the term to be used within translation studies, he discussed the term in the context of both media studies and visual culture. The thesis posits that the concept of the imagetext is a useful term that evades the awkwardness of using the general “text” term in translation studies. A side note is made that wordless comics exist, that is comics that rely only on sequential narrative imagery without any linguistic input, but it is posited that these still can be treated as an example of imagetext, as they usually make use of the same conventions that e.g. comics with speech bubbles do.

The second chapter moves fully into the realm of translation. Past and present approaches towards comic translation are addressed, including the importance of Polish academia in presenting contemporary translation approaches for comics that take on a holistic view; not only is the multimodality of comics acknowledged, but also issues connected to globalization and cultural norms. This is followed by addressing the pertinent online environment that webcomics dwell in, and how this impacts possible translation efforts; Ian Bogost’s and Nick Montfort’s platform studies, Jussi Parrika’s media archeology and Minako O’Hagan’s and Miguel Jiménez-Crespo’s online translation models are addressed, and their relevance to webcomics and webcomic translation is discussed along with specific examples. Further on, the field of semiotics is singled out as an important aspect of translating comics and webcomics alike. Roman Jakobson’s and Gideon Toury’s taxonomies and theories, as well as Henrik Gottlieb’s contemporary semiotic translation categorization. These are then practically applied to webcomic translation, which involves not simply linguistic translation, but also the shifting of form, i.e. from digital to print.

Lastly, the chapter draws attention to localization and functionalist translation theories as pertinent to successful webcomic translation. Localization is explained within the GILT (Globalization, Internationalization, Localization, Translation) model, whilst also alluding to understandings of the term as proposed by Miguel Jiménez-Crespo, Jeremy Munday and Michael Cronin’s understanding of the term. This understanding is then connected to the realm of the comic medium, with reference to Frederico Zanettin’s, Keiran Dunne’s, Valerio Rota’s and Sean Kleefeld’s insight into contemporary localization efforts. The role of technological developments and the online environment in localization is mentioned; it is pointed out that webcomics often need to undergo some form of localization when translated, particularly when the translation of user interfaces or websites are involved. Specific attention is also brought to functional translation theory, justified by

the dynamism of webcomics and their highly targeted reader base. A functional translation, particularly that arising from aspects of skopos theory, focuses on producing a translation that satisfies the purpose of the translated work in question. Given webcomics’ highly niche character and targeted reader base, a functional approach allows for significant flexibility in determining appropriate translation strategies- something the subchapter emphasizes on the basis of chosen webcomic examples. Furthermore, Nord’s synthesis of functional theory as well as Reiss’ text-types are mentioned as being helpful to comic and webcomic translation alike. While the term “text- types” alone may be deemed problematic, as it alludes to only written text-based works, it is important to note that Reiss’ text-types are defined by specific functions. These in turn do not have to be limited to monomodal works, which the thesis demonstrates on the basis of chosen webcomic titles. The simple nature of the categorization is also proposed as a sound foundation to understand the functional roles certain webcomics have, which in turn aids translation efforts. Furthermore, Nord’s translation brief is mentioned as a helpful way of establishing translator roles and goals in webcomic translation. The chapter ends with a conclusion of how functionalist translation approaches are applicable to webcomic translation and highly useful; they can be used a stepping stone to dealing with a rapidly developing form that is dependent on technology. The fact that functionalist translation theories were largely developed on the basis of print, text-based media is not an issue; contemporary comic translation scholars, including Kaindl and Zanettin, also allude to functional theories and have adapted them to comic translation successfully.

The final chapter is fully practical, dedicated to two case studies: the translation of Ursula Vernon’s non-enhanced webcomic, Digger (2003-2011), and Stuart Campbell’s These Memories Won't Last (2015). Proceeded by a translation brief, the first case study draws on the previously mentioned theories and approaches; it is also divided into relevant translation sub-categories that are particularly worthy of discussion: proper names, fantasy terminology, lore, humor and tone, onomatopoeia, dialect. Special attention is given to humor; and for this reason, Kaindl’s translation framework for humor in comics is referenced. The case study concludes that when it comes to non- enhanced webcomics, the online environment does not factor into translation in a great manner;

awareness is important, but overall, an approach to non-enhanced webcomics as an extension of the comic medium is enough, along with the application of appropriate functional translation theories and approaches. In contrast, the second case study of an enhanced experimental webcomic, These Memories Won’t Last (2015) by Stuart Campbell, draws attention to the challenges that stem from the online, technologically-dependent environment. The conclusion is such that non-enhanced webcomics have a higher chance of being translated, as opposed to those that are enhanced.

However, this does not mean that such efforts would not be feasible; drawing on specific examples, including the English-Polish translation of Michael Joyce’s electronic literature. The chapter concludes that a successful translation is possible so long as there is an inherent understanding of

the form, combined with appropriate localization efforts that involve the translation, remediation and the adaptation of relevant technological components, such as user interface, software, or programming.

Chapter One: Webcomics as Online Works: History, Taxonomy and Multimodality

1.1. A History of Webcomics: Definitions and Characteristics

As is the case with describing any phenomena or work, one should provide a definition and hopefully place the definition within a certain taxonomy. A historical context and development of webcomics themselves seems to be in order as well. The idea of what a webcomic is has undergone dynamic shifts since its beginnings due to the rapid development of technology as well as Internet culture; consequently, it could be argued that the webcomic definition is directly tied to its brief yet rich history. An article from solely a few years ago would define a webcomic differently than that proposed today. Even now there is an ongoing discussion as to what exactly constitutes a webcomic, especially in contrast with other electronic and print comics. This is further exemplified through the recent musings on how comics online¹ should be categorized in general; since the appearance of the first webcomic in the late 1980’s, multiple variations of online, digital, or/and non-print comics have appeared. Sean Kleefeld (2020) in his book titled aptly Webcomics talks about how much the comic medium has changed due to the radical differences brought about by modern communication and “the relative ubiquity of the Internet” (p. 1). To Kleefeld (2020), a webcomic is distinguished from other comics by two things: authorial intent and the software used to deliver the webcomic in question (pp. 2-4). Authorial intent poses the following question: “did the creator(s) design the webcomic to be seen on the web in the first place?” (p. 2). Intention here is much more important to Kleefeld than the delivery mechanism and publication venue that is used, as a comic that is published online in a supplementary way (i.e. to complete print sales). cannot be seen as a webcomic. Kleefeld (2020) ascribes the second category, which is the software, a negative value: “rather than a specific program being the defining characteristic (. . .) it is the lack of a named application that is more important” (p. 4). It is here that Kleefeld (2020) talks about native viewing (p. 4); webcomics are not tied to certain applications, but can be seen within an Internet browser. This is in contrast to so-called digital comics, which can be viewed online, but can also be downloaded and viewed e.g. in a pdf file, or are using in-browser proprietary software to enable viewing (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 4).

Such “definition uncertainty” manifests practically. When webcomics began to gain more widespread popularity at the very beginning of the 21^st century, there was confusion as how to categorize them, and “digital comics” and “webcomics” categories were used interchangeably when granted awards (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 30). An example is the category change in the recent 2017 Eisner awards nomination. The category for webcomics has been split into two categories, “webcomics”

1 I start with using the umbrella term “comics online” due to the fact of there being a number of comics on the Internet which some claim are not indeed webcomics, but rather digitized comics or comics adapted to function online, but not created to exist there.

and “digital comics” (“Eisner Awards’”, 2017). The change was prompted after the questioning of what exactly falls into the category of digital comics, as well as the inherent qualities of true webcomics (Rosberg, 2016), which eventually prompted the following change. Further traces of such ponderings can be found in Josip Batinić’s (2016) article concerning enhanced webcomics or Ernesto Ramírez’s older but still very relevant division in his doctoral dissertation. Ramírez (2010), who wrote a doctoral dissertation titled The Comic Book in the Age of Digital Reproduction, categorized online comics according to “digitized comics”, “digital comics”, “webcomics”, and

“mobile comics” (pp. 227-230). There are furthermore many sources that are quick to put webcomics into the “electronic literature” or “digital literature” category, bypassing technological matters altogether and talking about webcomics in the context of literature. Those range from simple blog articles which refer to webcomics as “electronic literature” (Wick, 2012) to entire websites and databases such as eliterature.org or The Webcomics List which attempt to organize the proliferating electronic literature created and recorded online, most of them being a certain form of online comics. Marcel Cornis-Pope (2014), who in his book New Literary Hybrids in the Age of Multimedia Expression not only talks at length about digital literature but even subcategorizes it into, webcomics, flash fiction, epoetry, efiction and so on.

The above mentioned sources are just few out of many that address in one way or another the phenomena of writing and creating online. As Cornis-Pope (2014) states, “I recognize within digital literature the fulfillment of a promise made when the web was born. Just as they were in the oral tradition, our stories are told with whatever means possible-for the web that means multimedia.

Many writers recognize this, as do most readers” (p. 316). He goes on to say that writers creating through digital means are engaging in one of the biggest changes in literature (Cornis-Pope, 2014, p. 317). While perhaps an idealistic statement, it does emphasize the growing importance of online creations. In fact, it is becoming indisputable. Many franchises and printed media are completed or enhanced by additional content, which while similar in form to webcomics are not exactly classified as such.² A famous example are Marvel’s Cybercomics, which ran from 1996 to 2000 and were often defined as something of a hybrid between comics and animated cartoons (Wershler, 2011, p.127). An example from more recent years would be motion comics, which could be found on such platforms like ComiXology, or dedicated publisher platforms like Marvel Unlimited. However, these are often not seen as webcomics (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 5; Batinić, 2016, p. 85) or even comics for that matter, as they heavily rely on animation and force a set reading pace that makes the role of the reader much more passive.

It can be soundly deduced that webcomics belong to the realm of online creation. However, as can also be noted, there are many differing opinions as to what other things they can be categorized as. Not only have webcomics been placed in the category of literature, but they have

2 This will be further discussed in this dissertation’s subchapter “Shaping the Definition of Webcomics”.

been connected to video games (Batinić, 2016, p. 88; Kleefeld, 2020, p. 27; Goodbrey, 2020b), as well as art and cinema (Batinić, 2016, p. 87; Smith, 2015). Wershler even postulates that cinema theory is helpful in the discussion concerning digital comics, a term he uses to refer to webcomics (Wershler, 2011, p. 127).³ While the legitimacy of those connections should be discussed, it also stands to raise the question if webcomics should be even compared and contrasted to such genres in the first place. In fact, there even is the problem of defining webcomics as purely belonging to the medium of comics. Josip Batinić (2016) warns of hastily placing webcomics within the comic medium, reminding that the comic medium on its own continues to suffer from an identity crisis (p.

90). In his words, by extension: “appropriating blindly any hybrid form containing comics elements as belonging to the medium of comics (. . .) would only complicate [the issue of defining comics]

further” (Batinić, 2016, p. 90). A deeper look into the history of webcomics will not only help when examining the form, but shed some light on how to approach it in the long run.

1.1.1. Overview of Webcomic History

At the beginning of his chapter on the history of webcomics, Kleefeld (2020) states that “It should go without saying that webcomics would not exist without the Internet” (p. 13). Indeed, this is why webcomics are usually associated with the early 2000s, when the Internet became a more widely accessible commodity. However, it is important to mention that webcomics have been around since the 1980’s. As webcomic author Shaenon Garrity notes, “the earliest webcomics predate the World Wide Web and are almost as old as public online file transfer” (Garrity, 2011). The appearance of webcomics can be traced to around the time commercial Internet Service Providers (known as ISP’s) began to arrive in the 1980’s, which consequently made online activity much more easier and widespread for the public.

1.1.1.a. Part One: Webcomics and the Pre-2000s. Many attribute the creation and distribution of one of the first webcomics to Eric ‘Monster’ Millikin, whose webcomic titled Witches and Stitches appeared in 1985 on Compuserve (Dorchlak, 2011 and Garrity, 2011). It is worth noting here that Compuserve was a service that existed before the time of the World Wide Web, but its goal was very similar to that of the Internet as we know it today: to interact with other users and create content that can be freely shared for all to see. This is most likely why “Witches and Stiches” was published on CompuServe; after all, it was a parody work of the The Wizard of Oz (Garrity, 2011), a copyrighted work, which would have been difficult to publish under any other circumstances. Regardless, it was eventually threatened by lawsuit due to copyright infringement and taken down (nlm140030, 2016). However, it still managed to gain some popularity and a dedicated following worldwide, which made Millikin himself rather well known (“Comic Relief”,

3 While Wershler discusses digital comics largely in the context of distribution, his insights remain valuable when discussing the online environment that webcomics function in.

2011).

Eric Millikin’s webcomic, albeit controversial, was responsible for inspiring other artists to try to upload their own comics as well, despite the limitations of file sharing and digital software (“Comic Relief”, 2011). It is still unsure if Millikin’s webcomic was truly the first,⁴and Kleefeld (2020) also confirms that there seems to be no evidence left aside from standard hearsay (p. 20).

Regardless, it can arguably be called an idealistic prototype of one. One of the reasons for which it was published on CompuServe was to avoid censorship and publisher control (Dorchak, 2011), a reason which still holds true for hundreds of independent webcomic publishers today. What is more, Millikin was one of the first and few artists who managed to make a living as a webcomics artist, publishing and co-creating many webcomics,⁵ including the well-known Fetus-X (1999), as well as being an editor and artist for a comic anthology, Serializer (Bors, 2006). As such, “Witches and Stiches” has become a sort of important, albeit rumored, ‘first’ for webcomics. Titles that have been confirmed as belonging to the earliest webcomics include T.H.E. Fox (1986-1998) by Joe Eatkins created in 1986 using pixel art, and Hans Bjordahl’s Where the Buffalo Roam published on Usenet in 1991, as well as Doctor Fun (1993-2006) by David Farley in 1993. Kleefeld (2020) points out that T.H.E. Fox (1986-1998) was the earliest regular online comic: a single panel cartoon that had to be painstakingly in a low 160 by 200 resolution (p. 19). This was confirmed by Hans Bjordahl, who proclaimed his comic strip to be the first regularly updated online (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 20). Yet while Where the Buffalo Roam (1987-1995) was the first webcomic to be updated, David Farley’s Doctor Fun (1993-2006) was truly the first regular webcomic, at least according to Kleefeld (2020, pp. 4- 5), who describes it as an experiment that evolved from its primary print form- Farley himself stated that the goal was to have fun, and that he could do what he wanted to online (pp. 4-5). Shaenon Garrity (2011) describes webcomics created between 1985 and 1992 as belonging to the “Stone Age” era of webcomics due to the very limited technological possibilities at the time (n.p.), although as will be seen in the following paragraphs, technological developments were quick to come.

In fact, it took only a couple of years for comic creators to branch out technologically and take advantage of the Internet; Garrity (2011) cites a short period of time between 1993 and 1995 as the “Bronze Age” (n.p.), as many short webcomics began appearing all over websites and forums.

Their form was mostly reminiscent of syndicated newspaper comic strips: black and white, containing three panels, and with minimal plot e.g. a running gag or perhaps a short, overarching story. Many were also hand-drawn, and then scanned onto a computer and posted online; in fact, this was how Where the Buffalo Roam (1987-1995) was created (“The WTBR Story”, n.d.). This is not surprising; while the Internet was moving forward substantially, it would still for a long time be

4 Unfortunately many of the primary sources have been lost or are incredibly hard to find, hence the absence of exact dates of publication and circulation of early webcomics.

5 The wikipedia entry under Millikin’s name contains a well-organized and up to date list of Millikin’s past and current work (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Millikin).

limited by bandwidth issues, file sizes and so on. Therefore, it was easier for most creators to stick to the well-known three-panel strip form: it was both simple and familiar, which made it easy to share online. However, even though the form was similar to that of print syndicated strips, what made some of these webcomics stand out was their use of online space. For instance, Doctor Fun (1993-2006) was one of the first to be have its own website, which grabbed the attention of the National Center for Supercomputer Applications (NCSA). The organization credited it as a major breakthrough (“What’s New!”, 1993). Kleefeld (2020) also mentions Mike Wean’s Jax & Co.

(1994-1998) as an important example of using the Javascript scripting language to display the webcomic strip in an unusual manner- one panel at a time (p. 22), which was a significant departure from the syndicated newspaper style of posting entire strips or cartoons online. Shaennon Garrity also brings up Slow Wave (1995) by Jesse Reklaw as an innovative example, as its creator asked readers to describe their dreams to him which served as inspiration for his four panel comic strips (n.p.). This title was most likely one of the few first webcomics along with the later User Friendly (1997-2010) that took full advantage of the instantaneous nature of the Internet, where readers could not only interact with the author but influence his artistic creativity. Titles like these foreshadowed the importance of the online audience, without which webcomics would not be able to function.

All in all, webcomics had a rather impressive start despite technological limitations. This development was key in how later webcomics gradually rose to popularity while keeping up with rapid technological innovations and improvements. As Sarah Dorchak points out in her article about the history of webcomics, “The influx of artistic and creative opportunities gained the upper hand when the Internet got off the ground” (Dorchak, 2011). Along with the improvements to Internet connection and user accessibility, more and more people became interested in using computers and interacting with other users through them. In their introduction to a dedicated issue on digital comics, Daniel Goodbrey and Jayms Nichols (2015) emphasize that “the widespread adoption of computers and the culture-shattering impact of the Internet lead to comics finding a new home within a digital environment” (p. 1). This was an incentive for cartoonists and artists, and nerdy users who wanted to try their hand at making a comic of their own.

It was also around this time that a topic shift began to occur: instead of run-of-the mill humor that could be frequently encountered in print cartoons and comics,⁶ titles that shifted towards niche and technical topic matter began to appear. As Kleefeld (2020) comments, “the web was populated by a combination of academics and technophiles, looking to see what this new medium had to offer” (p. 21). An example of this was Stafford Huyler’s NetBoy (1993-current) that focused on computers and technical topics known to only programmers and computer specialists at the time (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 21). A certain type of webcomic clearly arose: one that was concerned with

6 Farley’s Doctor Fun (1993) was for instance compared to Gary Larson’s syndicated cartoon The Far Side (1979- 1995) (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 21).

video games, computers, the rising technology and above all, subjects that could be labelled as

“geeky”, that is fantasy, table top board games and sci-fi (Garrity, 2011). Other early titles that are example of this are Helen, Sweetheart of the Internet (1996-2005) by Peter Zale about a technically savvy woman working in a technology firm, as well as Kevin & Kell (1995-current) by Bill Holbrook, a furry webcomic that still actively updates today. Kleefeld (2020) notes that such webcomics were crucial in helping “to define the primary tone and style of later webcomics (. . .) many [current webcomics] feature an odd brand of esoteric humor and/or a strong bent toward technology can be linked fairly directly back to the these first comics” (p. 22). Another noteworthy example is Chris Morrison’s Polymer City Chronicles (1995-2007), regarded as the first webcomic concerning video games (Garrity, 2011). Among others, it was followed by Melonpool in 1996, created by Steve Troop. Inspired by science fiction works, it ran for an impressive 9 years. Later on, J.D. Frazer’s User Friendly (1997-2010) was similarly focused on technology and computer jokes.

The title is important in webcomic history for a couple of things: it featured the first “random”

button, which allowed readers to access a random strip, it encouraged audience participation through embedding the FAQ section and encouraging readers to send in their stories, and its author was one of the first that strove to make a living through advertising and merchandising (Kleefeld, 2020, pp. 24-26). It is for this reason that Garrity (2011) dubs the years from 1996 up to circa 2000/2001 the webcomic era of the Singularity (n.p.). The idea of making money off of webcomics appeared, and furthermore, titles started to become more original and individualistic in their nature, and the number of webcomics online began to rapidly grow. The freedom of the Internet coupled with the possibility to practice skills, gain popularity and perhaps make some money was attractive to many creators.

Even though webcomics decisively latched onto the topic of video games, computers, technology and then fantasy, there were a number of original titles that were entertaining, and looked to avail of the online possibilities. Notable here is Charley Parker’s Argon Zark! (1997- 2019) webcomic, which was defined as not only the first long-form webcomic, but also took advantage during its run of new online affordances that appeared, such as animated GIFs, Javascript, on-page navigation, and later on Flash software (Kleefeld, 2020, pp. 22-23). While it belonged to the science fiction genre, it did address topic content that was pertinent to the geek scene: the main character in the webcomic is a hacker who invents a way to upload and download real objects through the Internet (p. 23). Such individual projects like these began appearing more and more thanks to the liberties of the online world. Pete Abrams (2005), creator of the long running webcomic Sluggy Freelance (1997-current) emphasized that: “on the Internet, anybody can put an image up on the Web site and it can theoretically be viewed by everybody with a connection (. . .) with newspaper comics, editors decide who gets noticed. And on the Web, readers decide. If they find a good site or a funny comic, they pass it along to their friends” (qtd. in Walker, 2005).

Abrams knew what he was talking about; at the time of the article, Sluggy Freelance (1997-current) had been running for eight years and continues to run until today. Abrams most likely would not have been able to find a publisher who would host his bizarre serial adventure comic. However, the Internet did not discriminate.

Webcomics such as Sabrina Online (1996-current) by Eric W. Schwartz centered around the life of an anthropomorphized skunk working in a pornography studio, ran for years and gained a strong, dedicated following. It was clear that similarly to the Underground Comix of the 70’s, webcomics took full advantage of the freedom that came with publishing online.In some cases, it was the primary motivating factor to even begin publishing. As M.E. Cohen, creator of online political cartoons belonging to the “Humorink” series states in an interview when asked how his cartoons could be described without the Internet replied: “I wouldn’t [draw webcomics]. If it weren’t for the Internet I would not have the heart to do what I do everyday” (Rall, 2006, n.p.).

The pre-2000s boom of webcomics was in many ways overwhelming, and the number of niche titles is far too great in mention within this chapter. However, it is important to draw particular attention to the video game webcomic boom at the time. Due to the appearance of online gaming and the proliferation of more advanced gaming consoles, as well as PC gaming, gamers

“were an important early audience for webcomics (. . .) they tended to be more tech-savvy than most and were, thus, more prone to going online” (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 26). Gaming webcomics turned out to have some of the greatest impact on webcomic history. Notable titles from around this time include Scott Kurtz’s PvP (1998-current), Brian Clevinger’s 8-Bit Theater (2001-2010), Tim Buckley’s Ctrl+Alt+Del (2002-current), and Jerry Holkins and Mike Krahulik’s Penny Arcade (1998-current). Most of these titles were created in the three panel style (or on occasion, six panel style), and were dedicated to the topic of video games, often including running gags and pop culture parodies mixing with occasional criticism.

Webcomics like these also opened up a new venue for advertising: “rather than simply host somewhat generic banner ads that might promote a company’s game, creators would begin to develop custom comics using their own characters to advertise these games” (Kleefeld, 2020, p.

27). Such comic strips were able to promote a game or a franchise, and were either incorporated into the style of the webcomic, or published as a separate, extra webcomic strip. Penny Arcade (1998-current), PvP (1998-current) and Ctrl+Alt+Del (2002-current) are known to do this, and also offer reviews of current gaming titles.Some of the titles mentioned are still updating, e.g. Penny Arcade (1998-current), PvP (1998-current), and Ctrl+Alt+Del (2002-current). These titles have gained huge popularity, and have developed into a franchise, earning their creators a sizable amount of money. It is here that Penny Arcade (1998-current) needs to be given special attention: Kleefeld (2020) calls it “one of the most recognizable and enviable webcomic success stories to date”, although he does take care to say that such success is not something that can be easily repeated, as

above all, the authors were lucky and had a good business adviser (p. 140). Penny Arcade’s (1998- current) success is continuously referenced in academia (Johnston, 2015, p. 5; Allen, 2007, p. 95) due to how well it takes a free webcomic and uses it to redirect its redears to potential revenue streams. The webcomic continues to be known for its three-panel style comic strip gag, along with its numerous spin-offs in the form of video games, animated shows, merchandising, and annual conventions.⁷

1.1.1.b. Part Two: Webcomics, the Post-2000s and Scott McCloud. Up until the 2000’s, webcomics had a fairly steady formula. Creators mostly stuck with tried and proven forms and topics, ranging from the aforementioned gaming comics to somewhat controversial and sexual content, as exemplified by Sabrina Online (1996-current) by Eric W. Schwartz. Also worth mentioning is John Allison’s Bobbins (1998-2002) which later turned into Scary Go Round (2002- 2016); Paddy Johnston (2015) discusses Allison’s dedication to creating recognizable webcomic characters and cultivating a receptive audience as key to his success and establishment as his identity as a cultural worker, that is someone who makes money from creating culture-oriented products, e.g. literature (pp. 10-12).⁸ This was the case for more and more webcomics at the time, which were published on a regular basis, be it every day or every month, and often were in the shape of either a short three panel comic strip, mimicking newspaper style strips, or the stereotypical comic book page. Some were even hosted on centralized websites: one of the first was Big Panda, a hosting platform launched by Bryan McNett in 1997 which hosted such titles as Sluggy Freelance (1997-current), Superosity (2004-current) by Chris Cosby, and the aforementioned Bobbins (1998-2002). Later on Modern Tales was launched by Joey Manley. The subscription service was active from 2002 to 2012, and hosted webcomics by such prominent creators like Lea Hernandez and even James Kochalka, who published his famous dairy strip webcomic American Elf (1998-2013) through the service (Mazur and Danner, 2014, p. 307). It is also worth mentioning Dorothy Gambrell’s Cat and Girl (1999-current) which was unique in its dry humor, literary allusions and jokes that the author herself said were based on cultural references that while few people would get, would charm with their obscurity and perhaps encourage readers to find out more (Rall, 2006). Chris Onstad’s Achewood (2001-2016) falls under a similar category in how its tone is postmodernist in nature, dealing with the absurd, existential and surreal (Hennum et al., 2015); Experiments which had a perhaps more obviously intellectual or literary nature began to spring up, and with the publishing of Scott McCloud’s Reinventing Comics: How Imagination and Technology Are Revolutionizing an Art Form, webcomics began to take on a whole new form.

Scott McCloud’s opinions and publications have always been met with mixed reception. An

7 Kleefeld (2020, pp. 128-140) provides a detailed and interesting history of Penny Arcade’s (1998-current) unique success story.

8 Johnston (2015) goes into further details both about webcomic creators as cultural workers and Allison’s webcomic oeuvre in his article referenced within this thesis.

artist and a self-declared comic historian, his insight, which while has been criticized as naive or idealistic, has been surprisingly observant and relevant to the rapidly developing Internet. In his book published in 2000, he dedicates about forty pages to the phenomena of webcomics, which he refers to as “digital comics”, and their importance not only in the digital world but also for the genre of comics themselves. While McCloud (2000) concerns himself with the production and delivery of webcomics, he mainly voices concern about how they are created on the Web, and how it would seem that they are not taking advantage of all possibilities, claiming that the majority of webcomics were simply “re-purposed print” (p. 203). In accordance with this line of thought, McCloud (2000) introduces the concept of the infinite canvas and how he envisions webcomics to: “treat the screen as a window, not a page” (p. 222). He expands this definition later on his website, stating that:

The basic premise [of the infinite canvas] is that there’s no reason that long- form comics have to be split into pages when moving online. Pages are an option- and they can work well when screen shapes are taken into account- but the advantages of putting all panels together on a single “canvas” are significant and worth exploiting. (McCloud, 2009)

Furthermore, and in a rather simplistic manner, McCloud (2000) declares the page an artifact of print (p. 222), and hails the opportunities offered by the web as something innovative and revolutionary. While indeed true McCloud’s overly enthusiastic outlook has to be criticized, especially since it seems be put forward by demeaning traditional print comics,⁹ which continue to play an important role in culture and academia today.

Despite McCloud falling into extremes, his book made a big impact and was largely responsible for a big shift in the webcomic industry. Batinić (2016) himself emphasizes that while the concept of the infinite canvas was not the “liberating and empowering mechanism of digital technology” (p. 81) McCloud had initially hoped for, it was a very important concept that influenced webcomic authors in their creation of fresh and original webcomics. Furthermore, some of McCloud’s thoughts hold true nearly twenty years later, especially in how he addresses the issue of immersion. He warns that, for instance, adding partial sound or motion to a webcomic may detract from its comic nature, perhaps becoming a nuisance to the reader or simply not becoming a webcomic at all (McCloud, 2000, p. 210). He even urges to “ask what things webcomics can do in a digital environment, and which of these options are going to prove valuable in the long run”

(McCloud, 2000, p. 207). It is interesting that McCloud mixes quasi-messianic notions about the role of the digital environment within the comic’s medium with poignant and timeless commentary.

However, despite all criticism that can be directed McCloud’s way, it is certain that his insight about the general medium of comics has been very valuable, especially since unlike other scholars, McCloud has taken care to point out the role of the reader. In another highly important

9 For instance McCloud asks comics to “grow up” in an over-eager appeal, implying they must move onto the digital sphere or fade into absolute obscurity (McCloud, 2000, p. 236).

book, Understanding Comics, McCloud (1993) talks about the role of a reader: “Every act committed to paper by the comics artist is aided and abetted by a silent accomplice. An equal partner in crime known as the [sic] reader” (p. 68). Understanding Comics was pivotal in many ways, because it helped draw attention to not just comics themselves, but to also to their readers.

Likewise, along with Reinventing Comics, it helped further push academia out of a rather stale debate which always seemed to plague the comic medium. Charles Hatfield (2005) addresses this at length in his book, Alternative Comics: An Emerging Literature, and points out the many discourse pitfalls that caused a stagnation of genuine academic analysis of comics: “The professional literature reveals two schools of thought about comics reading, both founded on pragmatic concerns: either comics are effective aids to literacy, because they are ‘easy’; or comics are poor aids, perhaps even obstacles, to literacy, because they are ‘easy’” (pp. 35-36). Hatfield takes care to criticize this rather dismissive double stance, as well as other outdated ways of analyzing the comic medium, which often seem to entirely ignore any potential literary value comics have. Even Bart Beaty (2012), a renowned professor and authority on comics and graphic novels, points worryingly towards this tendency in one of his recent books: “In an increasingly postmodern world in which the distinction between high and low culture is often assumed to have been eroded, outmoded biases continue to persist in the shaping of how we understand culture broadly” (p. 7). While Beaty is specifically referring to how comics are perceived within academia in the context of art, his insight shines a light on just how much the entire comics medium, including webcomics, have been ignored in terms of their potential up until recently.

As such, McCloud’s insight may be one of the leading reasons as to why webcomics began to realize their potential in the first decade of the 21^st century, along with the proliferation of advanced online technology: “almost as soon as the web became broadly available, people started looking for new content to publish online: hence, the rise of webcomics is essentially synonymous with the rise of the web” (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 30). As Garrity (2011) neatly sums up, “some webcartoonists were inspired by McCloud’s book; others were just taking advantage of the new digital tools available for artists” (n.p.). McCloud’s efforts can also be seen as an honest, semi- academic attempt to explore the emerging online form along with his all-encompassing term,

“infinite canvas” to talk about webcomics. Regardless of what an author’s motivation was, many creators did not hesitate to start publishing at a greater rate, which caused a boom of webcomic titles which, with time, became renowned as a sort of unofficial canon. For instance, Garrity (2011) mentions the development of the long-form comic and brings up the highly engaging Nowhere Girl (2001-2010) by Justine Shaw. Posted online in 2001, it gained popularity through word-of-mouth, and became a cult classic. Furthermore, it was the first webcomic to be nominated for an Eisner award in 2003, even before webcomics became an official category (Manley, 2003). Interestingly, Justine Shaw mentions that it was precisely the convenience and affordability of the Internet that

led her to publish; in an interview, she states that as an author, she seeks full control, which is something the Internet provided her at a very low cost, compared to the money she would have to spend getting her work published in print form (Ellis, 2004).

The self-publishing nature of the Internet was a great opportunity for creators like Shaw who, for instance, were concerned with the visibility of LGBT youth and wanted to touch upon the matter in their work, but did not want to risk a financial loss or lose time trying to find a publisher interested enough in a fairly taboo topic at the time. Since its publication, Nowhere Girl (2001- 2010) has been lauded for portraying a lesbian character in an engaging and realistic matter, addressing the inner turmoil and hardships of trying to connect with the LGBT community (Shaw, 2010, p. 90). Other noteworthy titles of the near post-2000s are the steampunk infused Girl Genius (2005-current) and Jeph Jacques’ melodramatic and humorous Questionable Content (2003- current). Notable here is that Girl Genius (2005-current) was originally published in print form in 2001 to moderate success, but in 2005 was moved online which greatly contributed to its popularity and allowed the authors to begin making money off their work. It became an iconic long-form webcomic title that earned a fair amount of awards and recognition, along with a religious online following that continues until today (Kleefeld, 2020, pp. 127-128).¹⁰

The aforementioned examples are just a few out of many. They also do not include the webcomics that experimented with the online form in the early 2000’s. These effectively drew on the numerous possibilities online technology could offer, as for instance, the then impactful and innovative Shockwave Flash freeware, which allowed for the easy implementation of interactive software, multimedia and streaming audio and video. Kleefeld (2020) brings up demian5’s When I am King (2001), a wordless webcomic about an Egyptian king that presented its panels horizontally and used rudimentary animation (p. 30). Another highly interesting example comes from Daniel Merlin Goodbrey’s post-apocalyptic webcomic, Sixgun: Tales of an Unfolded Earth (2001) (Danner and Mazur, p. 307). In this unique title, Goodbrey took advantage of the interactive possibilities Flash software offered, and created an unusual navigational interface, which allowed for the reader to read the webcomic in a non-linear way:

The title screen presents six character portraits, each of which acts as an entry point to a different narrative chunk. Each of the six narrative chunks uses a different experimental mechanism for exploring a series of story threads, all of which take place in an “unfolded Earth” where portions of reality have recently disappeared, only to reappear much altered.

(Danner, 2010)

Goodbrey continued to experiment with other titles, often publishing them on his website, E-merl.

Another example of Goodbrey’s work is the eerie but thought provoking The Mr. Nile Experiment, published in 2003. A month long endeavor, The Mr. Nile Experiment (2003), “each day represented

10 The webcomic is one of Kleefeld’s (2020, pp. 115-128) key works.

a new formal experiment hosted by the amusingly evil and meta-fictionally self-aware Mr. Nile [an anagram of ‘Merlin’]” (Danner, 2010). Danner and Mazur rightly point out that work such as Goodbrey’s demonstrated the unique possibilities which webcomics offered in terms of non- linearity (p. 307), a narrative characteristic very typical of post-modern literature. It is then quite interesting that webcomics such as Goodbrey’s not only tried to implement such story-telling techniques, but used them boldly and effectively, creating intellectual and engaging work with ease (Danner, 2010), something that many writers tend to struggle with portraying. Goodbrey’s work has been described as groundbreaking in terms of the use of its narrative mechanics (Danner, 2010), and while perhaps his webcomics have not been met with widespread fame, they effectively showcased the possibilities webcomics could take advantage of.

Indeed, the 2000s ushered in a number of titles that surprised with their ingenuity, experimental approach and use of online affordances. Garrity (2011) cites a notable example, that is Cat Garza’s Cuentos de la Frontera (2002), which implemented Scott McCloud’s concept of the infinite canvas (n.p.). Another similar work of this caliber is David Gaddis’s surreal short webcomic, Piercing (2001), which gained a large readership due to numerous recommendations on message boards (Danner and Mazur, p. 307). In her cursory history of webcomics, Garrity (2011) dubs the post 2000s era as an age of “stunning invention” and the influence of smart phones and apps on readership (n.p.). Sharp, offensive humor featured in quite a few titles, an example of which is Cynide and Happiness (2005-current) by creators Rob DenBleyker, Kris Wilson, Dave McElfatrick and Matt Melvin. Another important title that appeared was MS Paint Adventures (2007-2018) by Andrew Hussie. MS Paint Adventures (2007-2018) was a website hosting a collection of webcomics, out of which Homestuck (2009-2016) became the most popular. This particular series stood out through its use of single, large panels, Flash animation and occasional in- browser games, as well as faux chat logs to further its story. It had an enormous impact on online popular culture, and was in fact dubbed “the Ulysses of the Internet” due to its convoluted but engaging content that totals: “8,000 pages, four hours of animation, and 800,000 words” (Glaser, 2021, pp. 96-97) that attracted a large following. Glaser (2021) describes the webcomic as

“technostalgic” in nature, as well as “a truthful yet funny story about coming of age in an ever more interconnected world” that follows the adventures of a group of young pre-teens (p. 107).¹¹Yet while experimental webcomics proliferated, so did relatively simple titles that belonged to the non- fictional and biographical literary genres.

Perhaps one of the most known non-fiction webcomic authors was James Kochalka, who moved his daily dairy strip, American Elf (1998-2013), online. The move to the Web allowed Kochalka to post strips the day he finished them, contributing to the sense of immediacy which

11 Glaser’s (2021) chapter on Homestuck (2009-2016) is an enlightening and thorough read of how Homestuck (2009- 2016) used current online affordances and the immediacy of Internet communication to create an iconic work that was as much literary as much as it was ludic.

influenced many future webcomic creators. Danner and Mazur (2014) describe the webcomic as a journal comic, which “tend[s] to focus on quickly drawn true-life vignettes, valuing the immediate and the spontaneous over revision or craftsmanship” (p. 306). Indeed, over the fourteen year run of American Elf (1998-2013), Kochalka described and presented many details from his private life over successive four panel strips. Thematically, they ranged from the simple to the complex; in one strip, Kochalka would depict his excitement over buying a new sketchbook, and in the next, he would present his inner thoughts on tragedies. Kochalka’s simplicity in art as well as accessibility was a large cause for his success; American Elf (1998-2013) created the illusion of being privy to the author’s private thoughts and day-to-day life (Danner and Mazur, 2014, p. 306), something that devoted readers eagerly followed. However, Kochalka made sure to be true to the dairy comic genre, even in its own non-linearity and spontaneity, repeatedly emphasizing that it was a highly accurate way to depict life itself: “if life is a network or tangle of threads, or if it consists more of gradual change and repetition than the closed structures of narrative, then other modes of writing might better capture both the experience and the meaning of everyday life” (Cates, 2011, p. 210). In this case, the ‘other’ modes of writing allude to the webcomic, an online form which Kochalka felt accurately represented his work, more so than a daily printed strip in a newspaper. To this day, American Elf (1998-2013) is regarded as a classic within the journal/dairy comic genre and “is an unparalleled record of an individual life in comics, tracking Kochalka’s gradual growth as an artist and as a husband and father” (Cates, 2011, p. 210).

Kochalka, just as Goodbrey, was one of many budding webcomic authors who managed to launch and create outstanding work. Further notable mentions are Gene Luen Yang with his work American Born Chinese (2006), and Raina Telgemeier with her autobiographical work Smile (2010).¹² Both webcomics were mostly published online before moving to print, but were very well received and praised for their style and composition. In particular, American Born Chinese (2006) has been met with high praise from casual readers, reviewers and academic critics alike, mostly for its mature and dedicated portrayal regarding issues of race, identity and ethnicity. As such, it is treated as “a hallmark of young adult literature” (Cadden, 2014). A title also worth mentioning is David M. Willis’ Dumbing of Age (2012-current), which while portrayed fictional characters in college, was also an expression of the author’s own personal experiences and emotions (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 175)

As can be noted with the examples given above, webcomics only truly began to live up to their full potential in the 21^st century. Due to the proliferation of online platforms, webcomics not only range in their appearance and software characteristics, but perhaps most importantly, they greatly vary in their subject matter. Furthermore, due to some of the groundwork webcomics laid out, it has become easier to publish independent works online: “Webcomics as a whole became

12 Smile (2010) was originally a webcomic, before being taken off the Internet and published in print form.

successful enough that industries have grown up around them to better support creators who just want to tell their stories” (Kleefeld, 2020, p. 36). It is perhaps for this reason that many webcomics moved to current social and political issues. An example is the highly praised webcomic by Josh Neufeld, AD.: New Orleans After the Deluge (2007-2008), which describes the tragedy and aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, or Qahera (2013-current) by Deena Mohamed, depicting a female Muslim superhero fighting against misogyny. Rebecca Cohen’s The Adventures of Gyno-Star (2010), is similar in tone, as it is a superhero parody webcomic with strong feminist themes. A current webcomic that takes submitted stories about social issues and publishes them in comic form is Emphatize This (2012) by Tak, Caitlin Jung and Meaghan along with select artists. The topics are of a wide variety, from LGBT issues to albeism, racism, mental illness and bullying. The content particularly focuses on social injustice, and aims to not only invoke empathy, but spread awareness;

Kleefeld (2020) describes the webcomic as invaluable in connecting with specific audiences and having a positive social impact (p. 194).

Another interesting example of a website that hosts webcomics geared toward social issues is Ad Astra Comix, with titles pertaining to the queer community, indigenous peoples and current affairs, such as the current COVID-19 virus and its impact on society. Such a contemporary trend in the subject matter of online comics is one that is not surprising, as Anastasia Salter (2020) discusses in her article on comics’ place in postmodern transmedia; she notes that the combination of imagery and stories impacts contemporary discourse, particularly in the American sphere (par. 2).

Furthermore, due to the rapid stream of information and news, Salter draws attention to the ensuing pace: “comics distribution is instantaneous: thus, comics can be used instantaneously for commentary, critique, and inciting action” (Salter, 2020, par. 5). Webcomics have therefore become a contemporary vehicle to quickly, but not always efficiently, inform online readers about important matters: “much of the discourse of the web takes place in ‘comic’ form and the affordances of web platforms determine how these comics are read / received / transmitted / understood” (Salter, 2020, par. 12). To illustrate this, Salter (2020) brings up examples from Alex Norris who hosts humorous webcomics strips under the joint title Webcomic Name (2016-current), as well as anonymous comic memes found online throughout her article. Dana Crăciun and Mădălin Bunoiu (2019) share the sentiment with Salter that digital and online comics have the ability to instruct in an instantaneous manner, although they connect this characteristic to more educational purposes. They (Crăciun &

Bunoiu, 2019) note that such comics can be of aid in education of such scientific topics as Physics, especially in an age where visual literacy, connected to the spread of the Internet, has become a basic skill (p. 322). Crăciun & Bunoiu (2019) value the potential digital comics have in the realm of science:

We introduce science digital comics as a form of sequential art, but also a narrative / visual communication of the scientific message, relying on the fact that such a method develops

both general competencies of communication, collaboration, problem solving, creativity, critical thinking but also those specific to science and ICT. (Crăciun & Bunoiu, 2019, p.

323)

The authors also give examples of online applications through which teachers, scholars and academics can create digital comics for their own purpose as well as for students (Crăciun &

Bunoiu, 2019, p. 326)

Naturally, social issues and education are not the only subject matter in contemporary webcomics; in fact, much continue to focus on entertainment. An example is Ursula Vernon’s Digger (2003-2011), which is a fantasy piece revolving around an anthropomorphic wombat, or xkcd (2006-current) by Randall Munroe, a humorous webcomic strip depicting stick figures whose subject matter ranges from computer science to popular culture. Both titles have been both met with high praise due to their composition and ingenuity, evidenced by both their popularity and receiving of the Hugo awards laureates. Another well-known title is the aforementioned Penny Arcade (1998- current), which continues to be the archetype of webcomics dedicated to video games- in the current year the website and webcomic itself continues to be published. It also is a near ideal example of how contemporary webcomics, especially those aimed towards entertainment, focus on not just the comic medium aspect, but a variety of others. As Andreas Gregersen (2015) writes in his article:

“[Penny Arcade] is a mix of mass and interpersonal, mediated and un-mediated, multimodal, multi- genre, and multi-site communication patterns, all of which have evolved within a commercialized video game-centered subculture” (p. 23). Here, Gregersen refers to how Penny Arcade (1998- current) extends its influence through the use of other platforms and media, which ranges from creating merchandise, organizing conventions, as well as incorporating related media within the scope of the webcomic, such as podcasts and cartoon animations. This is a pattern that can be observed with other contemporary webcomics, such as Tracy Butler’s Lackadaisy (2006-current) or Minna Sundberg’s Stand Still, Stay Silent (2013-2022), which branch out to similar related media, both of which intermingle fantasy, drama and humor. Many webcomics are also published on social media or dedicated hosting sites, such as the well-known Tapas and Webtoon (although these feature mostly mobile comics). Most popular webcomics fall within the genre of fantasy, romance, and horror, often featuring LGBT themes.¹³It can therefore be seen that variety is at the heart of the webcomics medium, and no matter the art, plot or approach, there is a great chance for unique work to be published and brought to light.

Indeed, the Internet does not discriminate, and with the advanced technology that is at creator’s and writer’s disposal today, amateurs can easily start a project of their own and be sure it will reach a number of people around the globe. Nearly twenty years ago, Justine Shaw mentioned in an interview how outstanding it was that her webcomic could reach such a wide audience from

13 One could refer to the following section on the Tapas or Webtoon websites and browse the ‘most popular’ section.