The Historical Background as Factor Favoring the Occurrence of Mercenaries and the Contemporary Role of Mercenarism in the Context of International Law

Paulina Ledwoń

The Historical Background as Factor

Favoring the Occurrence of

Mercenaries and the Contemporary

Role of Mercenarism in the Context

of International Law

Security Dimensions and Socio-Legal Studies nr 9, 100-111

Paulina Ledwoń

The Historical Background as Factor Favoring the Occurrence of

Mercenaries and the Contemporary Role of Mercenarism in the

Context of International Law

Abstract:

T h e a rtic le a n a ly s e s th e p h e n o m e n o n o f m e rc e n a lis m , it fo c u s e s o n th e h is to ric a l b a c k g ro u n d a n d th e o rig in o f m e r c e n a rie s fro m a n c ie n t tim e s , th r o u g h o u t m e d ie v a l p e rio d to m o d e r n tim e s in th e c o n te x t o f u s a g e o f m e rc e n a rie s , th e fo rm s o f m ilita r y c o n flic ts a s w e ll as fa c to rs fa v o rin g th e ir o c c u rre n c e as w a rrio rs . T h e a rtic le d e s c rib e s th e m o s t s ig n ific a n t in te rn a tio n a l le g a l a c ts c o n c e rn in g m e r c e n a rie s a n d e x a m in e th e e le m e n ts o f th e p re s e n t le g a l d e fin itio n o f m e r c e n a ry fo u n d in A d d itio n a l P ro to c o l I to G e n e v a C o n v e n tio n p re s e n tin g w e a k n e s s e s o f th e re g u la tio n a n d p ro v e s th a t in fa c t m e r c e n a ry is a b le to a v o id re s p o n s ib ility fo r h is ille g a l ac tio n s.

Key words:

1. Introduction

W ar, v io le n c e a n d m ilita r y c o n flic ts h a v e a lw a y s b e e n p a r t o f h u ­ m a n life. T h e c o m p le te e lim in a tio n o f w a r is im p o s s ib le , d e s p ite a ll th e e ffo rts o f th e in te rn a tio n a l c o m m u n ity a n d a n ti-w a r m o v e m e n ts , th e re are c o n s ta n tly p la c e s in th e w o rld w h e re m ilita r y c o n flic ts last. T h e o n ly o n e th in g s th a t c h a n g e a re th e fo rm s o f a b o v e m e n tio n e d c o n flic ts, w e a p o n s a n d p e o p le in v o lv e d in th e p ro c e s s.

A s lo n g th e w a rs a c c o m p a n y th e h u m a n b e in g s , s u c h lo n g a rm e d fo rc e s o f m a n y n a tio n s u s e d fo re ig n v o lu n te e rs , w h o w e re m o tiv a te d to fig h t b y m a te ria l re a s o n s , ra th e r th a n fo r a c a u se o r o u t o f le g a l o r m o ra l o b lig a tio n to h is c o u n try , a n d fo r a lo n g tim e m e r c e n a ry w a s d e fin e d as a s o ld ie r w h o fig h ts fo r m o n e y 1.

2. History of mercenaries

O v e r th e y e a r s o f h is to r y m e r c e n a r y w o r k h a s b e e n c o n s id e r e d a s th e s e c o n d o ld e s t p r o f e s s io n in th e w o r ld .2 T h e h is to r y o f th e p h e ­ n o m e n o n o f m e r c e n a r y d a te s b a c k to a n c ie n t tim e s , s p e c ific a lly to a n ­ c ie n t E g y p t w h e n d u r in g th e V I I c e n tu r y B C p h a r a o n s u s e d m e r c e n a rie s in th e i r b a ttle s . P h a r a o n P s a m e ty k I e m p lo y e d G r e e k s o ld ie rs in o rd e r to w e a k e n th e in f lu e n c e o f tr a d itio n a l E g y p tia n w a r r io r s , k n o w n fro m G r e e k a s m a c h im o i. S u c h P o lic y o f th e p h a r a o n c a u s e d d is s a tis f a c tio n a m o n g n a tiv e E g y p tia n s . T h e p r o o f o f th e p re s e n c e o f m e r c e n a r ie s in a n c ie n t E g y p t is th e in s c r ip tio n d a te d b a c k V I c e n tu r y B C , c a r v e d o n th e le f t le g o f th e g ia n t m o n u m e n t o f P h a r a o n R a m s e s II in A b u S im b e lu b y G r e e k s o ld ie rs . T h e B ib le a ls o m e n tio n s a b o u t k in g s D a v id a n d S au l, w h o h a v e b e e n u s in g m e r c e n a ry so ld ie rs d u rin g th e ir w a rs a n d c re a te d p ro f e s s io n a l a rm y o f t h e m 3. G re e k c o n tr a c te d fo re ig n e rs w e re in a n c ie n t tim e s re s p e c te d a n d k n o w n as h ig h ly tr a in e d p ro fe s s io n a ls . A th e n s w e re c o n s id e re d n o t as th e h o m e o f a r t a n d c u ltu re b u t a s th e h o m e o f m e rc e n a rie s . G re e k s p ro u d o f 1 2 3 1 T. Dugdale-Pointon, Mercenaries, http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/concepts_mer- cenaries.html (20.05.2013)

2 R. Uesseler, Wojna jako usługa (Krieg als Dienstleistung: private Militärfirmen zerstö­

ren die Demokratie), Wydawnictwo Sic!, Warszawa 2008, p. 7.

3 J. Rzepka, Najemnicy w świecie śródziemnomorskim, [in:] Starożytne cywilizacje, B. Zagórski (ed.), nr 111, Polskie Media Amer.Com S.A., Poznań - Warszawa 2005, pp. 3-4.

th e ir so ld ie rs p o le i s a d o p te d m a n y r e s o lu tio n in h o n o r o f th e ir so ld ie rs w h o s e r v e d fo r b a rb a r ia n k in g s 4. M e d ie v a l m e rc e n a rie s , a ls o k n o w n as c o n d o tie rre s , h a v e a ls o b e e n u s e d in w a rfa re n u m e r o u s tim e s , th e u s e o f c o n d o tie rre s w a s n o t u n u s u a l u p to a n d th r o u g h o u t th e m e d ie v a l p e rio d , b y F re n c h k in g s a t b o th C re c y (1 3 4 6 ) a n d P o itie rs (1 3 5 6 ).

T h e m o s t s o p h istic a te d a n d p ro fe ssio n a l fo rm o f th e sy s te m o f m e r­ c e n a ry re a c h e d in m e d ie v a l Italy, a n d w a s a n e ffe c t o f a n u n iq u e c o m b in a ­ tio n o f specific m ilita ry a n d so c ia l fa c to rs o n th e Ita lia n p e n in s u la in X IV century. In th e m id d le a g e s Ita ly w a s d iv id e d in to m a n y in d e p e n d e n t cities, sta te s a n d p rin c e d o m s, w h ic h h a v e b e e n c o n sta n tly fig h tin g fo r su p re m a c y o v e r th e Italy. T h e c o n d o tie rri d o m in a te d th e Ita lia n m ilita ry scen e, y e t o n ly sm a ll n u m b e r o f th e ir le a d e rs h a v e b e e n re m e m b e re d till p re s e n t tim es.

D u rin g a b o v e m e n tio n e d p e rio d w e m a y o b s e rv e a g re a t d e v e lo p ­ m e n t o f c ity s ta te s th a t w e re s u p p o rte d b y th e ir a g ric u ltu ra l h in te rla n d , k n o w n a s c o n ta d o s . Ita lia n c itie s c o n s ta n tly h a v e b e e n p a rtic ip a tin g in m ilita r y c o n flic ts w h ic h w e re in itia te d in o rd e r to d e fe n d th e m s e lv e s fro m o th e r s im ila r sta te s a n d o fte n to p u n is h s u b o rd in a te c o n ta d o s . Ita lia n c itie s w e re ric h . I t is e s tim a te d th a t in m id d le a g e s, th e k in g d o m o f N a p le s w a s a s w e a lth y as th e k in g d o m s o f E n g la n d . M a n y fa c to rs c re a te d th e n e c e s s ity o f e m p lo y in g c o n d o tie rre s , th e m o s t im p o rta n t o f th e m w a s th e p ro te c tio n th e w e a lth o f th e c itie s . T h e fre q u e n c y o f o c c u rre n c e o f th e m e rc e n a rie s w a s a ls o te m p tin g fo r lo c a l in d iv id u a ls , w h o u s e d th e m to in c re a s e th e ir in flu e n c e a n d g a in th e p o s itio n o f th e o n ly o n e r u le r o f th e sta te - sig n o ri. T h e m e d ie v a l Italy , as th e w e a lth ie s t a n d a ls o th e m o s t d is u n ite d c o u n tr y in E u ro p e , c re a te d th e p e r f e c t e n v iro n m e n ta l fo r c o n d o ttie re a n d th e c o n s ta n t sta te o f w a r b e tw e e n m a n y s ta te s a llo w e d th e s y s te m to flo u ris h 5.

M e r c e n a rie s a ls o p la y e d c ru c ia l ro le in m e d ie v a l A n g lo -S a x o n E n g la n d , a lth o u g h in th e s e re g io n s th e m e r c e n a ry m ilita r y se rv ic e w a s n o t tr e a te d w ith re s p e c t, as th e w id e s p r e a d id e a ls o f lo rd s h ip a n d lo y a lty to 4 5 4 Ibidem, p. 17.

5 D. Murphy, Condotierre 1300-1500, Infamous medieval mercenaries, Osprey Publi­ shing, Oxford 2007, p. 4-6.

o n e r u le r m ilita te d a g a in s t its r e s p e c ta b ility 6. D u rin g th e X V II a n d X V II c e n tu r y in E u ro p e , n a tio n a l a rm ie s w e re e x tr e m e ly b le d . In X V II c e n tu ry T h irty Y e a rs ’ W ar to o k m a n y liv e s a n d it w a s in e v ita b le to e m p lo y e x te rn a l m ilita r y su p p o rt. A c c o rd in g to th e g re a t B ritis h h is to ria n s p e c ia liz in g in m ilita r y h is to ry o f th e e a rly m o d e r n era, G e o ffre y P a rk e r, “ B e tw e e n 1618 a n d 1640 so m e 4 0 ,0 0 0 S c o ts m e n - p e rh a p s 15% o f th e to ta l a d u lt m a le s in th e k in g d o m - c ro s s e d to E u ro p e to fig h t in th e T h irty Y e a rs ’ W ar.” 7 G re a t n u m b e r s o f n a tio n a l a rm ie s w e re re c r u ite d o u ts id e its co u n try . A b o u t a th ird o f th e r e g im e n ts o f th e F re n c h a rm y w e re re c r u ite d fro m o u ts id e F ra n c e . W h a t is w o rth to m e n tio n , th e la r g e s t sin g le g ro u p w e re th e tw e lv e S w iss r e g im e n ts a n d th e fa m o u s S w iss G u a rd , w h ic h a t p re s e n t is se rv in g a s c e re m o n ia l g u a rd s in V atica n , a n d b e g a n its h is to ry p re c is e ly in 1506 w h e n th e first S w iss s o ld ie r a rr iv e d o n r e q u e s t o f th e P o p e J u liu s II8.

3. Modern mercenaries

A b o v e e x a m p le s sh o w th a t th e p h e n o m e n o n o f m e r c e n a rie s o fte n a p p e a re d in th e h is to ry o f m o d e r n c o u n trie s. A n d w h a t is th e s itu a tio n a n d p o p u la r ity o f m e r c e n a rie s n o w a d a y s ? H e rfrie d M ü n k le r, th e e x c e lle n t G e r­ m a n p o litic a l sc ie n tis t_a n d re s e a rc h e r o f th e p h e n o m e n o n o f w a r trie s to a n s w e r th is q u e s tio n in h is b o o k D ie n e u e n K r ie g e (2 0 0 2 ), in w h ic h h e a n a ly s e s th e m a in tr e n d s o f e v o lu tio n o f m ilita r y c o n flic ts, th e ir h is to ry a n d e v o lu tio n b e g in n in g fro m th e n a tio n a liz a tio n o f w a r to th e p riv a tiz a ­ tio n o f w ar, H e e m p h a s iz e s th a t m o d e r n w a rs e v e n m o re th a n in th e o ld d a y s u s e m e rc e n a rie s . T h e A u th o r ju s tif ie s h is th e s is b y o b s e rv in g th e te n -6 R. Abels, Household Men, Mercenaries and Vikings in Anglo-Saxon England, [in:]

Mercenaries and Paid Man. The mercenary identity in the middle-ages, Proceedings of

a Conference held at University o f Wales, Swansea, 7th - 9th July 2005, Brill, Leiden - Boston 2008, p.161.

7 G. Parker, Europe in crisis, 1598-1648, Wiley-Blackwell, p.17.

8 The official web page of the Swiss Guard: http://www.swissguard.va/index. php?id=258&L=3 (20/05/2013)

d e n c y c o n s titu te d b y th e fa c t th a t th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f w e s te r n c o u n trie s in o rd e r to m in im iz e lo s se s a m o n g th e ir o w n so ld ie rs u s e m e r c e n a rie s as in th e ir o p in io n , d e a th o f th o s e , w h o are n o t b o u n d b y c iv ic d u ty b u t o n ly b y fin a n c ia l c o n tr a c t h a s le s s p o litic a l m e a n in g , fo r e x a m p le o n ly in 2 0 0 2 a c ­ c o rd in g to U .S . s o u rc e s, th e re w e re 1 5 .0 0 0 o f m e r c e n a r i e s in Iraq. T h e A u th o r a ls o n o te s th a t d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s m o re p a y s th e ir a tte n tio n o n e c o n o m ic a sp e c ts o f w ar, s u c h as th e lo c a tio n o f n a tu r a l r e ­ so u rc e s, w h ic h d o e s n o t m e a n th a t id e o lo g ic a l a n d re lig io u s fa c to rs h a s n o in flu e n c e o n c o n flic ts b u t fo r d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s th a t h a v e s ta b iliz e d e th n ic s itu a tio n , th e y a re m u c h le s s s ig n ific a n t9.

F u rth e r fa c to rs in flu e n c in g th e p re v a le n c e o f th e u s a g e o f m e r c e ­ n a rie s a re th e n a tu re o f m o d e r n c o n flic ts a n d th e p h e n o m e n o n o f th e p r iv a ­ tiz a tio n o f w ar, w h ic h is p o s s ib le th a n k to lo w p ric e s o f w e a p o n s a n d th e ir c o m m o n n e s s , th e n e w n a tu re o f w a r v io le n c e - th e re a re n o o p e n b a ttle s , th e o p p o n e n ts d e s tro y e a c h o th e r slo w ly , th e y a re s a v in g th e ir m ilita r y s tre n g th , a c ts o f w a r a n d m ilita r y a c t p e n e tr a te e a c h o th e r, v io le n c e is g a in in g a u to n o m y a n d th e m e a n in g o f m o d e r n m e rc e n a rie s is g ro w in g 10.

4. Legal definition of mercenaries in international law

T o g e th e r w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c iv iliz a tio n a n d th e h u g e n u m b e r o f w a r v ic tim s , w h a t e s p e c ia lly to o k p la c e a fte r th e a la r m in g ly e x p e rie n c e o f th e S e c o n d W o rld W ar b u t a ls o e a rlie r in X I X c e n tu ry , th e n a tio n s d e sire to ta k e le g a l m e a s u re s in o rd e r to re g u la te a c c e p ta b le b e h a v io r s d u rin g th e m ilita r y c o n flic t, w h a t c re a te d th e la w s o f w ar. A f te r th e S e c o n d W o rld W ar ( 1 9 3 9 - 4 5 ) th e v a s t m a jo rity o f c iv iliz e d c o u n trie s d e c id e d to e s ta ­ b lis h th e firm a n d sta b le s ta n d a rd s o f in te rn a tio n a l la w fo r th e h u m a n ita r­ ia n tr e a tm e n t o f w ar. T h e m o s t s ig n ific a n t o f le g a l a c ts re g u la tin g la w s o f w a r is G e n e v a C o n v e n tio n , w h ic h im p le m e n ta tio n w a s in s p ire d b y th e 9 H. Münkler, Wojny naszych czasów (Die neuen Kriege), WAM, Kraków 2004, p. 3. 10 Ibidem, p. 10.

a c tio n s o f U n ite d N a tio n s . T h e p ro b le m o f m e r c e n a rie s w a s first ra is e d d u rin g th e m e e tin g o f U n ite d N a tio n s in 1961. T h e p a rtic ip a n ts o f th e o r­ g a n iz a tio n c a lle d fo r th e w ith d r a w a l o f m e r c e n a rie s fro m C o n g o a fte r v e ry v io le n t in te rn a l fig h ts 11. T h e fig h ts to o k p la c e d u rin g th e K a ta n g e s e s e c e s ­ sio n s. T h e fa m o u s le a d e r o f K a ta n g e s e a irfo rc e w a s J a n Z u m b a c h , P o lis h v e te r a n o f 303 S q u a d ro n , w h o h a v in g v a s t e x p e rie n c e fro m e lite m ilita r y u n it re c r u ite d p ilo ts a n d m e c h a n ic s 12.

In 1968 in th e fa c e o f e x tre m e ly s e rio u s situ a tio n in A fric a , th e U n ite d N a tio n s G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly h a s a d o p te d a se v e re p o s itio n a n d d e ­ c id e d th a t e m p lo y in g m e r c e n a rie s a g a in s t n a tio n a l lib e ra tio n m o v e m e n ts is a c rim in a l a c t13. T h e te r m G e n e v a C o n v e n tio n d e n o te s th e a g re e m e n ts fro m 1949, w h ic h u p d a te s th e p re v io u s th r e e tr e a tie s im p le m e n te d o n

1864, 1906 a n d 1929 a n d a ls o a d d e d a n e w treaty.

To th e a b o v e m e n tio n a c ts w e re a d d e d th re e a d d itio n a l p ro to c o ls. T h e P r o to c o l A d d itio n a l to G e n e v a C o n v e n tio n im p le m e n te d in 1 9 7 7 d e ­ sc rib e s th e m o s t w id e ly a c c e p te d in te rn a tio n a l d e fin itio n o f a m e rc e n a ry , a lth o u g h n o t e n d o rs e d b y so m e c o u n trie s , fo r e x a m p le th e U n ite d S ta te s o f A m e ric a . T h e P r o to c o l A d d itio n a l to th e G e n e v a C o n v e n tio n s o f 12 A u ­

g u s t 1949, a n d r e la tin g to th e P r o te c tio n o f V ictim s o f I n te r n a tio n a l A r m e d C o n flicts, 8 J u n e 1977 states:

’

Art 47. Mercenaries

1. A m e r c e n a ry sh a ll n o t h a v e th e rig h t to b e a c o m b a ta n t o r a p ris o n e r o f w ar. 11

11 Security Council Resolutions 161A of 21 February 1961, and 169 of 24 November 1961, and General Assembly Resolution 1599 (XV) o f 15 April 1961, calling for the withdrawal o f mercenaries from the Congo, See: J. Preux, “Article 4 7 ’, [in:] Commentary

on the Additional Protocols o f 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions o f 12 August 1949,

Y. Sandoz, C. Świniarski, and B. Zimmermann (ed.), ICRC, Geneva 1987, p. 572. 12 R üesseler. Wojna..., p. 8.

13 Resolution 2465 (XXIII) of 20 December 1968, confirmed in particular by Resolutions 2548 (XXIV) of 11 December 1969, 2708 (XXV) o f14 December 1970, 3103 (XXVIII) o f 12 December 1973, 33/24 of 8 December 1978. See A.A. Yusuf, Mercenaries in the

Law o f Armed Conflict, in A. Cassese (ed.), The New Humanitarian Law o f Armed Con­ flicts Giuffre,Naples 1979,pp. 119-121

2. A m e r c e n a ry is a n y p e rs o n w h o :

(a) is e s p e c ia lly re c r u ite d lo c a lly o r a b ro a d in o rd e r to fig h t in a n a rm e d co n flic t;

(b ) d o e s, in fact, ta k e a d ir e c t p a r t in th e h o s tilitie s ;

(c) is m o tiv a te d to ta k e p a r t in th e h o s tilitie s e s s e n tia lly b y th e d e sire fo r p riv a te g a in an d , in fact, is p ro m is e d , b y o r o n b e h a lf o f a P a rty to th e c o n flic t, m a te ria l c o m p e n s a tio n s u b s ta n tia lly in e x c e ss o f th a t p ro m is e d o r p a id to c o m b a ta n ts o f s im ila r ra n k s a n d fu n c tio n s in th e a rm e d fo rc e s o f th a t P a rty ;

(d ) is n e ith e r a n a tio n a l o f a P a rty to th e c o n flic t n o r a re s id e n t o f te r ­ rito ry c o n tro lle d b y a P a rty to th e co n flic t;

(e) is n o t a m e m b e r o f th e a rm e d fo rc e s o f a P a rty to th e c o n flic t; a n d (f) h a s n o t b e e n se n t b y a S tate w h ic h is n o t a P a rty to th e c o n flic t o n o ffic ia l d u ty a s a m e m b e r o f its a rm e d fo r c e s ” 14

A ll th e a b o v e c r ite r ia m u s t b e m e t, a c c o rd in g to th e G e n e v a C o n ­ v e n tio n , fo r a c o m b a ta n t to b e d e s c r ib e d as a m e rc e n a ry . T h e a n a ly s e s o f s u b - p a ra g ra p h (a) “ is e s p e c ia lly re c r u ite d lo c a lly o r a b ro a d in o rd e r to fig h t in a n a rm e d c o n flic t” le a d s to c o n c lu s io n th a t th is c o n d itio n e x c lu d e s in d iv id u a ls , w h o s e s e rv ic e is lo n g - la s tin g o r a p e rm a n e n t (F re n c h F o re ig n L e g io n ) o r is b a s e d o n a n a g re e m e n t c o n c lu d e d b y th e ir n a tio n a l a u th o r i­ tie s (th e S w iss G u a rd ), o n ly v o lu n te e rs sp e c ia lly re c r u ite d to p a rtic ip a te in m ilita r y c o n flic t c a n b e c o n s id e re d a s a m e rc e n a ry .

T h e c o n te n ts o f s u b -p a ra g ra p h (b ) in tro d u c e s a r e q u ire m e n t o f t a ­ k in g a “d ir e c t p a r t in th e h o s tilitie s ” , w h ic h c a u s e d in te rp re ta tiv e d o u b ts . In o rd e r to e x p la in th e fo rm u la tio n o f d ir e c t p a rtic ip a tio n , th e In te rn a tio n a l C o m m itte e o f th e R e d C ro ss p u b lis h e d in 2 0 0 9 In te r p r e tiv e G u id a n c e o n

th e n o tio n o f d ir e c t p a r tic ip a tio n in h o s tilitie s u n d e r IH L , w h e re w a s d e ­

sc rib e d c o n s titu tiv e e le m e n ts o f q u a lify in g a n a c t as d ir e c t p a rtic ip a tio n in h o s tilitie s , „ sp e c ific a c t m u s t m e e t th e fo llo w in g c u m u la tiv e c rite ria :

1. T h e a c t m u s t b e lik e ly to a d v e rs e ly a ff e c t th e m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s 14 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions o f 12 August 1949, and relating to the

Protection ofVictims ofInternational Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977.

o r m ilita r y c a p a c ity o f a p a rty to a n a rm e d c o n flic t or, a lte rn a tiv e ly , to in flic t d e a th , in ju ry , o r d e s tru c tio n o n p e rs o n s o r o b je c ts p ro te c te d a g a in s t d ir e c t a tta c k (th re s h o ld o f h a r m ) , a n d

2. th e re m u s t b e a d ir e c t c a u s a l lin k b e tw e e n th e a c t a n d th e h a rm lik e ly to re s u lt e ith e r fro m th a t act, o r fro m a c o o rd in a te d m ilita r y o p e ra tio n o f w h ic h th a t a c t c o n s titu te s a n in te g ra l p a r t (d ire c t c a u s a tio n ), a n d 3. th e a c t m u s t b e s p e c ific a lly d e s ig n e d to d ir e c tly c a u se th e re q u ire d th r e s h o ld o f h a rm in s u p p o r t o f a p a rty to th e c o n flic t a n d to th e d e ­ tr im e n t o f a n o th e r ) 15.” A s a re s u lt, fo re ig n a d v is e rs , te c h n ic ia n s a n d s im ila r e m p lo y e rs a re e x c lu d e d .

T h e s u b -p a ra g ra p h (c) is c ru cial, it m a k e s th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n v o lu n te e rs a n d p a trio t fig h tin g fo r n o b le id e a l a n d m e rc e n a ry w h o k ills fo r h ig h e s t b id d er, a d d itio n a lly in c o n tra st to o th e r so ld iers, h is re m u n e ra tio n is e x c e ss iv e ly higher. P re s e n t a rtic le a lso is c ritic iz e d as n o t a ll o f th e m e r­ c e n a rie s a re m o tiv a te d b y fin an cial re a so n s, so m e o f th e m are fa n a tic s an d fu n d a m e n ta list, m o re o v e r e x tre m e ly h a rd to p ro v e is th e c o n d itio n sin ce m e r c e n a rie s ’ re m u n e ra tio n are p a id e ith e r in th e ir o w n co u n trie s o r in to b a n k a c c o u n ts in o th e r co u n tries. T h e su b -p a ra g ra p h (d) c a n b e e a sily o m itte d b y c o n firm in g c itiz e n s h ip o f a m e rc e n a ry b y th e p a rty o f th e conflict, th e su b ­ p a ra g ra p h (e) is c o n sid e re d as m e a n in g le ss. In fa c t states w h ic h u s e s m e r c e ­ n a rie s h a v e to in c o rp o ra te so ld ie rs as m e m b e rs th e ir m ilita ry forces.

N e v e rth e le s s , im p le m e n tin g o f p re s e n t p ro v is io n w a s in e v ita b le as a v a s t m a jo rity o f sta te s e n lis te d fo re ig n e rs in to th e ir fo rc e s a n d w ith o u t m a k in g th e s e in to c o rp s. T h e la s t s u b - p a ra g ra p h (f) e x c lu d e s p e rs o n s se n t b y a sta te w h ic h is n o t a p a rty to th e c o n flic t o n o ffic ia l d u ty a s a m e m b e r o f its a rm e d fo rc e s, a s a m e r c e n a ry is a v o lu n te e r it is ille g a l to c la s s ify tr o o p s s e n t b y o th e r c o u n trie s a s m e r c e n a rie s e v e n i f th e y fu lfill o th e r r e ­ q u ire m e n ts o f th e p r o to c o l16. 15 16

15 Melzer N., Interpretive Guidance on the notion o f directparticipation in hostilities

underIHL, ICRC, Geneva 2009, p. 20.

16 Preux J., “Article 47” [in:] Commentary on the Additional Protocols o f 8 June 1977 to

the Geneva Conventions o f 12 August 1949, Y. Sandoz, C. Świniarski, and B. Zimmer­

mann (ed.), ICRC, Geneva 1987, pp. 578-581.

A c c o rd in g to th e T h ird G e n e v a C o n v e n tio n s17, a c ap tu red so ld ier m u s t b e tre a te d as a law fu l c o m b a ta n t and, th erefo re, as a p ro te c te d p e rs o n w ith p riso n er-o f-w ar status u n til facing a c o m p e te n t tribunal, th e trib u n a l m a y d e ­ cid e th a t h e is a m ercenary, th e co n seq u en ce is th a t h e h a s a status o f a n u n ­ law fu l c o m b a ta n t w h ic h m e a n s th a t still h e m u s t b e “tre a te d w ith h u m a n ity and, in case o f trial, shall n o t b e d ep riv e d o f th e rig h ts o f fair a n d re g u la r trial” a cco rd in g to art. 5 o f T h e F o u rth G e n e v a C o n v e n tio n 18, after th e trial w h e n he is fo u n d to b e m e rc e n a ry th e c o n seq u en ce are severe. T h e m e rc e n a ry is tre a te d as a c o m m o n crim in al a n d m a y b e sen ten ced ev en fo r execution.

M e rc e n a ry is d e p riv e d th e status o f p riso n e r o f w ar, as a re s u lt o f th a t h e h a s n o rig h t to b e rep atriated a fte r th e e n d o f w a r as w ell. T h e ex am p le o f a b o v e w a s th e fam o u s tria l th a t to o k p lace in A frica, after the 13 m e n w ere h ire d to fight in th e civ il w a r th a t b ro k e o u t w h e n A n g o la w a s lig h tin g fo r in ­ d ep en d en ce fro m P o rtu g al in late seventies. M ercenary, Jo h n D e re k B ark er as a le a d e r o f m erc e n a rie s in A n g o la le d th e ju d g e s to sen d h im to face th e firing squad. „E rn esto T eixeira d a Silva, o n e o f five ju d g e s p resid in g o v e r th e case, said: » A fric a feels m erc e n a rie s are a d an g er to th e p eo p le, th e ch ild re n a n d to th e secu rity o f th e state. T h e y sp read fear, sh am e a n d h a tre d in A n g o la .« “ 19.

T h e d e fin itio n o f m e r c e n a rie s p ro v id e d in art. 4 7 o f th e a d d itio n a l p ro to c o l, a lth o u g h w a s a n e ffe c t o f c o n s e n s u s a d o p te d b y p le n a r y m e e tin g , is still c ritic iz e d fo r b e in g tim o ro u s , in c o m p le te a n d d o u b tfu l o rie n ta tio n . N e v e rth e le s s it d e fin e s th e p h e n o m e n o n a d d w h a t is e v e n m o r e im p o r­ ta n t, p e n a liz e h is a c tio n . T h e s e c o n d im p o rta n t a c t w h ic h d e fin e s m e r c e ­ n a ry is I n te r n a tio n a l C o n v e n tio n a g a in s t th e R e c r u itm e n t, U se, F in a n c in g

a n d T ra in in g o f M e r c e n a r ie s a d o p te d in 1989 b y th e G e n e ra l A s s e m b ly o f

U n ite d N a tio n s , w h o m o s tly re p e a ts th e p re v io u s d e fin itio n 20.

17 Convention (III) relative to the Treatment o f Prisoners o f War, Geneva, 12 August 1949.

18 Convention (IV) relative to the Protection o f Civilian Persons in Time ofWar, Ge­ neva, 12 August 1949.

19 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/28/newsid_2520000/2520575. stm (20.05.2013)

20 International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training o f

Mercenaries, A/RES/44/34, 4 December 1989, General Assembly UN.

5. Conclusion

A s w a r is a n in te g ra l p a r t o f h u m a n life , m e r c e n a rie s h a v e b e e n e v o lv in g to g e th e r w ith s o c ie ty b e c a u s e m ilita r y c o n flic t sin c e fo re v e r c r e ­ a te s o p p o rtu n ity to g e t r ic h e r a n d in th e o p in io n o f th e A u th o r n o w a d a y s v a s t m a jo rity o f c o n flic ts are m o tiv a te d b y fin a n c ia l re a s o n s. T h e p riv a te m ilita r y c o m p a n ie s o f u n e x p la in e d sta tu s - h e ir s o f c la s s ic a l m e rc e n a rie s a re b e in g c re a te d a ll a ro u n d th e w o rld . A lth o u g h la w s in tro d u c in g se v e re re s p o n s ib ility fo r m e r c e n a rie s h a s b e e n a d o p te d , th e d e m a n d fo r d if fe ­ r e n t p ro f e s s io n a l m ilita r y s e rv ic e is still g ro w in g a n d in th e a tm o s p h e re o f fre e m a r k e t e c o n o m y th e y sp e c ia liz e a n d sta rt to o ff e r w id e s e le c tio n o f s e rv ic e s fro m V .I.P p ro te c tio n to p ro v id e d a irlift, secu rity , lo g istic s, a n d tr a n s p o rta tio n s e rv ic e s, a s w e ll a s h u m a n ita r ia n s u p p o rt, e v e n in v e n ­ tin g th e ir o w n w e a p o n s a n d p la y su b s ta n tia l ro le in m ilita r y c o n flic t as th e

B la c k w a te r in Iraq . M o r e o v e r m o d e r n ju r is p r u d e n c e h a s d iffic u ltie s w ith

q u a lify in g e m p lo y e rs o f p riv a te m ilita r y s e rv ic e s as m e r c e n a ry a n d a s s ig n ­ in g re s p o n sib ility , a s th e c o m p o n e n ts o f th e le g a l d e fin itio n m a y b e e a s ily o m itte d . T h e m o s t fa m o u s o f th e c o m p a n ie s is U .S. B la c k w a te r (a t p r e s ­ e n t A c a d e m i), w h ic h w a s d e s c r ib e d b y J e r e m y S c a h ill - n a tio n a l se c u rity c o rr e s p o n d e n t fo r T he N a tio n m a g a z in e - a s th e w o r ld ’s m o s t p o w e rfu l m e r c e n a ry a rm y 21, a n d m a n y s im ila r o rg a n iz a tio n d o n o t c o m p la in a b o u t th e la c k o f e m p lo y m e n t a n d a re n o t a fr a id o f th e c risis. B u t in th e en d , w h y h a v e th e y to b e a fra id , i f h is to ry p ro v e s th a t e s p e c ia lly in tim e s o f c risis m ilita r y se rv ic e s o f a n y k in d are a b le to e a rn th e m o st.

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