G. S. Dunbar (USA)
G E O G R A PH Y IN TH E BELLW ETH ER U N IV ERSITIES O F TH E U N ITES STATES*
Foreign observers o f the American scene are often struck by the bewildering variety o f institutions o f “higher” learning—institutions that give remedial instruction to illiterates and also offer seminars led by Nobel-prize-winning scientists. Perhaps this cafeteria style o f education should be expected in a large democracy that prides itself on individualism and social responsiveness. In most other countries, education above the secondary level is alm ost entirely the m onopoly o f the state, but in the United States independent (or “private”) institutions have not only survived but wield disproportionate power. American state institutions are supported by a com bination o f federal, state, and private monies, with no single source enjoying predom inance.1 A small num ber o f private universities in the northeastern U nited States, usually designated by the term “Ivy League”,2 began as colleges in the
* P ap er p resen ted a t a sy m posium on “T he R ole an d Im age o f G eo g rap h y in V ario u s C o u n trie s" , sp o n so red by the W o rk in g G ro u p o n the H isto ry o f G e o g rap h ic a l T h o u g h t o f th e In te rn a tio n a l G e o g rap h ic al U n io n , held a t th e U n iv ersity o f G e n ev a (Sw itzerland), 2 2 -2 5 A u g u st 1984
1 In fact, the states a re n o t th e m a jo r sources o f fu n d in g fo r the sta te u n iversities in th is survey. T h e U n iv e rsity o f C a lifo rn ia, L os A ngeles (U C L A ), fo r exam ple, derives less th a n o n e -th ird o f its revenues fro m sta te a p p ro p ria tio n s (32.2% in th e fiscal year 1982-1983). S tu d e n t fees m ad e u p 9.1% o f th e to ta l, the federal g o v ern m en t su p p lied 14.6% , an d a n o th e r 5.1% cam e fro m p riv a te gifts, g ran ts, a n d c o n tra cts. T h e teach in g h o sp ital a cco u n ted for 20.4% o f the receip ts b u t sp en t 8 m illion m o re th a n it earn ed . See U C L A A n n u al R e p o rt, 1982-83: U niv ersity o f C a lifo rn ia, L os A ngeles (L os A n geles: U C L A , P u b lic A ffairs D e p artm en t, A cadem ic P u b lica tio n s, 1984), p. 27.
2 T h e Ivy L eague univ ersities are H a rv a rd , Y ale, P rin c eto n , B ro w n , D a rtm o u th , C o lu m b ia , P en n sy lv an ia, a n d C o rn ell, all co lo n ial c re a tio n s except fo r th e last-n am ed , C o rn ell, w hich was fo u n d ed in 1865. D a rtm o u th is th e only Ivy L eague in stitu tio n th a t is n o t a m em b er o f th e A sso ciatio n o f A m erican U niversities, b ecau se it is p re d o m in a n tly an u n d e rg ra d u a te in stitu tio n . T he term “ Ivy L eag u e” w as first used in fo rm ally in co n n ec tio n w ith in terco lleg iate ath letics b u t has n o w been fo rm alized (as “ Ivy G r o u p ” ) a n d ex ten d ed to co v er academ ic relatio n s a m o n g the c o n stitu e n t universities.
210 G. S. Dunbar
colonial period (i.e., before 1776), and, although they now share leadership with a few private and state universities that originated in the 19th century, they still enjoy enorm ous prestige and power. To an American, “going to college” typically means spending four years to earn a bachelor’s degreee in an unspecialized curriculum either in a small institution that offers no postgraduate instruction or in one o f the undergraduate colleges o f a large university. A lthough some m id -19th-century reformers favored replacement o f the old liberal arts colleges with research universities on the G erm an model, the renovation o f American universities th at occurred mostly between 1870 and 1910 produced instead hybrid constructions that might be described as G erm an research institutes grafted onto English colleges.
Before the American Civil W ar (1861-1865) truly advanced training was scarcely possible in the colleges because o f the lack o f professors who knew how to conduct research, the lack of decent libraries and scientific equipment, and the rigid curriculum consisting o f rather elementary subjects. Renovation began in 1869 when H arvard’s president, Charles Eliot, instituted the elective system, which allowed students “to vote with their feet”— i.e., to select from a much wider range o f courses— a situation that enabled a greater degree of specialization to develop am ong the professors. Seven years later, the first truly m odern university on the G erm an model was established, the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, M aryland. Johns Hopkins, under its geographer-president Daniel Coit Gilman, became a solid success, although it never followed the original idea of creating an entirely postgraduate research institution. A later development, C lark University in Worcester, M assachusetts, founded in 1887, tried steadfastly for several years to avoid undergraduate instruction but found it necessary to compromise in order to survive.
The period from 1870 to 1910 was truly rem arkable in the rate and direction o f change. M ore changes took place in that 40-year span than have occurred in the subsequent 70. The American university today closely resembles its appearance in 1910 but not at all what it was before 1870. Rem arkably few basic changes have occurred since W orld W ar I. It is not surprising that the period o f growth and change in the last third o f the 19th century paralleled, and was certainly aided by, the increased prosperity of that era o f rapid urbanization and industrialization. In this the United States was not unique because one can see very similar trends in European countries.
One of the most significant changes in the pre-W orld-W ar-I generation was the departm entalization o f American universities. The growing num ber o f students, courses, and professors, combined with the increasing professionali zation o f the professoriat, created the need for clusters o f specialists in each discipline and the means to offer research degrees or doctorates in those fields. These clusters, which might consist of two professors or even only one— hardly a “critical m ass”, were called by various names, such as “school”, “institute”, or “seminary”, although “departm ent” was the preferred
designation from the 1890s onward. The German-style Ph.D . was first awarded by Yale University in 1861, and by 1900 approxim ately 350 doctorates were awarded annually by more than a dozen universities.3 In that year the Association o f Am erican Universities was founded in order to provide for com m unication am ong the nascent graduate schools that were giving the m ajority o f doctorates in the U nited States. From 14 charter members in 1900, the membership has grown to 52 in 1982, including two Canadian universities (McGill and Toronto) that were adm itted in 1926. These universities might thus be considered the leading, or “bellwether”, 4 universities o f N orth America, although I am not prepared to argue the relative merits o f m em ber and nonm em ber universities.
This paper is a survey o f the vicissitudes o f the field o f geography in the 50 U.S. m ember universities o f the A A U in the 20th century. The status of an academic discipline depends greatly on its success in the bellwether universities, particularly in the ten or twelve m ost elite members o f the AAU. This may be the most im portant factor in explaining geography’s variable success in the U nited States and the contrast with other parts o f the world.
Although we geographers are fond o f calling our subject the “queen o f sciences” or the mother-science from which so m any of the other disciplines have sprung, in truth the field that we know today was actually formed in the late 19th century during the period o f rapid change that produced all of the m odern university subjects. A lthough no logic can prove that geography is any m ore or any less im portant than other fields, the fact remains that a century o f circumstance has created aii intricate order o f numerical ratios in which geography is relegated to an inferior position vis-a-vis such disciplines as Chem istry and History. G eography in the United States does not have the relative strength that it enjoys in W estern Europe or even in neighboring Canada. In a non-grow th or slow-growth situation such as that in which most universities in the western world have found themselves in the last fifteen years, small fields are forced into a series o f rearguard actions or even fratricidal conflicts. Largesse can hardly be expected from those whom D am e Fortune has seated at the high table.
I have prepared the following summary to show the extent to which the field o f geography has been accom m odated in the fifty U.S. universities that are members o f the Association o f American Universities. A bout half o f the member institutions now give doctorates in geography, and it is possible to earn a Ph.D . in the field in approxim ately twenty non-mem ber universities as well.
The inform ation for this table was gleaned from published sources as
3 T h a t figure is ap p ro x im ate ly 1% o f the n u m b e r o f d o c to ra te s a w ard ed an n u a lly by A m erican u n iversities in the 1970s.
4 A “bellw eth er” is literally a b alled w ether, o r sheep, the lead er o f the flock, an d the w ord is used by e x ten sio n to m ean “ le a d e r” o r “le a d in g ” .
212 G. S. Dunbar
G E O G R A P H Y IN T H E M E M B E R U N IV E R S IT IE S O F T H E A S S O C IA T IO N O F A M E R IC A N U N IV E R S IT IE S
C olum ns:
1. Name and location o f the university
2. Indication o f whether the university is private (P) or state-supported (S) 3. Founding date o f the university
4. Date o f admission into the AAU
5. Has the university ever awarded doctorates in geography?
6. Has the university ever had a department o f geography or a departm ent with the word “ geography” in the title?
B row n U niv ersity
P ro v id en ce, R h o d e Isla n d U n iv ersity o f C a lifo rn ia
B erkeley, C a lifo rn ia U niv ersity o f C a lifo rn ia
Los A ngeles, C a lifo rn ia U niv ersity o f C a lifo rn ia
San D iego, C a lifo rn ia
C a lifo rn ia In stitu te o f T ech n o lo g y P a sa d e n a, C alifo rn ia
C arn eg ie-M ello n U niversity P ittsb u rg h , P en n sy lv an ia C ase W estern R eserve U n iv ersity
C lev elan d , O hio
C ath o lic U n iv e rsity o f A m erica W ash in g to n , D .C .
U niv ersity o f C h icag o C h icag o , Illinois C la rk U niv ersity
W o rcester, M assach u setts U niv ersity o f C o lo ra d o
B o u ld er, C o lo ra d o
C o lu m b ia U niversity N ew Y o rk , N ew Y o rk C o rn ell U niv ersity
Ith aca, N ew Y o rk
D u k e U niv ersity
D u rh a m , N o rth C a ro lin a H a rv a rd U niv ersity
C a m b rid g e , M assach u setts U niv ersity o f Illinois
U rb a n a , Illinois
In d ian a U niv ersity B lo o m in g to n , In d ian a p 1764 1933 N o S 1868 1900 Yes
s
1919 1974 Y ess
19123 1982 N o p 1891 1934 N o p 1900b 1981 N o p 1826c 1969 N o p 1887 1900 N o p 1890 1900 Yes p 1887 1900 Yess
1876 1966 Y es p 1754 1900 Yes p 1865 1900 Yes P 1838 1938 N o P 1636 1900 Y ess
1867 1908 Yess
1820 1909 Y es N o D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1898-D e p a rtm e n t o f G eo g rap h y , 1919-N o N o N o D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1961-1967 (D ept, o f G eology an d G e o g rap h y , 1936-1961) D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1946- 1976 (D ept, o f G eology a n d G e o graphy, 1938-1946) D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1903-G ra d u a te S chool o f 1903-G e o g rap h y , 1921-D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1957— (D ept, o f G e ology an d G e o g rap h y , 1937-1957)D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1919—d
D e p a rtm e n t o f P hysical G e o g rap h y (at first called D ep t, o f D y n am ic G eology a n d Physical G eo g rap h y ) existed as a s u b d e p a rtm en t o f the D e p a rtm e n t o f G eology c. 1895— 1914 N o D e p a rtm e n t o f G eology an d G e o graphy, 1897-1958 D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1945— (D ept, o f G e ology an d G e o g rap h y ,
1934-1945)
D e p a rtm e n t o f G eo g rap h y , 1946- (D ept. o f G eology a n d G e o g rap h y , 1900-1904, 1931-1946)
U niversity o f Iow a Io w a C ity , Iow a Io w a S tate U niv ersity
Ames, Io w a
Jo h n s H o p k in s U niversity B altim o re, M ary lan d
s
1847 1909 Yes D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y ,1946-s
1858 1958 N o N o P 1876 1900 Yes D e p a rtm e n t o f G eo g rap h y , 1943-U niversity o f K an sas L aw rence, K an sas S 1864 1909 YesU niv ersity o f M a ry lan d C ollege P a rk , M ary lan d
S 1856 1969 Yes
M assach u setts I n stitu te o f T ech n o lo g y C am b rid g e, M assach u setts
P 1861 1934 N o
U niv ersity o f M ichigan A n n A rb o r, M ichigan
s
1817 1900 Y es M ichigan S tate U niv ersityE ast L an sin g , M ichigan
s
1855 1964 YesU n iv ersity o f M in n eso ta M in n eap o lis, M in n e so ta
s
1851 1908 Y es U niv ersity o f M issouriC o lu m b ia , M isso u ri
s
1839 1908 N o U niv ersity o f N e b ras k aL incoln, N e b ra s k a •
s
1869 1909 Yes N ew Y o rk U niversity N ew Y o rk , N ew Y o rk p 1831 1950 N oU niv ersity o f N o rth C a ro lin a C h ap el H ill, N o rth C a ro lin a
s
1789 1918 Y es N o rth w e stern U niversityE v an sto n , Illinois
p 1851 1917 Y es
O h io S tate U niversity
s
1870 1916 YesC o lu m b u s, O hio
U niversity o f O regon E ugene, O regon
U niv ersity o f P en n sy lv an ia P h ilad elp h ia, P ennsylvania P en n sy lv an ia S tate U niv ersity
U niversity P a rk , P ennsylvania P S 1876 1740 1855 1969 1900 1958 (Isaiah B ow m an S chool o f G e o graphy, 1948-1953; Isa iah B ow m an D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1953-1969; D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y a n d E n v iro n m e n ta l E n g i neering, 1969—) D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1947- (D e p artm en t o f G eo g rap h y -M e te o - rology, 1963-1984) D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1946-D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1923— 1982 (D ept, o f G eology a n d G e o grap h y , 1915-1923) D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1955— (D ept, o f G eo lo g y a n d G eo g rap h y , 1929-1955) D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1925-N o D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1950-D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1928— (D ept, o f G e o g ra p h y a n d E co n o m ic G eology, 1909-1912; D ep t, o f G eo g rap h y a n d C o n se rv a tio n , 1912-,1918; D e p t, o f G eo lo g y and G e o g ra p h y , 1918-1928) D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y a n d G e o logy, 1914-1920 D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1962— (D ept, o f G eo lo g y a n d G e o g rap h y , 1936-1962) D e p a rtm e n t o f G eo g rap h y , 1945- (D pt. o f G eol. & G eo g ., 1919-1945) (D ept, o f S ocial a n d E co n o m ic G eo g ra p h y , 1922-1924) Y es D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g ra p h y , 1949— (D ept, o f G e o g rap h y , 1910-1913 D ep t, o f G e o l.& G ^o g ., 1913-1932 D e p t, o f G e o g ra p h y , 1932-1947 D ep t, o f G e o g .& G e o l., 1947-1949) Y es D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y a n d In d u stry , 1912-1963 Y es D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y ,
1946-214 G. S. D unbar
U n iv ersity o f P itts b u rg h P itts b u rg h , P en n sy lv an ia P rin c eto n U niv ersity
S P ' 1787 1746 1974 1900 Y es N o D e p a rtm e n t 1983 N o o f G e o g rap h y ,
1943-P rin c eto n , N ew Jersey
P u rd u e U niversity S 1869 1958 N o N o
W est L afay ette, In d ia n a U n iv ersity o f R o ch ester R o ch ester, N ew Y o rk P 1850 1941 N o D e p a rtm e n t o f G eology an d grap h y , 1946-1967 G eo-U n iv ersity o f S o u th e rn C a lifo rn ia L os A ngeles, C a lifo rn ia P 1880 1969 N o D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1936-S ta n fo rd U niversity S ta n fo rd , C a lifo rn ia P 1885 1900 Yes D e p a rtm e n t 1963 o f G e o g rap h y , 1950-Syracuse U niversity Syracuse, N ew Y o rk P 1870 1966 Y es D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1946— (D ept, o f G eology, G eo g rap h y , a n d M in eralo g y , 1931-1946) U n iv ersity o f T exas S 1881 1929 Y es D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y ,
1949-A u stin , T exas
T u la n e U niversity P 1834 1958 N o N o
N ew O rlean s, L o u isian a
V a n d erb ilt U niversity P 1873 1950 N o N o e
N ashville, T ennessee U n iv ersity o f V irginia
C h arlo ttesv ille, V irginia
s
1819 1904 N o D e p a rtm e n t 1970f o f G eo g rap h y , 1946-U n iv ersity o f W ash in g to n S eattle, W ash in g to ns
1861 1950 Yes D e p artm e n t (D ept, o f 1935) o f G e o g rap h y , G eol. & G eog.,1935- 1928-W a sh in g to n U niversity St. L ouis, M issouri p 1853 1923 Yes D e p a rtm e n t 1956 o f G e o g rap h y , 1919-U n iv ersity o f W isconsin M ad iso n , W isconsin
s
1849 1900 Y es D e p a rtm e n t (D ept, o f 1928) o f G e o g rap h y , G eol. & G eog.,1928-
1921-Y ale U niv ersity
N ew H av en , C o n n ecticu t
p 1701 1900 Y es D e p a rtm e n t
1977
o f G e o g rap h y ,
1948-a Scripps Institution o f M 1948-arine Biology w1948-as given to the Regents o f the University o f C1948-aliforni1948-a by the Scripps f1948-amily in 1912. Designated as general campus o f the University in 1959.
k Carnegie Technical School founded 1900; became Carnegie Institute o f Technology in 1912; C IT merged with Mellon Institute in 1967 and adopted present name.
c Western Reserve College established 1826; Western Reserve University and Case Institute o f Technology merged in 1967.
^ Teachers College (founded 1888) was absorbed into the Columbia University system in 1898. G eography was part o f the Departmenl o f Science until 1899, when a separate D epartm ent of Geography emerged.
e In 1979 Vanderbilt merged with George Peabody College for Teachers, which has a Departm ent o f Geography.
^ At the University of Virginia, departments were called schools before 1954, so that the D epartm ent o f Geography was actuall) called the School o f Geography from 1946 to 1954. In 1970 the departments o f geography and geology were merged to form th e nucleui o f a new D epartm ent o f Environmental Sciences.
well as from letters that I received from archivists and geographers in the various institutions in response to my queries. The m ost difficult data to obtain were the dates o f origin (and, in some cases, demise) o f the departments o f geography. One would think that such dates would be a m atter o f record and would be easily obtainable, but such is not the case. One m ight expect such dates to be m ost difficult to track down in the fin-de-siècle period, when departm entalization was just beginning in American universities, but
they proved to be equally hard to find in the recent period. The dates were perhaps m ost difficult to obtain for some o f the older private universities, although their archivists were unusually helpful. In the Ivy League institutions, senior professors often behave like “m andarins”, and departm ental lines are not so carefully observed as they are in state universities. There is also a surprising lack o f docum entation for some o f the departm ents established in state universities in the recent past. For example, it would appear th at the University o f Illinois D epartm ent of Geography broke away from Geology and became a separate departm ent “in a fit of absent-mindedness”, without the necessary approval o f the Academic Senate and the Board o f Trustees.5
A t one time or another, courses in geography were probably offered at every university on this list, although they were usually given by non- -geographers—e.g., physical geography courses offered by geologists or econo mic geography by economists. There are geographers today at many o f the universities that have never had geography departm ents. For example, Brown University has a geographer in its D epartm ent of Sociology, the California Institute of Technology has a geographer in its Division o f H um anities and Social Sciences, the Carnegie-M ellon University has a geographer as Dean o f the School o f U rban and Public Affairs, and Princeton University has a geographer in its W oodrow Wilson School o f Public and International Affairs. G eography has continued in various guises in universities where the departm ent was term inated or merged into a larger entity. A lthough H arvard University removed geography from a departm ental nam e in 1958, geographers could be subsequently found in various niches, most notably in the G raduate School of Design. In the University o f Virginia geography was merged with geology and other subjects to form a new D epartm ent o f Environm ental Sciences in 1970, but three geographers remain, and it is possible to form Ph.D . examining committees with geographers as chairm en or committee members. Stanford University dissolved its D epartm ent o f G eography in 1963, b ut courses in geography were taught in S tanford’s Food Research Institute down to 1978.
Although the numbers are too small to perm it any real analysis, it would appear that certain trends are discernible from the table. M ost o f the geography departm ents in the A A U member universities were founded in one o f the following periods: I, 1898-1914; II, 1919-1928; and III, 1943-1950. These periods coincide roughly with times o f economic prosperity and growth, and the intervening years were those o f wars and depression. Since 1950 no major departm ents have been created, except for the splitting o f combined
5 Je ro m e D . F ellm an n , Geography a t Illinois: The D iscipline and the D epartm ent,
1867-1974 (U rb a n a : U n iv ersity o f Illinois, D e p a rtm e n t o f G e o g rap h y , 1974). J. D . F e llm a n n ’s
71-page m o n o g ra p h is the fullest d e p a rtm e n ta l h isto ry I have seen, a n d it m ig h t well be u se d as a m odel fo r w ritin g such histories.
216 G. S. D unbar
geology-geography departm ents in universities such as Michigan State and C olorado, but the m ost obvious postw ar trend has been rather towards dissolution o f geography departm ents or their submergence in larger entities. The 1950s and 1960s were otherwise years of great expansion o f the American academic establishment. New geography departm ents emerged in the state colleges but not in the older universities. All departm ents saw great growth in num bers o f students and professors. D epartm ents o f geography that consisted o f only two or three professors before W orld W ar II grew steadily after the war and now m ight have fifteen to twenty professors.
One can see from the table that geography was originally often perceived as too weak to stand alone, and so it was often included as the junior partner in a jo in t departm ent, usually with geology. It would appear that the universities o f Oregon and N ebraska prem aturely established departments o f geography, which were later merged with geology and finally reemerged as separate geography departm ents once again. In few universities could geography be considered a “foundation” departm ent—that is, as one o f the first units to be created when departm entalization began. Among the AAU universities, only the University o f California, Los Angeles (UCLA) had a D epartm ent o f G eography from the very beginning o f the University. In fact, the departm ent was a carry-over from the previously existing Los Angeles State N orm al School. When the N orm al School was transform ed into the Southern Branch o f the University o f California in 1919, the former faculty members and departm ents were carried over. In this case, the D epartm ent of Geology grew out o f the D epartm ent o f Geography, instead o f the other way around, as in m any other universities. Incidentally, U C L A ’s belated entry into the AAU in 1974 resulted from the belief that the charter m embership granted to the University o f California in 1900 also covered all the branch universities that subsequently grew out o f the parent organization in Berkeley. As UCLA grew in size and prestige, it was seen th at separate m em bership in the AAU was appropriate. A part from this anomaly, one m ight use the date o f admission into the A A U as a sign o f the “coming of age” o f an American research university. A lthough it would be unseemly of me to suggest it, it would appear th at U C LA had earned AA U membership perhaps a quarter o f a century or more before it was actually granted.
Some Concluding R em arks: This survey o f geography in the bellwether universities o f the U nited States m ight unfairly lead one to the conclusion that geography is in a precarious position. The field is actually doing very well in many o f the AAU member institutions and in a high percentage o f the state colleges and universities across the land. In numerical strength it probably ranks nationally with some sister disciplines such as sociology and anthropology, but these fields do not have the handicap of non- -representation at H arvard and some o f the other elite universities. I offer no solutions to the problem of improving geography’s image or re-establishing its presence in these institutions. My intention is solely to describe the
situation as it has evolved within the American university system over the past century. I hope that I have im parted some understanding o f the variety within the system and the variable success o f the field o f geography.
G E N E R A L B IB L IO G R A P H IC A L N O T E
T h e re is a large lite ra tu re o n th e subject o f h ig h er e d u ca tio n in th e U n ite d States, a n d I c an reco m m en d several o u ts ta n d in g w orks to the in te rested re a d e r: L au re n ce R . Veysey,
The Em ergence o f the A m erican U niversity (C hicago: U n iv ersity o f C h icag o P ress, 1965);
Ju rg e n H erb st, “D iv ersificatio n in A m erican H ig h er E d u c a tio n ” , p p . 196-206 in The T ransform a
tion o f Higher L earning, 1860-1930, ed. by K o n ra d H. Ja ra u s c h (C h icag o : U n iv e rsity o f
C h icag o Press, 1983); J o h n S. B ru b a ch e r a n d W illis R u d y , H igher Education in T ransition:
A H isto ry o f A m erican Colleges and Universities, 1636-1976, 3rd ed. (N ew Y o rk : H a rp e r and
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