a. Proper Names

homologous effect to source text” (Nord, 1997a, p. 52). It is often applied to literary texts, and the goal of instrumental homologous translation strives to ascertain a certain status or “degree of originality”

within target culture-specific norms, e.g. a poem is translated into a common TL metre (Nord, 1997a, p.

52). Ergo, in this case study, the translation of Digger (2003-2011) is primarily instrumental and homologous. The translator (the author of this thesis) created a homologous effect, which usually involved changes that placed themselves within Nida’s concept of dynamic equivalence (or Newmark’s communicative translation).

Such an approach is not solely because of the strategic decision to make the text natural, but also due to the niche character of the work; webcomics are independent works that usually aim to appeal small, but dedicated audiences. Therefore, it’s highly unlikely the average Polish recipient would have heard of Ursula Vernon, even though some of her works have been translated into Polish. A degree of adaptation seems to be necessary due to the characteristics present in Digger (2003-2011) that are associated with online comics and the fantasy genre. As Gabilliet (2013) mentions, comics undergo distortion due to their worldwide circulation and multinational reception (pp. 216-222), something that he sees to be expected. The view is not entirely shared by Laura Antola (2019), who says that such a view is not sufficient enough to describe the translation process involved in the adaptation of comics into a new cultural environment (p. 706). Rather, it is a form of communication (Hutcheon, 2006, p. 16; Antola, 2019, pp. 706-707). In the perception of the thesis author, this case study relies more on said communication; one which starts with the nomenclature present in Digger (2003-2011).

3.2.3.a. Proper Names. Proper names are an important indicator of translation strategies and

“involves orthographical or grammatical adaptation of the source language proper name to the rules of the target language” (Rachut, 2017, p. 131). This strategy is frequently applied in Digger (2003-2011), with such proper names as Murai, Surka, Ed, Vo, Samuel, captain Jhalm, aunt Ussome, Shiroshika the Fleet being transposed; the only changes that take place are in order to suit inflection as well as titles, so for instance captain Jhalm is translated as “kapitan Jhalm”, or aunt Ussome as “ciocia Ussome”. A similar strategy has been used with Shiroshika the Fleet, the name of a legendary character described to Digger by an acolyte; the primary name has been transposed, while the adjective “fleet”, meaning

“nimble”, has been translated as “zwinna”, i.e. giving the name “Shiroshika Zwinna”.

One can also notice that transliteration has not been used, e.g. with Vo, which was not changed to e.g. “Wo”. The usage of the letter V already signals the Anglo-centric origin of the word, and current Polish readers possess enough knowledge to not only recognize the letter V, but also know how to pronounce it, especially if they are fans of the fantasy genre. While the example of the name “Vo”

could be argued to be translocation, where the original form of the name remains unchanged in the TL (Rachut, 2017, p. 131), this only occurs in specific instances where grammar case need not be reflected.

In the end, some modification almost always takes place due to the nature of the Polish language.

Guttfeld (2012) points out that this is a common strategy in the translation of proper names in fantasy (pp. 104-106), and one that has advantages associated with foreignization, e.g. maintaining connotations with the source culture; after all, even seemingly neutral sounding names have certain language associations (Guttfeld, 2012, p. 105). On the other hand according to Rachut (2017), transposition involves choosing what semantic aspects to keep, while translocation does not retain any aspects, thus possibly causing a loss of significant associations if the target reader is unfamiliar with the SL or does not look up the name (p. 131).

Indeed, there are notable downsides to simply transposing names- source culture references, plot setting, or humor may simply go over the reader’s head. Guttfeld (2012) points out instances in fantasy literature where humorous proper names were not translated into Polish, such as in Neil Gaiman’s and Terry Pratchett’s Good Omens (1990); she cites that the most probable reason is the translator’s confidence in the strong English fantasy setting as well as the Polish reader’s knowledge of English (p. 106). Despite such strategies sometimes being justified, many descriptive proper names carry meaningful information that often ends up disappearing in Polish translation (Guttfeld, 2012, p.

107). It is for this reason that a number of names have been not only translated but also modified, particularly because Vernon tends to name her characters descriptively, e.g. Grim Eyes, Shadowchild, Cousins Shalesides and Tunnelfast, Skullridges, and of course, Digger. This pertains to not only individual characters but names of groups and clans, such as The Veiled, Quartzclaws, or the

Underhews. Strategies involving modifications or adaptions are common in the translation of proper names: these can be realised through literal translation, transcription, modification and lexical interpretation (Majcher, 2017, pp. 136-141). Majcher, observes these strategie sin the context of children’s literature, but naturally, these are not limited solely to this genre. They are in fact often encountered in comics; Delesse (2008) notes that fidelity is the usual norm, and transference largely occurs when it comes to proper names in comics; however, instances of translation and/or transformation occur in order to “amuse the reader than cling to the original for fidelity’s sake” (p.

255). Delesse (2008) gives an interesting example from Asterix in Corsica (1973/2005) where English translators substituted French clan names that contained word-play with names for Italian pasta (p.

261). While different semantically, the humorous effect was preserved.

Similar strategies can be detected in the following examples taken from the case study.

Transference is preferred-literal translation and lexical interpretation have been implemented with grammar-appropriate modifications:

• Grim Eyes – “Dzikie Oczy”; the name of a warrior hyena. The most commonly associated translation of the word “grim” in Polish is “ponury”, which has its primary connotation with the words “gloomy” or “dreary”. This primary association does not fit with the character at all, which is seen fighting ferociously and bravely. While the word “dziki”, meaning “wild” or

“ferocious” is a distant synonym for the word “grim”, it aptly describes the hyena’s character;

“grim” can also mean “sinister” or “fierce”, which the Polish word “dziki” implies. All hyenas in Digger (2003-2011) have descriptive names, such as Grim Eyes’ companion, Skullridges-which is translated as “Pasmo Czaszek”, also denoting the fierce nature of the warrior hyenas.

Here one can also observe a modification; the noun “skull” (“czaska”) has been adapted into the genitive plural in Polish with the use of the suffix “-ek”, i.e. “czaszek”, while “ridges” have been translated into the singular “pasmo” (meaning a strip or a range). Such a decision was primarily made to avoid an elongated linguistic structure, as well as to adhere to Polish grammar rules. So long as the proper name meets Polish linguistic standards and is faithful to meaning, such modifications are usually justified (Majcher, 2017, p. 140).

• Shadowchild - “Mały Cień”; the name of a shadow-like, demonic supernatural creature. While it can become threatening, it is mostly shy and friendly, and has a childlike curiosity, which is shown through its constant inquiring about e.g. what it is, or what others are. Furthermore, Shadowchild is usually drawn as smaller than Digger herself. Therefore, a translation is beneficial as it aligns with the descriptive name- the reader is immediately informed about the meaning of the proper name. While a possible translation could also be “Dziecko Cienia” or

“Dziecko-Cień”, these translations were deemed too awkward, as well as too menacing. The

“mały” in this case denotes not only the size of Shadowchild, but also its naivety and stature,

• Shalesides and Tunnelfast- “Iłołupki” and “Szybkitunel”. Both characters are only mentioned in passing, as they are Digger’s cousins. Most wombat names are derived from words associated with rocks, minerals, and mining- therefore, a translation is needed, as terminology associated with rocks and minerals is not common in English, let alone in Polish. It is for this reason that the thesis author opted for an adaptation for the name in the Polish translation of the shale rock in the plural- “Iłołupki”. Another possibility considered was “Iłołupkoweboki”, but again, so long of a name is fairly awkward and cumbersome when rendered into Polish, especially if the words are kept together. Another alternative is separating the two words and rendering the name as “Iłołupkowe Boki”, but again the length and awkward structure is of concern, thus the decision to drop the “-sides” suffix.

• The Veiled- “Okryci/Zakryci”; a religious group of acolytes vital to the plot who always wear a veil on the bottom half of their faces. Thus, a translation needs to indicate to the target reader an important feature of the group. Two choices are presented here, as both sound good to the thesis author, although the term “Okryci” has been chosen in the translation case study due to personal preference.

• Quartzclaws and Underhews- “Kwarcpazury” and “Podciosy”; both names refer to historical wombat clans, which e.g. are mentioned as a part of an explanation of a wombat phrasing that Digger utters (Vernon, 2011, p. 23), and in general referred to a few times throughout the webcomic. A literal translation further shapes the lore surrounding the wombat people; while the Quartzclaws have been translated literally, with “quartz” translated as “kwarc” and “claws”

as “pazury”, the Underhews have been translated with modifications. While “under” has been rendered as “pod”, “hew” has been translated as “cios”, meaning a blow or a punch. and then modified with the proper plural suffix, “-y”. The word “hew” refers to chopping or cutting, which differs from the meaning of “cios”, although semantically, it does denote a sudden action involving an attack. While the literal translation of “hew” in Polish would be “rąbać” (to chop;

to hack; to bang someone [vulgar slang]) or “ociosać” (to hew), both options are not optimal;

the first one may carry unwanted sexual connotations, particularly when coupled with the preposition “under”, while the form of “ociosać” is not compatible with the Polish preposition

“pod”, and would e.g. cause pronunciation issues, as well as an awkward, elongated linguistic appearance. Thus, the semantically similar “ciosać” has been chosen.

Another important name that appears throughout the webcomic is Ganesh, the Hindu god. While the

god does not appear in itself, its essence is represented by a speaking statue who is referred to in the Polish case study translation simply by its Polish equivalent- “Ganeśa”. The statue itself is mostly referred to simply as “rzeźba”, meaning “statue”.

There is also the curious mater of the titular Digger herself. While her name could be easily translated into Polish- e.g. as “Kopacz” or “Koparka” if female inflection were used- there is an issue with such a literal translation. “Kopacz” is neutral in meaning, denoting quite literally the word

“digger”, i.e. someone who digs. The term is aslo a known surname in Polish, and could cause unwanted connotations. Furthermore, the term “kopacz” is associated with a worker- even though Digger does in fact dig for a living, her name is also a description of her abilities and her subsequent identity which she often boasts of in the webcomic, i.e. her skills as a miner, builder and climber, and her vast knowledge of tunneling and precious minerals. The word “kopacz” forces a one-sided interpretation of the character, and in fact narrows the meaning down significantly. Similar issues arise with “Koparka”, the biggest one being that Digger’s gender is immediately implied, and that the word

“koparka” in Polish also denotes an excavator.

Furthermore, there is the issue of the title, which bears the titular character’s name. A name change would most likely involve a title change, e.g. “Kopacz”. While such a solution can be considered, another possibility appears with Digger’s full name, which is in fact “Digger-of-Unnecessarily-Convoluted-Tunnels”, something that the reader discovers on the 27^th page of the webcomic, during Digger’s conversation with a lonely hyena named Ed (table 4).

Table 4

English-Polish Digger Translation Example 1a

Example no. English Polish

1a SB (Digger): My name’s Digger.

SB (Digger): Well, “Digger-of Unnecessarily-Convoluted-Tunnels.”

SB (Digger): But you can call me Digger. (Vernon, 2011, p. 27)

SB (Digger): Mam na imię Digger.

SB (Digger): A tak właściwie “Kopacz-Niepotrzebnie-Zawiłych-Tuneli.”

SB (Digger): Ale mów mi Digger.

Thus, an in-translation explanation is already given. Such a strategy avoids the need for footnotes.

Ultimately, Digger is a stout female wombat, not an apparent manual laborer the term associates with in Polish. Following this conclusion, the translation strategy for the webcomic title could be two-fold: the first strategy would to simply transfer the title in the SL, i.e. Digger, while the second one would

present a bilingual option involving transference and domestication, i.e. Digger: Kopacz-Niepotrzebnie-Zawiłych-Tuneli, a strategy occasionally used in transferring English titles into Polish (Nowak, 2017, pp. 153-154). While this translation strategy is perhaps not the most elegant one, it is effective and also expected. When it comes to the translation of proper and geographical names, transference and foreignizing strategies are most commonly used, due to the aforementioned expectations arising from the genre as well as the presumed English knowledge of Polish target readers (Guttfeld, 2012, p. 116). In fact, it would most likely not be surprising to the Polish reader if such a translation strategy were applied to all names.

It is worth mentioning that the main character’s name in Castle Hangnail (2015), Molly, has been transferred, further speaking for the retaining of Digger instead of “Kopacz” in this case study.

This also is a favorable option due to the fact that Digger is referred to throughout the webcomic by numerous nicknames involving her species and trade; the statue refers to her sometimes as “burrower”

(translated as “kopacz”), the hyenas as “earth-rat” (“szczur ziemny”), Ed as Digger-mousie (“myszka Digger”) and Captain Jhalm even calls her a “mover of earth” (“rzuszajaca ziemią”). The transference of Digger as a proper name, with the occasional inflection changes that adhere to Polish grammar, eliminates confusion, particularly with the translation of “burrower”, which appears often in the webcomic. At the same time, the existence of those nicknames further point towards the meaning associated with the name Digger, thus aiding the Polish target reader in an additional capacity.

Consistency is key in the translation of proper names; naturally, the main character is the most recognized character in any given work, and transferring is a simple and effective strategy.

Furthermore, the retaining of their original name in the TL helps eliminate reader and translator confusion, especially in an increasingly globalized environment where transmedia has become common place, and where spin-offs, prequels, sequels, video games, and wiki pages are often additionally produced after success; it is for this reason that Guttfeld (2008) advises such foresight when making decisions, and that adequacy is more preferable as a translation strategy rather than creative domestication (p. 143). As Gutffeld (2012) points out, sometimes a well-explained transference/borrowing benefits the translation of a given work, cementing its internal coherence in lieu of highly elaborate translation solutions that can get lost in long-winded works that are the standard for the fantasy genre (p. 117), examples of which are both Castle Hangnail (2015) and Digger (2003-2011). Indeed, in Zamek zadzior (2019) there were noticeable consistency issues with magical titles, something that the thesis author’s case study actively strives to avoid.

3.2.3.b. Fantasy Terminology. Any work belonging to the fantasy genre will have distinctive