The concept of landscape character. Between natural and cultural landscape dimensions

Between natural and cultural landscape dimensions Koncepcja charakteru krajobrazu.

Między przyrodniczym a kulturowym wymiarem krajobrazu

Barbara Bożętka

Uniwersytet Gdański, Katedra Geografii Fizycznej i Kształtowania Środowiska, ul. R. Dmowskiego 16a, 80-264 Gdańsk.

e-mail: geobb@univ.gda.pl

Abstract: Investigating landscape, which is treated as a dynamic unity demands not only modern technologies, but also a broad-based approach. There have been many concepts discovering tangible connections between physical and mental/perceptual dimension of landscape. Landscape character belongs to the most appreciated and simultaneously to the most sophisticated of them. The article briefly presents fundamental features of an idea of landscape character and then concentrates on a method of its assessment, nowadays successfully used in Western Europe. The procedure of Landscape Character Assessment may vary, therefore an author refers to chosen examples, focusing on a scheme applied in the United Kingdom, where LCA apart from being a scientific examination became an important tool influencing environmental policies and landscape planning. Description of this method is followed by remarks on possibilities for its application in Poland and theoretical assumptions concerning relations between: 1. landscape character and 2. landscape classification and typology.

Key words: landscape character, landscape management, landscape assessment, Słowa kluczowe: charakter krajobrazu, zarządzanie krajobrazu, ocena krajobrazu

Landscape character- the definition and the phenomenon

The term ‘landscape character’ appears both in scientific research and in common language. The need to describe landscape induces the researchers to explore landscape character and in consequence, to determine the meaning of the term. The task is not easy to cope with- the reason lies in fluency, relativity and simultaneously in the richness of intrinsic content of the term. In the opinion of the author of a presented article ‘landscape character’ is an unusual, mostly subjective and very important expression.

There are several ways to interpret its meaning; two of them can be accepted as principal. First focuses on description of landscape in categories of a hard system. Second allows landscape to be understood in ‘humanistic’ perspective, including concerns of values and meanings. However, landscape character covers the synthesis of landscape, therefore above mentioned explanations should be integrated. Out of few

existing definitions the one often quoted may be found in instructions to Landscape Character Assessment for England and Scotland issued in 2002. Swanwick (ibidem) defines landscape character as

‘A distinct, recognisable and consistent pattern of elements in the landscape that makes one landscape different from another’ (p. 8),

Whereas landscape characterisation has a wider meaning

‘The process of identifying areas of similar character, classifying and mapping them and describing their character’ (p. 8).

From this standpoint, attention is focused on the pattern of elements. Noteworthy, the definition corresponds with the art of landscaping that constitutes four main elements of landscape character:

form, lines, colour and texture (Root, 1985). Concerning the landscape as a system (Naveh, 2000) and consequently, landscape character as an individual, though possible to be repeated phenomenon, which demands not only quantitative, but also qualitative- structural methods to be analysed (ibidem), a considerable methodological question arises. Is a ‘pattern of elements’ a sufficient articulation of landscape character?

Landscape Character Assessment as a method determining landscape character

Appraisals of landscape character can be conducted in various ways. The project called European Landscape Character Initiative (ELCAI) coordinates 14 national approaches generating different forms of landscape character assessments (in Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, the UK). A method of Landscape Character Assessment (LCA) became one of the most popular tools to identify and describe landscape character. It fulfils a role of an assessment technique and a role of a key reference system for researchers and planners interested in developing landscape profiles and typologies (Wascher et al., 2007). LCA was developed in the United Kingdom and it has been extensively used there during the last 20 years.

A steady increase in works closely connected with this assessment method in Europe has been noted since 1990s (Groom, Wascher, Műcher, 2007). How is ‘landscape’- the subject of an analysis defined?

For the purposes of LCA ‘landscape’ is understood in a way embracing human activities, that is, as a result of co-evolution of humans and nature on a given area.

Landscape Character Assessment is a method, which facilitates systematic analysis, description and classification of landscape. It allows to identifying features or combinations of elements influencing the character of the landscape and afterwards, it proposes directions of management and conservation. As a result, LCA serves as a valuable instrument in planning policies and additionally enables gathering information from and for stakeholders. Their knowledge of landscape touches among others problems of regional identity (Wascher [ed.], 2005).

According to Swanwick (2002), the importance of LCA for planning and sustainable design consists in accompanying assessments of other environmental resources. In England and Scotland it is especially important for initiatives of:

- Quality of Life Capital

- Environmental Impact Assessment - Identification of Landscape Indicators - Natural Heritage Futures (p. 2).

Main principles of the assessment

Generally, LCA focuses on the process of characterisation and it theoretically divides between characterisation and making judgement (Wascher et al., 2007), but in fact LCA cannot avoid making judgements- judgements are passed to form the next stage of the assessment. Moments of objectivity and subjectivity coexist and equally supplement the whole process of assessment. The assessment is performed at different spatial scales (from local to regional and national levels). Each scale involves identification of landscape character types and landscape character areas. Landscape typologies created in connection with LCA procedures has been replacing former, traditional landscape typologies. As far as Landscape Character Assessment is concerned, landscape character, not landscape quality or value is stressed.

Stages of the process

The analysed method gained much popularity and is applied in planning process in numerous countries of Western Europe, but, as it was said in chapter 2, several approaches may be distinguished. Information to be presented in this part of the text is specific for the UK, particularly for Scotland, England and Northern Ireland and comes from a cited before work of Swanwick (2002).

Landscape Character Assessment consists of two main stages (p.9):

1. ‘ Relatively value-free process of characterisation.

2. The subsequent making of judgement based on knowledge of landscape character ‘.

Before undertaking the research, the purpose and the scope of works should be determined (to a certain extent required outputs depend on a sequence and objectives of the conception). This step is connected mostly with a desk study, while field survey supports the process of classification and description (first stage). Information gathered during field survey is registered on a special field record sheet.

Introductory works include map analysis and preparation of map overlays. Map overlays should encompass natural and cultural factors influencing landscape character (tab.1). They are combined to help in the process of identification areas of common character. This work may be done manually or using computerised methods, e.g. GIS.

Tab. 1. Main factors used in analysis and preparation of the map overlays in LCA (source: Swanwick, 2002: 21).

natural factors cultural factors

- geology - landform

- river and drainage systems - soils

- land cover (including semi- natural vegetation)

land use (with farm types) settlement pattern patterns of field enclosure

‘time depth’- the historic dimension of the landscape

Characterisation

Characterisation includes practical steps involved in:

- identifying areas of distinctive character - classifying areas of distinctive character - mapping

- describing the character

This stage results in the identification of:

• Landscape character types.

Landscape character types are defined as ‘distinct types of landscape, relatively homogeneous in character’ (p. 9). These pieces of land are generic in nature and may be spread over many parts of the country, covering similar combinations of geology, topography, vegetation, historical land use and settlement pattern (tab. 2).

Tab. 2. Landscape types terminology (after Swanwick, 2002: 42, selected forms)

geology landform land cover settlement

Limestone Sandstone Chalk ClayGranite Alluvial

Valley Upland Coastal Estuary HillMountain

Woodland Parkland Pasture Arable Farmland Meadow

Industrial Settled Urban Village Urban Fringe Remote

• Landscape character areas.

Landscape character types are defined as ‘single unique, discrete geographical areas of a particular landscape type’ (p. 9). Each area has an individual character and identity, even though it may share the same generic characteristics with other areas.

The appropriate scale of the study is normally 1: 50 000 or 1: 25 000. Sometimes it may be necessary to carry out works on smaller areas (such as a country park or an individual parish) using scales 1: 10 000 or larger.

The final product of characterisation usually consists of a map of landscape types and/or landscape areas together with relatively value- free descriptions of their character and identification of the main characteristics (fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Major stages of conducting Landscape Character Assessment (on the base of Swanwick, 2002)

Landscape character types and areas must be described in a way, which ‘captures the essence of their character’ (ibidem). This usually involves a written description, accompanied by attaching appropriate illustrations. Different types of landscape description are used: 1. an objective, factual description, 2. a subjective, personal description, 3. a balanced description combining objective and subjective elements.

Making judgements

Process of making judgements aims at informing a range of different decisions linked with the sphere of land management and landscape management. The main advantage of LCA is to help in the process of managing change in a particular place or area. Ways of making change are obviously varied and depend mostly on the issue that is being discussed.

The principal considerations contribute to the following spheres:

- natural beauty

- recreational opportunity - amenity values.

Hence the stage of making judgements puts the emphasis on aesthetic and perceptual aspects of landscape. The work is connected with a field survey and it should be recorded in maximally objective way. The group of aesthetic factors comprises: balance and proportion, scale, enclosure, texture, colour, diversity, unity, and a form. Perceptual aspects take into account a sense of wilderness, a sense of security, the quality of light and perceptions of beauty or scenic attractiveness.

The opinion of stakeholders is of a special role not only for aesthetic and perceptual dimensions, but also for the range of knowledge of the landscape they are able to provide. Additionally, stakeholders are often involved in every-day management of the land so that they should participate in the process of assessment. Swanwick (p. 55) underlines the importance of ‘real world’ land uses and land management practices for the state of the landscape.

Attaching status to landscape summarises the process of making judgements. National landscape designations in England and Scotland are based on criteria encompassing considerations exceeding landscape level (see principal considerations above). When regarding natural beauty and landscapes identified as demanding special attention the judgements must use the concept of landscape value. It refers to the value or importance that stakeholders connect with different landscape and also to relevant reasoning. Criteria may apply:

- landscape quality - scenic quality - rarity

- representativeness - conservation interests - wildness

- associations (with places, people, events etc.)

One of the most important feature of the landscape is its changeability resulting from dynamism of a natural and cultural subsystems. Landscapes change as well as their functions. Taking this premise into account, Landscape Character Assessment is used in the process of making decisions about the ability of an area to accommodate change (landscape capacity). Therefore judgements are permanently linked with understanding landscape abilities to change and with a presumption of avoiding considerable impacts on its character.

Applications of Landscape Character Assessment

The importance of Landscape Character Assessment for practical purposes results from its function of a method, which potential consists in possibilities for diagnosis and foreseeing of the landscape state.

Thanks to indicating characteristic and valued areas of the landscape, LCA helps in planning landscape change, focusing especially on processes instigated by human factor, e.g. landscape use. Furthermore, it helps to avoid or lessen negative impacts. LCA serves as a very important tool in planning, management and design of landscapes. Main applications in the UK involve following activities (Swanwick, 2002, p. 3):

1. Planning

- informing development plan policies

- research on development potential and providing an input necessary for new forms of development (e.g. housing, energy plants)

- contributing to landscape capacity studies

- providing information to Environmental Assessment 2. Landscape conservation and management

- serving as a basis for landscape management strategies

- providing rich set of information for special areas, including the range of boundaries and identification of areas

- guiding land use in sustainable ways, including recommendations for using of disturbed areas - taking part in agri- environment schemes

- informing in national environmental programmes (e.g. Biodiversity Action Plans, Natural Heritage Futures).

3. Possibilities of landscape character assessment in Poland

Using Landscape Character Assessment to describe character of Polish landscapes is a challenging work. Planning procedures in Poland seems to be not as advanced as in the UK, especially when the landscape level is considered. Contrary to the situation in the countries of former European Union, the situation in Polish spatial planning is currently critical (see Ocena zrównoważonego rozwoju..., 2002).

Actually, possibilities of regarding landscape seriously in policies and in spatial acts are limited, though European Landscape Convention has been ratified by Poland. Research on landscape protection may be (and not ‘must be’) the part of studies on environmental programmes, which are recommended by Environmental Protection Law (Żarska, 2003). Formal obligations for ‘landscape law’ in fact do not exist and this is an obstacle difficult to overcome. Another problem would be connected with availability of basic documents: thematic maps (particularly those for regional and local levels), local planning statements and maps as they are not comparable according to the scales and a range of information.

From a scientific point of view, the concept of landscape revealed by LCA is very valuable. Close connections of physical and mental spheres of landscape set precedence in the Polish landscape research, so far dominated by deep division between physical landscape (as examined by geographers or ecologists; abundant in works) and cultural landscape (investigated by few cultural geographers, landscape architects and historians). Hopefully, attempts to integrate these two approaches became more clear last years, emerging for instance in the form of a project titled ‘The Polish Landscapes’

planned by the Polish Association of Landscape Ecology (Drużkowski, 2006). A general aim of the project is a complex description of the country’s landscapes that is synthesising natural and cultural features.

This initiative is waiting to be conducted.

Noteworthy, the concept of landscape character has not been highlighted in Poland. It is rather genius of the place (genius loci) or landscape identity - components of landscape character - to be present in varied studies (see works of Bogdanowski, 1994; Bogdanowski, Łuczyńska- Bruzda, Nóvak, 1981; Myczkowski, 1998; Wallis, 1990; Wojciechowski, 1995). Still there is a lack of typology of cultural

landscapes in Poland, against highly advanced typology of natural landscapes (see works of Kondracki, Ostrowski, 1994; Richling, Dąbrowski, 1995; Richling, Solon, 1996).

Conclusions

One of the most noticeable effects of using Landscape Character Assessment in Europe was production of a new landscape typology and a map covering landscape character units LANMAP 2 (both are called

‘pan-Europe’; Groom, Wascher, Műcher, 2007). LANMAP shows landscape units which combine three main layers of information. First involves biophysical landscape characteristics, second land cover and third adds interpretation relevant to cultural factors (ibidem). In consequence, Landscape Character Assessment leads to a new landscape typology. Moreover, reaching a large scale of research it makes possible to describe and compare spatial units throughout Europe in the context of landscape character.

We should admit that landscape typologies covering the scale of the whole continent are rare, especially when human factor is considered. The work of Meeus (1995) makes an exception, presenting description of pan-European landscapes that are being mostly of cultural origin. LCA constituted another way to create landscape typology. Set of landscape units are distinguished on the base of natural (e.g. geology, climate, altitude) and cultural features (e.g. land use, special characteristics). The method can be used universally, but examples of research from different countries demonstrate mixed results (Groom, Wascher, Műcher, 2007). Additionally, some gaps in landscape types are observed. Kizos (2007) shows lack of landscape forms specific for the Mediterranean in a new approach in contrast to their presence in traditional systems of landscape classification and typology.

Landscape Character Assessment evokes principal concerns on the phenomenon of landscape character. The researchers must face the dilemma of quality and quantity in landscape description, but the balance between is difficult to establish, for instance owing to the needs of a map projection. It is easier to map land use than to classify intrinsic meanings of the landscape. Linking such different landscape elements or features as land cover with the genius of the place, while the latter description is almost completely subjective (Trancik, 1986), may settle controversies. However, investigating landscapes and in particular, multifunctional landscapes, which demand transdisciplinarity as a main approach (Tress G., Tress B., Fry, 2004) is connected with a true need to oppose dichotomies.

Streszczenie

Artykuł opisuje koncepcję charakteru krajobrazu. Przedstawia znaczenie terminu ‘charakter krajobrazu’, wskazując na relatywność formuły, ale jednocześnie na jej bogactwo treściowe. Ze względu na dużą rolę utylitarną koncepcji, praca obejmuje zagadnienie Oceny Charakteru Krajobrazu (Landscape Character Assessment). Metoda ta jest szeroko stosowana w działaniach związanych z kształtowaniem i ochroną krajobrazu w wielu krajach Europy. Jednym z efektów jej aplikacji stało się także nowe ujęcie typologii krajobrazów oraz powstanie mapy krajobrazów kontynentu LANMAP. Autor artykułu analizuje założenia teoretyczne metody, opisuje procedurę przeprowadzania Oceny oraz rozważa możliwości jej wykorzystania w Polsce. Podkreśla ponadto trudności towarzyszące integracji ilościowego i jakościowego aspektu badań nad krajobrazem, pojawiające się zawsze przy próbie łączenia w badaniach sfery przyrodniczej i kulturowej.

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