STUDIA Z PRAWA WYZNANIOWEGO Tom 18 – 2015

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STUDIA Z PRAWA WYZNANIOWEGO Tom 18 – 2015

LIONEL OBADIA*

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SHIFTING PARADIGMS, ERRATIC THEORIES, AND VOLATILE REALITIES?

Most scholars in religious studies, cultural studies, and social scienc- es, consciously and regularly promote the idea that the new shape of VRFLHWLHVFXOWXUHVDQGUHOLJLRQVLVWKDWRIDZRUOG³LQPRWLRQ´%XWLVLW

really so? It is obvious that our world, at whichever scale it is observed, LVPDGHRIH[WHQVLYHFLUFXLWVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQDOQHWZRUNVWKHUDSLGGLIIX- VLRQRILPDJHVDQGLGHDVWKHQXPHURXVKXPDQÀRZVPLJUDQWVWRXULVWV

workers, …) beyond the limits of borders, the displacement and reloca- tion of production sites as seen in global economies, the reshaping of geopolitics and international relations, the emergence of a class of cosmopolitan travelers, and the foundation of supranational institutions IRUKHDOWKDQGWUDGHPRVWYLVLEO\DQGVLJQL¿FDQWO\LOOXVWUDWHWKHJOREDO

forces applied onto the contemporary world

.

PhD, professor in anthropology at the University of Lyon 2, France, fellow of the Institute of Advanced Studies of Strasbourg, France, 10 rue Monsieur le Prince, 75006 Paris, HPDLO/LRQHO2EDGLD#XQLYO\RQIU

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of Advanced Studies of Strasbourg (USIAS).

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Malcolm Waters, *OREDOL]DWLRQ QG HGLWLRQ /RQGRQ 5RXWOHGJH $QG 3HWHU

%H\HU ³7KH 5HOLJLRXV 6\VWHP RI *OREDO 6RFLHW\ D 6RFLRORJLFDO /RRN DW &RQWHPSRUDU\

5HOLJLRQDQG5HOLJLRQV´Numen

2WKHUVLJQL¿FDQWHPSLULFDOGDWDGHPRQVWUDWHWKHVDPHGLDJQRVLVIRU

UHOLJLRXVWUDGLWLRQVLQWKHFRQWH[WRIJOREDOL]DWLRQFLUFXODWLRQGHORFDO- ization and relocation are processes experienced by religions every day.

Buddhist ideas and techniques have been massively adopted in the West

± D :HVWHUQ WDNH RQ (DVWHUQ EHOLHIV ,VODP LV WXUQLQJ PRUH ³$VLDQ´

its demographic weight is nowadays mostly concentrated in Indone- VLD ± DOWKRXJK$IULFDQ DQG 0LGGOH(DVW FRXQWULHV UHPDLQ DVVRFLDWHG

with Islam in the Western imagination and beyond. Christian beliefs DQGSUDFWLFHVDUHDOVRVKLIWLQJORFDWLRQ&KULVWLDQLW\LVEHFRPLQJPRUH

³$IULFDQ´ DQG ³6RXWK $PHULFDQ´ DQG LV FRQVHTXHQWO\ UHVKDSHG E\

³QRQ:KLWH´DQGQRQ:HVWHUQFXOWXUHV6KRXOGDOVREHPHQWLRQHGWKH

FLUFXODWLRQRQDJOREDOVFDOHRI³PDJLFDO´WHFKQLTXHVLQIXVLQJWKH¿HOGV

of visual and textual cultures (cinema, literature), of therapy (medical and alternative practices), and of art (general aesthetics).

0DQ\RWKHUH[DPSOHVFDQDOVREHSUHVHQWHGDVVLJQL¿FDQWFDVHVRI

UHOLJLRQV³LQPRWLRQ´LQWKH

and 21

centuries, i.e. at the heart of PRGHUQ WLPHV DQG JOREDOL]DWLRQ SURFHVVHV ³ORFDO´ HWKQLF FXOWV VXFK

as South-American Santo Daime, Santeria or Candomblé, are moving to Europe; Asian and North-American shamanistic traditions are being H[SRUWHG ZRUOGZLGH DV ZHOOEHLQJ WHFKQLTXHV RU DV ³PDQDJHPHQW´

methods in corporate settings; ancient cults, such as Druidism, are being reinvented and reaching an international audience in Great-Britain;

Modern Satanism is spreading to Western countries (North-America and Europe), and gaining more followers beyond the boundaries of

&KULVWLDQJURXQGV$QG¿QDOO\DQHZJHRJUDSK\DUWLFXODWLQJUHOLJLRQ

and atheism is being drawn by the parallel expansion of missionary groups (whether Buddhist, Christian or Muslim), and non-religious atheist, agnostic or freethinking doctrines, growing concurrently both in terms of demography and visibility

.

As it turns out, all these empirical observations are, more or less directly, related to the issue of territoriality. In the context of “hyper- PRGHUQ WLPHV´ LQGLYLGXDOV DQG JURXSV DUH VXSSRVHG WR EH LPSDFWHG

3

Phil Zuckerman (Ed.), $WKHLVPDQG6HFXODULW\9RO,VVXHV&RQFHSWVDQG'H¿QLWLRQV

6DQWD%DUEDUD'HQYHU2[IRUG3UDHJHU$%&&OLRDQG9RO*OREDO([SUHVVLRQV

(Santa-Barbara, Denver, Oxford, Praeger/ABC-Clio, 2010).

45

FLOATING TERRITORIES OF RELIGION(S)

E\³JOREDOFRQGLWLRQV´)HZVFKRODUVKRZHYHUDJUHHRQZKDWH[DFWO\

FRQVWLWXWHVWKHVH³JOREDOFRQGLWLRQV´ZKHWKHUWKH\DUHRIDQHFRQRPLF

WHFKQRORJLFDOFXOWXUDORUSROLWLFDOQDWXUHDQGZKDWNLQGRILQÀXHQFH

WKH\KDYHZKHWKHUWKH\³GHVWUR\´RU³FRQVROLGDWH´WKHZRUOGRUGHU

. All in all, however, a widely shared position on globalization states that VRFLHWLHVDUH³RQWKHPRYH´

DQGFXOWXUHVDUH³WUDYHOLQJ´

. Consequent- ly, societies and cultures move within the broader picture of “globaliza- WLRQZLWKRXWERUGHUV´

.

Considering the world as an open space that facilitates all sorts RI FLUFXODWLRQV UHVXOWLQJ LQ LQ¿QLWH UHOLJLRXV DQG FXOWXUDO K\EULGL]D- tions

directly impacts the possible ways to theorize spatial grounds for religious traditions. Despite the late recognition of religious topics DQGLVVXHVLQ*OREDO6WXGLHVWKLVVXE¿HOGDWWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQEHWZHHQ

the latter and Religious Studies is developing quickly and massively

. Spatial themes rank among the prominent themes of Global Religious 6WXGLHV<HWWKH\DUHIDUIURPEHLQJWKHRQO\RQHVHFRQRPLFDQGFXOWXU- al subject-matters, proselytism and conversion issues, the outcomes of religious encounters and hybridization processes, continuities and changes in religious systems and global systems… are common topics of discussion. Nevertheless, the transformation of the material founda- tions of religions, especially when it comes to their territorial inscrip- tions and/or the dislocations between space and religions, have become important chapters in this new narrative of the history of civilizations.

Interestingly, it should be pointed out that territorial issues are emerg- ing E\GHIDXOW, rather than E\H[FHVV of empirical reality and theoreti- FDO ZHLJKW WKH G\QDPLFV RI GHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQ RI FXOWXUHV VRFLHW-

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NH\GHEDWHVLQWKHVRFLDOVFLHQFHOLWHUDWXUH´$QQXDO5HYLHZRI6RFLRORJ\

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John Tomlinson, *OREDOL]DWLRQ DQG &XOWXUH &KLFDJR 8QLYHUVLW\ RI &KLFDJR 3UHVV



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James &OLIIRUG³7UDYHOOLQJ&XOWXUHV´LQCultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg et DO1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH

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George Ritzer, 7KH*OREDOL]DWLRQRI1RWKLQJ7KRXVDQG2DNV3LQH)RUJH3UHVV

8

Nathalie Luca, “Borrowings go Round and Round. Transcending Borders and Religious )OH[LELOLW\´Diogenes



/LRQHO2EDGLD³*OREDOL]DWLRQDQGWKH6RFLRORJ\RI5HOLJLRQ´LQThe New Companion

IRUWKH6RFLRORJ\RI5HOLJLRQHG%U\DQ7XUQHU2[IRUG%ODFNZHOO

ies, religions) seem to overtake territorialization processes; scholars nowadays pay much more attention to what has been altered within traditions than to what is lasting through time. As such, deterritorializa- tion processes are easily discernible proofs of the (alleged) effects of modernization and globalization.

Global Studies have consequently integrated the theory that cultural dynamics and their locations (and, by extension, religious dynamics and WKHLU ORFDWLRQV KDYH EHFRPH ³XQSUHGLFWDEOH RQ D WHUULWRULDO EDVLV´

. The processes that are responsible for these new religious kinetics can be ODEHOOHGLQYDULRXVZD\V³FLUFXODWLRQ´³WUDQVQDWLRQDOL]DWLRQ´³JOREDO- L]DWLRQ´RU³GLIIXVLRQ´DUHVRPHRIWKHWHUPVIURPWKHYDVWDUUD\RI

concepts designed to describe mobility issues. But such an emphasis on PRYHPHQWÀXLGLW\DQGFLUFXODWLRQSDUDGR[LFDOO\OHDYHVOLWWOHURRPIRU

a spatial analysis register to develop. All in all, spatial issues are framed E\ GHIDXOW DQG WKH FRQFHSW RI ³GHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQ´ KDV VKLIWHG IURP

the intellectual, philosophy-based matrix within which it was coined, to a geography-based theoretical and methodological framework

. The term has become a focal buzzword, and is mostly used as a conceptual tool to describe and analyze the effects of mobility processes in the FRQWH[W RI JOREDOL]DWLRQ7KRPDV &VRUGDV W\SL¿HG WKHVH SURFHVVHV DV

³PLJUDWLRQ´ ³PLVVLRQ´ DQG ³PHGLDWL]DWLRQ´

. While it was commu- nicated in other terms before, deterritorialization as a concept logically extends and encapsulates the idea that modernization and globalization have generated a quick, generalized and substantial fading of territories LQWKHSROLWLFDOVHQVHRIWKHWHUP±DVZLWKWKHZHDNHQLQJRIQDWLRQDO

control on borders, for instance. Moreover, it entails the disappearance RIVSDFHLQWKHDQWKURSRORJLFDOVHQVHRIWKHWHUPLHDVVLJQL¿FDQWDUHDV

where identity and memory are produced and reproduced by means of social relationships

.

10

Waters, *OREDOL]DWLRQ 5.

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Tomlinson, *OREDOL]DWLRQDQG&XOWXUH.

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7KRPDV - &VRUGDV ³0RGDOLWLHV RI WUDQVQDWLRQDO WUDQVFHQGHQFH´ LQ Modalities of WUDQVQDWLRQDOWUDQVFHQGHQFH(VVD\VRQ5HOLJLRQDQG*OREDOL]DWLRQed. Thomas J. Csordas %HUNHOH\/RV$QJHOHV/RQGRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV

13

Marc Augé, Non-Lieux. Introduction à une anthropologie de la surmodernité3DULV

OH6HXLO

47

FLOATING TERRITORIES OF RELIGION(S)

Deterritorialization turns out to be the most important effect of WKH JOREDOL]DWLRQ RQ FXOWXUHV VRFLHWLHV DQG UHOLJLRQV LW LV WKH SODQH- WDU\³DSRFDO\SWLF´IRUFHRIPRGHUQLW\EULQJLQJDERXWPDMRUFKDQJHV

in ancient traditions. The so-called accelerated fading of traditions (although the acceleration is only true to a certain extent), used to be considered a consequence of modernization. Only recently has it been attributed to globalization. Indeed, modernization processes had EHHQ SUHYLRXVO\ FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ WKH ³GLOXWLRQ´ RU ³OLTXHIDFWLRQ´ RI

traditional cultures and social structures

, destabilizing contemporary societies and affecting their territorial base. But deterritorialization, ZKHWKHU³PRGHUQ´RU³JOREDO´LVDQLQWHOOHFWXDOO\FRQVWUXHGFDWHJR- ry and as such, rather than being taken for granted per se, must be questioned.

Mobility issues cannot be limited to the spatial transformations of UHOLJLRQLWDOVRFDOOVIRUDVKLIWLQWKHZD\VUHOLJLRQVDUHHPEHGGHGLQ

history, and in the narratives of religious change, especially as theoreti- cally framed by academia. As a logical consequence, it is necessary to evaluate the models of religious mobility and of religious globalization (which are different processes), and the epistemological issues under- lying this theoretical change; this can almost be considered a shift in SDUDGLJPSHUWDLQLQJWR³VSDFH´DQG³WHUULWRU\´LQ5HOLJLRXV6WXGLHV$W

the very least, from the empirical front to the theoretical end, the topic of territory is steeped in fuzziness, and serves as a loose object on which WKHRULHVWKDWFDQDWEHVWEHTXDOL¿HGDVYDJXHDUHEXLOW,VYDJXHQHVV

the rule, then, when it comes to cultures, religions, and territories?

A DECLINE OF ‘SEDENTARY’ APPROACHES TO CULTURES AND SOCIETIES

To understand how this conclusion was reached, starting from the HQGUDWKHUWKDQIURPWKHEHJLQQLQJLVPRUHHI¿FLHQW,QDSURJUDPPDWLF

article published in 2006, Hannam, Sheller and Urry devoted long pages

14

George Balandier, Le détour3DULV)D\DUGDQG=\JPXQW%DXPDQ³,GHQWLW\LQ

WKHJOREDOLVLQJZRUOG´6RFLDO$QWKURSRORJ\

to empirical data and conceptual tools, to prove that social sciences ZHUHZLWQHVVLQJD³PRELOLW\WXUQ´

7KLVLGHDZDVQRWQHZLWKDGEHHQ

widely demonstrated before the three authors tackled it, that transporta- tion and communication techniques, the complexity of informational networks, as well as people’s nonchalant desire (as with tourists) or crucial need (as with refugees) to moveDQGWKHUHGH¿QLWLRQRISROLWL- FDOERUGHUVPDGHWKHZRUOGPRUH³RSHQ´WRFHUWDLQIRUPVRIQRPDG- LVP ZKHWKHU ³WUDGLWLRQDO´ RU ³PRGHUQ´7KHVH REVHUYDWLRQV EULQJ DQ

HQGWRWKH³VHGHQWDU\DSSURDFKHV´LQVRFLDODQGFXOWXUDOVWXGLHVDQG

hence, in religious studies as well), making room for more dynamic, SURFHVVEDVHGNLQHWLFDSSURDFKHVWRUHDOLW\WREHWKHRUL]HG±ZKLFKLV

more in line with what reality is supposed to be. But as French philoso- pher Regis Debray put it, in a book on the techniques of information and modes of communication about God in history, there is “no kinet- LFVZLWKRXWVWDWLFV´

. In other words, movement cannot exist without motionlessness. A few years later, the same idea was defended by the OHDGLQJSURPRWHURIWKH³PRELOLW\WXUQ´-RKQ8UU\ZKHQKHDVVHUWHG

that mobility created immobility and that scholars should not be solely IRFXVLQJRQWKH¿UVWDQGIRUJHWWLQJWKHODWWHU

. For that reason, there should be no choosing between territorialization or deterritorializa- WLRQDSSURDFKHVWRUHOLJLRQVERWKVKRXOGEHVLPXOWDQHRXVO\WDNHQLQWR

account.

The emphasis upon movement, diffusion and deterritorialization, UDWKHUWKDQ¿[LW\FXOWXUDOUHJLRQDOLVPDQGVSDWLDOHPEHGGHGQHVVKDV

captured the attention of scholars, and led to what has been labelled a truly revolutionary change of scope in the study of religion. Lily Kong, a prominent geographer at the University of Singapore, has asserted that a real ‘theoretical shift’

in the ways scholars view and VWXG\UHOLJLRXVSKHQRPHQDLVEHLQJZLWQHVVHGEXLOGLQJRQSLRQHHULQJ

15

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0RRULQJV´Mobilities

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³3DVGHFLQpWLTXHVDQVVWDWLTXH´5pJLV'HEUD\Dieu, un itinéraire3DULV2GLOH-DFRE

2001), 141.

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QLW\´3URJUHVVLQ+XPDQ*HRJUDSK\



FLOATING TERRITORIES OF RELIGION(S)

ZRUNVE\+HQUL/HIHEYUHLQWKHPLGVDQG0LFKHOGH&HUWHDXLQ

WKHVWHUULWRULHVDQGVSDFHVDUHQRZFRQVLGHUHGDVSURFHVVHVDQG

narratives. This has led to non-essentialist, constructivist representa- WLRQVRIWHUULWRULHVDQGRIWKHZD\VWKH\DUH³IDEULFDWHG´E\FXOWXUHDQG

beliefs, sustained in time by means of social processes and policies, ZKLFK WUDQVIRUP DQG UHORFDWH XQGHU VSHFL¿F FRQGLWLRQV &RQVLGHULQJ

that the effects of movement and mobility appear more discernible than those of stability and territoriality, Urry & al.

have suggested that the VRFLDOVFLHQFHVKDGHQWHUHGD³PRELOLW\WXUQ´(SLVWHPRORJLFDOO\VSHDN- LQJLWPHDQVWKHIRFXVRQ³SURFHVVHV´DQG³PRELOLW\´JLYHVVKDSHWR

a new approach, and points at an effort to fashion a renewed viewpoint RQFXOWXUDOG\QDPLFVZLWKDFULWLFDOVODQWRQ³VHGHQWDU\DSSURDFKHV´

Accordingly, American anthropologist Arjun Appadurai has assert- ed that scholars studying cultural and social aspects of globalization apply what he calls “a decisive shift from trait geographies to process JHRJUDSKLHV´

. He went on to observe that scholars, in Globalization Studies, seem more interested in studying G\QDPLFV than examin- ing ¿[HGIRUP, and that Area Studies have therefore been sidestepped in favor of more processual items. Even in the context of academic JHRJUDSK\ /LO\ .RQJ KDV DOOXGHG WR ³QHZ PDSSLQJV´ RI UHOLJLRQ LQ

³SURFHVV´DQG³VHQVXRXV´JHRJUDSKLHV

.

Is all this proof of a true shift in paradigm? Or is it only “yet another WXUQ´DPRQJWKHPDQ\VRFLDOVFLHQFHVKDYHWUXO\RUDOOHJHGO\XQGHU- taken? Scholars’ stances pan from enthusiasm to skepticism. Optimis- tic views on mobility and deterritorialization trends have already been highlighted. In order to counterbalance their intellectual weight, it LV QHFHVVDU\ WR DOVR SXW IRUZDUG D IHZ UHVLVWDQW YLHZV WR WKLV ³WXUQ´

Systemic approaches to global phenomena, such as Jonathan Fried- PDQ¶V ³*OREDO &XOWXUH´ PRGHO

 RU WKH ³*OREDO 5HOLJLRQ´ PRGHO



+DQQDP6KHOOHUDQG8UU\³(GLWRULDO´

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*OREDOL]DWLRQHG$UMXQ$SSDGXUDL'XUKDP/RQGRQ'XNH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

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/LO\ .RQJ ³*OREDO VKLIWV WKHRUHWLFDO VKLIWV &KDQJLQJ JHRJUDSKLHV RI UHOLJLRQ´

3URJUHVVLQ+XPDQ*HRJUDSK\

22

Jonathan Friedman, &XOWXUDO,GHQWLW\DQG*OREDO3URFHVV/RQGRQ6DJH

coined by Peter Beyer

and deepened by Thomas Csordas

, altogether GRXEW WKH ³PRELOLW\ GLVFRXUVH´ WKH\ HPSKDVL]H WKH RSSRVLWH HIIHFWV

of processive crystallization on physical soils, and of the existence of VWDEOH ³VWUXFWXUHV´ RU ³V\VWHPV´ EH\RQG WKH DSSDUHQW JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ

RI³ÀRZV´,QDUHFHQWERRNWDFNOLQJWKHHPHUJLQJIRUPVRID*OREDO

Religion, French sociologist Raphaël Liogier invited scholars to think EH\RQGWKHPRGHORI³UHOLJLRXVPRELOLW\´E\DGPLWWLQJWKDWD³*OREDO

5HOLJLRQ´FRXOGEHD³UHOLJLRQofPRELOLW\´ZLWKRXWQHFHVVDULO\EHLQJ

D³PRELOHUHOLJLRQ´

.

It is nevertheless obvious that territorial issues are topicalWKH\FDQ

EHREVHUYHGLQDOOFRUQHUVRIWKHZRUOGLQYLROHQWRUSDFL¿FFRQWH[WV

and they strongly stimulate academic discussions and public debates, which do not only take place in highly-globalized modern Western societies. Religious issues, especially as they relate to sites and territo- ULHVDUHLQGHHG³KRW´WRSLFV7KHFRQWHPSRUDU\ZRUOGLVIXOOWRWKHEULP

ZLWKFRQÀLFWVDQGGLVSXWHVIRUODQGFRQVLGHUHGVDFUHGZLWK³UHOLJLRXV

LQYDVLRQV´ZKHWKHUUHDORULPDJLQHGZLWKWKHGHVWUXFWLRQRIUHOLJLRXV

sites as weapons of war, … In parallel, the rise of creolization and the pluralization of religious landscapes can be observed. Territories are WKRXJKWRIDV³VLWHV´RU³WKHDWHUV´DQGIDFLOLWDWHWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI

SURFHVVHVWKDWGLIIHULQQDWXUH±FLUFXODWLRQWUDQVIRUPDWLYHG\QDPLFV

K\EULGL]DWLRQ« %XW DV LW KDV EHHQ VDLG D ³PRELOLW\ WXUQ´ JRHV ZLWK

D ³JHRJUDSKLF WXUQ´

 DQG WHUULWRULHV FDQ DOVR EH UHDG DV ³PDSV´ RU

³PRGHOV´RIFXOWXUDODQGUHOLJLRXVUHDOLWLHV

In April 2013, a map was published in the French world affairs PDJD]LQH ³&RXUULHU ,QWHUQDWLRQDO´ GLVSOD\LQJ D PDS RI ZRUOGZLGH

religious dynamics. On it, different areas are seen as torn between plural- ization on the one hand, and fundamentalist pressures on the other. This particular representation of the world’s religious landscape precisely locates sites where contemporary religious dynamics are salient. It can

23

Peter Beyer, 5HOLJLRQDQG*OREDOL]DWLRQ/RQGRQ6DJH

24

7KRPDV-&VRUGDV³0RGDOLWLHV´

25

Raphaël Liogier, Souci de soi, Conscience du Monde: vers une religion Globale?

3DULV$UPDQG&ROLQ

26

$OOLVRQ %OXQW ³&XOWXUDO *HRJUDSKLHV RI 0LJUDWLRQ 0RELOLW\ 7UDQVQDWLRQDOLW\ DQG

'LDVSRUD´3URJUHVVLQ+XPDQ*HRJUDSK\

51

FLOATING TERRITORIES OF RELIGION(S)

KRZHYHU DV PDQ\ RWKHUV EH FRQVLGHUHG VLPSOLVWLF LW GRHV QRW IXOO\

explain the complexity of the situation, i.e. that contrasting process- HV RI GLYHUVL¿FDWLRQ DUH EHLQJ VXSHULPSRVHG RQWR VKDUHG UHOLJLRXV

landscapes. It thereby misses the mark in clarifying the geographic collision between cultural and religious mixed spaces, on the one hand, DQGWKHXQL¿FDWLRQRIEHOLHIV\VWHPVE\&KULVWLDQDQG0XVOLPIXQGD- mentalism (generally applied by forceful conversion) on the other.

Like other such maps that have been drawn and published in the past, this particular one makes the reader believe that the world is divid- ed into distinct regions. In some of these regions, religions are getting PRUHGLYHUVHGHQVL¿FDWLRQDQGGLYHUVL¿FDWLRQLQWKH1RUWKLQRWKHUV

single religions are attempting to spread over and colonize new territo-

ries, antagonizing other traditions (dispersion and standardization in the

South). The only exception appears to be Asian insular zones. It exhib-

LWVDVSHFL¿FPRGHORIUHOLJLRXVG\QDPLFVin territories, and the transfor-

mation ofWHUULWRULHV$VVXFKDOWKRXJKDVLPSOL¿HGPRGHORIUHOLJLRXV

dynamics variations, it reveals the relevance of a geographic approach to religion in the context of globalization, on a macroscopic scale.

A REVENGE OF ‘SPACE’ AND ‘TERRITORY’

IN RELIGIOUS STUDIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES?

$VHYLGHQFHGHPSLULFDOO\DQGWKHRUHWLFDOO\DIWHUEHLQJGLVTXDOL¿HG

LQWKHQDPHRI0RGHUQLW\DQG*OREDOL]DWLRQ³VSDFH´DQG³WHUULWRU\´DUH

coming back to the forefront of social sciences and religious studies’

agendas. By avoiding both disproportionate conceptual doubt and excessive enthusiasm, and moving beyond the limitations of empiri- cal grounds, it is obvious that territorial issues offer new and exciting conceptual frameworks. These new theoretical trends are outlined E\

excess of space. On the one hand, social sciences are going through D³6SDWLDO7XUQ´ERWKE\IRFXVLQJRQJHRJUDSKLFDVSHFWVRIFXOWXUHV

and societies, as Doreen Massey put it

, and by widening perspectives in Religious Studies; and on the other hand, models to analyze space in 5HOLJLRXV6WXGLHVDUHEHLQJGHYHORSHGE\¿QGLQJLQVSLUDWLRQLQSKLORVR- phy and history

.

They are otherwise characterized E\GHIDXOWRIPRELOLW\±RUZKHQ

HYLGHQFHV RU VWDELOLW\ FRQWUDGLFW WKH YLHZV RI D ZRUOG ³LQ ÀRZV´

Scandinavian anthropologist Ulf Hannerz has, for instance, suggested that the world today, today more than ever, is replete with borders and OLPLWV ERWK PHQWDO DQG SK\VLFDO ± DV RSSRVHG WR WKH LGHD RI ³JOREDO

PRELOLW\´ RI SHRSOH DQG LGHDV

. Moreover, academic spheres have extended the thinking of territories and spaces, of Globalization, and come up with genuine theoretical models. Among the “new geogra- SKLHV´RIFXOWXUHVVRFLHWLHVDQGUHOLJLRQVV\VWHPLFJHRJUDSK\ORRNVDW

the physical locations of global systems dynamics, and of societies and

27

Doreen Massey, For Space/RQGRQ6DJH

28

.LP.QRWW³6SDWLDO7KHRU\DQG0HWKRGIRUWKH6WXG\RI5HOLJLRQ´Temenos 41/2 



8OI +DQQHU] ³)URQWLqUHV´ Revue Internationale des Sciences Sociales 



53

FLOATING TERRITORIES OF RELIGION(S)

individuals in global systems. This model has led to re-examining the conceptual repertoire of geography, such as, for example, the shift from locationLQ³FODVVLFDO´JHRJUDSK\RI]RQHVDQGQDWLRQVWRSRVLWLRQDOLW\

(in the geography of systems).

Furthermore, weighing against the paradigm of mobility, the global spread of meditation beyond its original Asian sources, at a much wider scale than the spread of Buddhism, and the transnationalization of South-American therapeutic cults with no connection to the expansion of Brazilian or Peruvian cultures, exemplify that while some features of religions, cultures and societies are deterritorialized, it is not the case for all features of allVRFLHWLHVDQGFXOWXUHV)LQDOO\HYHQWKH¿HUFHVW

SURPRWHUV RI ³PRELOLW\´

 DQG ³GHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQ´

, recognize that

*OREDOL]DWLRQDOVRSURGXFHVLPPRELOLW\¿[LW\ORFDOL]DWLRQDQGVWDEL- lizes structures.

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EMPIRICAL VAGUENESS OR CONCEPTUAL FUZZINESS?

)URP+DQQDPDQGDO¶V³PRELOLW\WXUQ´WR'RUHHQ0DVVH\¶V³VSDWLDO

WXUQ´ QRWZLWKVWDQGLQJ $SSDGXUDL¶V VKLIW IURP ³WUDLW JHRJUDSKLHV´ WR

³SURFHVV JHRJUDSKLHV´ PDQ\ PRGHOV KDYH EHHQ ZLGHO\ SURPRWHG E\

prominent scholars looking to relocate these issues to the forefront of social sciences’ agenda. These new researchers should be lauded for their efforts to conciliate empirical evidence that the world is changing rapidly, and new models and methods that need to be devised to describe and understand these changes. However, the conceptual results of these emerging paradigms raise a number of epistemological questions.

Two such examples are Ulf Hannerz’s concept of global cosmopoli- tans, namely, the community of people who live without borders, being perpetually in motion

, and Arjun Appadurai’s ethnoscapes, a descrip-

30

+DQQDP6KHOOHUDQG8UU\³(GLWRULDO´.

31

$SSDGXUDL³*UDVVURRWV*OREDOL]DWLRQ´

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Ulf Hannerz, Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places/RQGRQ5RXWOHGJH



tive tool for the new regime of supraterritoriality

. These concepts provide models for reality that is more real than reality itself... It is true that, to a certain extent, the broadness of the contemporary context offers many examples of political, social and cultural borders being UHGH¿QHG %XW ZKR DUH WKH ³FRVPRSROLWDQV´ UHDOO\"$UH WKH\ JOREDO

jet-setting elites, or are they transnational workers and refugees? Where DUHWKHVRFDOOHG³HWKQRVFDSHV´LIQRWLQRXU³LPDJLQDWLRQRIWHUULWR- ULHV´DQG³WHUULWRULHVRILPDJLQDWLRQ´DV$SSDGXUDLKLPVHOIZURWHLW

? Jonathan Friedman questioned the common acceptance of globalization DV³WUDQVQDWLRQDOL]DWLRQ´DQGLQVLVWHGXSRQWKHIDFWWKDW³WKHWUDQVQD- WLRQDO´ZDVDQLOOXVLRQDQDOPRVW³VDFUHG´UHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHJOREDO

leaving little room, if any, to (systemic) contradictory views

. To what extent does this multiplicity of approaches forbid the conceptualization RIWHUULWRULHVZLWKLQDXQLTXHDQGXQL¿HGIUDPHZRUN"*LYHQWKHVLJQL¿- FDQWRVFLOODWLRQVEHWZHHQ³VWDWLF´DQG³NLQHWLF´DSSURDFKHVWRWHUULWR- ULHVRQHLVOHIWWRZRQGHUZKHWKHUWKHVH³HUUDWLFWKHRULHV´KDYHEHHQ

structured in such a way because they would be applied to a chaotic world. In other words, does the instability of theoretical frames corre- spond to the chaotic face of today’s world?

$VLWLVVRGLI¿FXOWWRHVWDEOLVKDFOHDUDQGVWDEOHFRQFHSWXDOIUDPH- work, it is possible to conclude that theories have become erratic because they are based on observations that the world is chaotic, moving in quick and unexpected ways. Three decades ago, French anthropologist George Balandier had already pinpointed that, in a world subjected to FRQVWDQW FKDQJHV ³WUDGLWLRQDO´ PHWKRGRORJLHV EDVHG RQ TXDQWLWDWLYH

data and cartography were not relevant anymore

. A few years later, VRFLRORJLVW=LJPXQW%DXPDQKDVFRLQHGWKHWHUP³ÀXLGPRGHUQLW\´

, LQVLPLODUWHUPVWKDWRI%DODQGLHUZKRSUHYLRXVO\GH¿QHGPRGHUQLW\DV

33

$UMXQ$SSDGXUDL³'LVMXQFWXUHDQGGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHJOREDOFXOWXUHHFRQRP\´7KHRU\

&XOWXUHDQG6RFLHW\

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$SSDGXUDL³*UDVVURRWV*OREDOL]DWLRQ´

35

-RQDWKDQ )ULHGPDQ ³)URP URRWV WR URXWHV 7URSHV IRU WULSSHUV´ Anthropological 7KHRU\

36

Balandier, Le détour.

37

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55

FLOATING TERRITORIES OF RELIGION(S)

³PRYHPHQWSOXVXQFHUWDLQW\´

. While these theories were structured by observing social and cultural (un)stability, they point at the role of the dissolution of territories in the liquefaction of societies and cultures. It is however important to highlight an overlooked argument in Balandier’s WKHRU\IRUWKHDQWKURSRORJLVWZKRFKDPSLRQHGVRFLDOPRYHPHQWDQG

cultural volatility, a segment in hypermodern societies is more resistant than any other; namely, religion.

$V LW HPHUJHV WKH ¿UVW WKHRUHWLFDO LQFRQVLVWHQF\ LQ WKH PRGHUQ

or global dissolution of religious territories lies in the challenges of WUDQVSRVLQJSURFHVVHVDQGFRQFHSWVZKDWLVLQGHHGEODWDQWLQWKHFDVH

of political territories is far from obvious when it comes to religious territories. An explanation of change in terms of deterritorialization is therefore not necessarily applicable to religious, cultural or religious cases. Moreover, what is a theory, if not a sometimes fuzzy discourse about indistinct objects? These objects are indeed not so distinct. The IDVKLRQDEOH WHUP RI ³GHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQ´ LV PRUH WKDQ HYHU DVVRFLDW- HG ZLWK ³UHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQ´ DQG WKH FRQFHSWXDO FRXSOH KDV EHFRPH

a nexus in new conceptions of religious geographies

, as well as in sociology, political sciences and anthropology

. When one territory erodes, another one is produced; and it is this alternative movement between the two poles that makes dynamic models of religious geogra- phies more predictable.

‘FLOATING’ TERRITORIES, THEN? NOT THAT MUCH, ACTUALLY…

After the coming and going of theories of Modernity and Globaliza- tion, which theory of space is currently being used in Religious Studies?

7RGD\¶V FRQFHSW RI WHUULWRU\ UHPDLQV WLHG WR D SROLWLFDO GH¿QLWLRQ RI

VSDFHGHWHUPLQHGE\FRQÀLFWVIRUERUGHUDSSURSULDWLRQDQGFRQWURO%XW

38

Balandier, Le detour, 65.



.RQJ³*OREDOVKLIWV´.RQJ³0DSSLQJµQHZ¶JHRJUDSKLHV´

40

Lionel Obadia, “Globalization and New Geographies of Religion. New regimes in the

movement, circulation and territoriality of cults and beliefs,“ International Social Science

Journal

RZLQJ WR ³GHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQ´ SURFHVVHV DQG WKH SDUDGLJP RI PRELO- ity, it has become a volatile reality. Was it different before? In Eliade’s conception of Sacred and Profane

, a rather fuzzy theory consid- HUHG³VSDFH´DVDSDVVLYHVLWHIRUKLVWRULFDOSURFHVVHVWRXQIROG0RUH

UHFHQWO\WKRXJKQRWLQWKH¿HOGRIUHOLJLRXVVWXGLHV0LFKHO)RXFDXOW

GHYHORSHGWKHFRQFHSWRI³KHWHURWRSLD´

, which proved it was possible WRWKLQNWKHPXOWLSOHZD\VRI³PDNLQJVSDFH´LQWKHPRGHUQZRUOG,W

introduced the complexity of spatial logics, rather than assuming a set RQWRORJ\RISODFHVDQGWHUULWRULHV6LQFH/\RWDUG³K\SHUPRG- HUQ´³SRVWPRGHUQ´DQG³VXSHUPRGHUQ´FRQGLWLRQVDUHVHHQDVÀXFWXDW- ing, preventing the stabilization of political institutions, social habits, collective beliefs, cultural programs, … and territories. So the very idea RI³ÀRDWLQJ´LVDSHUIHFW¿WIRUWKHLPDJLQDWLRQRIPRGHUQLW\%XWZKDW

LVDÀRDWLQJWHUULWRU\ZKHQLWFRPHVWRreligion? Historically speaking, DÀRDWLQJWHUULWRU\ZDVGXHWRUHOLJLRXVKDELWVVXFKDVSLOJULPDJHV,W

was a mobility explained by religious motives, as ancient as religion LQDQWLTXHFLYLOL]DWLRQ,QZKDWZD\WKHQLVUHOLJLRQÀRDWLQJEHFDXVHRI

modern or global territorial change?

Whatever causes one may attribute to religious mobility and the UHVKDSLQJ RI WHUULWRULHV D NH\ TXHVWLRQ UHPDLQV ZKDW GRHV ³ÀRDW- LQJ´ PHDQ" 7KLV DPELJXRXV PHWDSKRU \HDUQV WR EH FODUL¿HG )LUVWO\

WKHLGHDRI³ÀRDWLQJ´LQWKHYHU\OLWHUDOVHQVHRIWKHWHUPWKDWVRFLDO

sciences and humanities seem to admit, is synonymous with blurred HPSLULFDOERUGHUVDQGHSLVWHPRORJLFDOÀXLGLW\7KLV³ZRUOGLQÀRZV´

DQGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJÀXFWXDWLQJDQGXQSUHGLFWDEOHHPSLULFDOREMHFWV

and theoretical models are a source of anguish for the social sciences

. But there are other meanings. Floating can also be seen as a nauti- cal analogy. In that particular acceptance of the term, it does not imply FRPSOHWH PRELOLW\ QRU ÀXLGLW\ :LWK WKLV PHWDSKRU PRYHPHQW WDNHV

SODFH XQGHUQHDWK WKH VWDELOLW\ RQ WKH VXUIDFH 7KH ³ÀRDWLQJ´ UHIHU-

41

Mircéa Eliade, Le sacré et le profane3DULV*DOOLPDUG

42

Michel Foucault, Des espaces autres. Architectures. Mouvements. Continuité, n°5, RFWREUH5HSXEOLVKHGLQDits et écrits, t. IV, n°360)

43

Roland Robertson, *OREDOL]DWLRQ6RFLDO7KHRU\DQG*OREDO&XOWXUH/RQGRQ6DJH

$QG$SSDGXUDL³*UDVVURRWV*OREDOL]DWLRQ´

57

FLOATING TERRITORIES OF RELIGION(S)

ence hereby reintroduces stability at the heart of instability, and sets up relativity in the so-called mobility paradigm. Another meaning RI ³ÀRDWLQJ´ LV JHRJUDSKLF LQ QDWXUH EXW \HW DJDLQ DW RGGV ZLWK WKH

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FDWFKSKUDVH³VKLIWLQJORFDWLRQV´LVEDVHGRQWKLVSDUWLFXODUDFFHSWDQFH

But what are the theoretical consequences of this conceptual locution?

Does it involve shifting from old to new theories accordingly? Or does it only call for a reframing of older geographic models by focusing on processes

?

Finally, to touch upon a much discussed author and theory, namely, 6DPXHO +XQWLQJWRQ WKH ³FODVK RI FLYLOL]DWLRQV´

includes territorial DVSHFWVZKLFK,KDYHFDOOHGDWHFWRQLFRI³FLYLOL]DWLRQDOSODWHV´

. Along similar lines, though with a very different perspective, Matthias Middel and Katja Naumann recently revisited the theory of Globalization, considering it not as purely historical processes, but as the emergence WKURXJKWLPHRI³QHZUHJLPHVRIWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQ´LHWKHFKDQJLQJ

modes and rhythms of geographic dynamics

.

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JOREDOFRQWH[WRI³GHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQ´KDVXQGRXEWHGO\RIIHUHGIHUWLOH

grounds to revise classical theories in Religious Studies. This owes to the XQPLVVDEOHUHOLJLRXVFKDQJHVRQDJOREDOVFDOHWKH6RXWKHUQH[SDQVLRQ

of Roman Catholicism, the Western diffusion of Buddhism and Hindu-

44

Pierre Deffontaines, Géographie et religions3DULV*DOOLPDUG

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46

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LPSDFWRIDUHDVWXGLHVWRWKHVWXG\RIFULWLFDOMXQFWXUHVRIJOREDOL]DWLRQ´Journal of Global

+LVWRU\

ism, the Eastern spread of Islam, the Global spread of Pentecostalism, HWF 7KHVH SURFHVVHV SHUIHFWO\ ¿W WKH IDVKLRQDEOH FRQFHSWV RI ³GHWHU- ULWRULDOL]DWLRQ´DQG³GHWUDGLWLRQDOL]DWLRQ´,QWKHVHFDVHVPRELOLW\DQG

spatial dynamics have disjointed religions from their territories. Michel de Certeau alluded to this when he asserted that “once the Church was RUJDQL]LQJDJURXQGLHDVRLO´

. In a parallel stroke, processes of transnationalism (and migration) led Meintel and Leblanc

to assert WKDWUHOLJLRQKDGGH¿QLWHO\WXUQHG³QRPDGLF´WKDWWKHSDWKRI*OREDO- L]DWLRQKDGVKDSHGQHZ³UHOLJLRVFDSHV´

, although bypassing borders is not a new religious phenomenon

. So the concept of territory is delin- HDWHGE\DFHUWDLQW\SHRIYDULDWLRQVLWGRHVQRWVSULQJIURPGLIIHUHQFHV

in the shape, form or nature of territories sacred or religious, but from traditional models of religious territories being altered. As such, there should be a unique and shared model of religious territory, as there has always been.

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also partici- pates in both deterritorialization

and reterritorialization

. In what way do these dynamics apply to the coexistence of traditional and modern forms? What is their dialectical relationship? Is the realm of religion

48

Michel de Certeau, La faiblesse de croire3DULV(GLWLRQVGX6HXLO



Deirde Meintel, Marie Nathalie LeBlanc, “La mobilité du religieux à l’ère de la globa- OLVDWLRQ´Anthropologie et sociétés;;9,,

50

Waters, *OREDOL]DWLRQ

51

Beyer, 5HOLJLRQDQG*OREDOL]DWLRQ

52

&KULVWRSKHU +HOODQG ³2QOLQHUHOLJLRQUHOLJLRQRQOLQH DQG YLUWXDO FRPPXQLWDV´

in Religion on the Internet: Research prospects and promises, ed. Jeffrey K. Hadden and 'RXJODV(&RZDQ1HZ<RUN-$,3UHVV

53

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FLOATING TERRITORIES OF RELIGION(S)

half-deterritorialized, or half-territorialized? Does it oscillate between the two poles?

EPISTEMOLOGICAL ISSUES

Hypothetically, let us agree with Massey that social sciences and humanities areH[SHULHQFLQJD³VSDWLDOWXUQ´%H\RQGWKHIDVKLRQDEOH

DQGWRSLFDODSSHDORI³PRELOLW\´DQG³VSDWLDOLW\´LVWKHUHDELDVLQWKH

discussion? In my opinion, there is not one, but four biases. 7KH¿UVW

RQHFRXOGEHFDOOHGD³WKHRORJLFDOELDV´GHWHUULWRULDOL]DWLRQSURFHVVHV

are indeed set up based on the monotheistic model and vicissitudes of Western Christianity over the past two centuries. French historian Alain Corbin showed that in France, the sense of territory for religious communities was patterned by the sonic reach of the church bell

. Similarly, de Certeau’s idea that religion is losing ground

is based RQ WKH PRGHO RI WKH ³3DULVK´ 7KLV KDV VHUYHG DV WKH \DUGVWLFN ZLWK

which current sociology measures modern changes in religions EH\RQG Christianity

%XWVXFKDEURDGJHQHUDOL]DWLRQSUHVHQWVFKDOOHQJHVFDQ

WKH ³PRGHUQ´ DQG JOREDO WUDQVIRUPDWLRQV RI &KULVWLDQLW\ DSSO\ LQGLV- WLQFWO\WR%XGGKLVPRU,VODP"7KH³JUDQGQDUUDWLYHV´RI0RGHUQLW\DQG

Globalization indeed raise suspicion in the minds of anthropologists who study religion

. In that sense, it appears unreasonable to consider DQRWKHU³JUDQGQDUUDWLYH´QDPHO\WKHUHWXUQRI³VSDFH´DQG³WHUULWRU\´

in societies, cultures and religions - as relevant in and of itself.

The second bias pertains to methodology, and is applicable in three GLIIHUHQWFDVHV±ZKLFKPDNHVLWDWULSOHELDVZLWKWKUHHVXEFDWHJRULHV

UDWKHU WKDQ D VLQJOH RQH )LUVWO\ DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH ³JHRJUDSKLF WXUQ´

space is now everywhere, when it used to be nowhere... But was it

55

Alain Corbin, Les cloches de la Terre3DULV$OELQ0LFKHO

56

De Certeau, La faiblesse de croire.

57

,QWHUPVRI³DOWHUDWLRQ´VHH'DQLqOH+HUYLHX/pJHULa religion pour mémoire3DULV

OH&HUIDQG'DQLqOH+HUYLHX/pJHULa religion en miettes ou la question des sectes 3DULV&DOPDQQ/pY\

58

5REHUW+HIQHU³0XOWLSOHPRGHUQLWLHV&KULVWLDQLW\,VODPDQG+LQGXLVPLQD*OREDO-

L]LQJ$JH´$QQXDO5HYLHZRI$QWKURSRORJ\

really so? Hardly. I also doubt that the above-mentioned spatial dynam- LFV DUH D ³GLVFRYHU\´ 6HFRQGO\ \HDUV EHIRUH WKH UHWXUQ RI ³VSDFH´

³WHUULWRU\´ DQG ³JHRJUDSK\´ LQ JOREDO SHUVSHFWLYHV +HQUL /HIHEYUH¶V

Production of Space

and Michel de Certeau’s Poetics of Space

point- ed out that we study spatial processes rather than objects, and that space ZDVQRWKLQJPRUHWKDQWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIDVSHFL¿FQDUUDWLYHRIUHDOLW\

7KHVHSLRQHHULQJZRUNVLQÀXHQFHG/LO\.RQJ¶VWKHRU\RIPoetics and Politics of Space (Kong, 2001, 2010) and Arjun Appadurai’s focus on the Imagination of Territories $SSDGXUDL 7KLUGO\ DQG ¿QDOO\

WKH PHWKRGRORJLHV DUH EHFRPLQJ PRUH DQG PRUH VRSKLVWLFDWHG ZLWK

these new perspectives on religions, new geographic tools have been HODERUDWHG%XWZKDWKDVUHDOO\FKDQJHGWHUULWRULHVWKHPVHOYHVRUWKH

methodological tools to study them?

CONCLUSIVE REMARKS

Undoubtedly, territoriality has become a controversial concept for social sciences and humanities. It divides scholars into two oppos- LQJFDPSVWKRVHZKRGHIHQGLWDQGWKRVHZKRRSSRVHLWGHSHQGLQJ

RQ ZKHWKHU WKH\ DVVRFLDWH *OREDOL]DWLRQ ZLWK ÀRZV WKH diffusionist approach) or with structure (the V\VWHPLF approach). Weighing against the theory of deterritorialization however, is the fact that territorial processes are still operative, and organize people’s and societies’ cultur- al and religious lives. They however work in complex ways, and it VKRXOGEHWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQWWKDWWKH\PHUJHZLWKQHWZRUNVDQGÀRZV

While they are not entirely dissolved, they are nevertheless affected by the new technologies of human circulation and cultural diffusion, as well as economic transfers and political transnational systems.

It is certainly relevant to maintain a critical attitude towards new theoretical models that align with a one-sided theory. This is especially necessary when they are structured within Globalization Studies, where



Henry Lefebvre, La production de l’espace3DULV$QWKURSRV

60

Michel de Certeau, L’invention du quotidien. $UWVGHIDLUH3DULV*DOOLPDUG

61

FLOATING TERRITORIES OF RELIGION(S)

the antagonistic models of movement and VWDELOLW\ coexist

. Do religions KDYH ÀRDWLQJ WHUULWRULHV" 2I FRXUVH WKH\ GR$V IRU ÀRDWLQJ modern territories of JOREDOL]HGUHOLJLRQVWKHDQVZHULVQRWVRGH¿QLWH$QGDV

DYHU\¿QDOFRQFOXVLRQWKHUHOHYDQFHRIVSDWLDODQDO\VLVRIDSSURDFKHV

in terms of territories, must be evaluated against the prominent model of mobility. It is only by confronting their respective contributions, that the dynamics of stability and movement will be truly understood.

REFERENCES

$SSDGXUDL$UMXQ³'LVMXQFWXUHDQGGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHJOREDOFXOWXUHHFRQRP\´

7KHRU\&XOWXUHDQG6RFLHW\

$SSDGXUDL$UMXQ³*UDVVURRWV*OREDOL]DWLRQDQGWKH5HVHDUFK,PDJLQDWLRQ´

In *OREDOL]DWLRQHGLWHGE\$UMXQ$SSDGXUDL'XUKDP/RQGRQ'XNH

University Press, 2001.

Augé, Marc. Non-Lieux. Introduction à une anthropologie de la surmodernité.

3DULVOH6HXLO

Balandier, George. Le détour3DULV)D\DUG

Bauman, Zygmunt. /LTXLG0RGHUQLW\&DPEULGJH3ROLW\

%DXPDQ=\JPXQW³,GHQWLW\LQWKHJOREDOLVLQJZRUOG´6RFLDO$QWKURSRORJ\



Beyer, Peter. 5HOLJLRQDQG*OREDOL]DWLRQ/RQGRQ6DJH

%H\HU3HWHU³7KH5HOLJLRXV6\VWHPRI*OREDO6RFLHW\D6RFLRORJLFDO/RRNDW

&RQWHPSRUDU\5HOLJLRQDQG5HOLJLRQV´Numen

%OXQW$OOLVRQ³&XOWXUDO*HRJUDSKLHVRI0LJUDWLRQ0RELOLW\7UDQVQDWLRQDOLW\

DQG'LDVSRUD´3URJUHVVLQ+XPDQ*HRJUDSK\

de Certeau, Michel. L’invention du quotidien. $UWVGHIDLUH3DULV*DOOLPDUG



de Certeau, Michel. La faiblesse de croire3DULV(GLWLRQVGX6HXLO

&OLIIRUG-DPHV³7UDYHOOLQJ&XOWXUHV´,QCultural Studies, edited by Lawren- FH *URVVEHUJ &DU\ 1HOVRQ DQG 3DXOD 7UHLFKOHU  1HZ <RUN

5RXWOHGJH

Corbin, Alain. Les cloches de la Terre3DULV$OELQ0LFKHO

&VRUGDV7KRPDV-³0RGDOLWLHVRIWUDQVQDWLRQDOWUDQVFHQGHQFH´,QModali- WLHV RI WUDQVQDWLRQDO WUDQVFHQGHQFH (VVD\V RQ 5HOLJLRQ DQG *OREDOL]D-

61

2EDGLD³*OREDOL]DWLRQDQG1HZ*HRJUDSKLHV´

tion,HGLWHGE\7KRPDV-&VRUGDV%HUNHOH\/RV$QJHOHV/RQGRQ

8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV

Debray, Régis. Dieu, un itinéraire3DULV2GLOH-DFRE

Deffontaines, Pierre. Géographie et religions3DULV*DOOLPDUG

Eliade, Mircéa. Le sacré et le profane3DULV*DOOLPDUG

Foucault, Michel. Des espaces autres. Architectures. Mouvements. Continuité, QƒRFWREUH5HSXEOLVKHGLQDits et écrits, t. IV, n°360).

Friedman, Jonathan. &XOWXUDO ,GHQWLW\ DQG *OREDO 3URFHVV /RQGRQ 6DJH



)ULHGPDQ-RQDWKDQ³)URPURRWVWRURXWHV7URSHVIRUWULSSHUV´Anthropologi- FDO7KHRU\

Guillén, Mauro. “Is globalization civilizing, destructive or feeble? A criti- TXHRI¿YHNH\GHEDWHVLQWKHVRFLDOVFLHQFHOLWHUDWXUH´Annual Review of 6RFLRORJ\

+DQQDP.HYLQ0LPL6KHOOHUDQG-RKQ8UU\³(GLWRULDO0RELOLWLHV,PPREL- OLWLHVDQG0RRULQJV´Mobilities

Hannerz, Ulf. Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places/RQGRQ

5RXWOHGJH

+DQQHU] 8OI ³)URQWLqUHV´ Revue Internationale des Sciences Sociales



Helland, Christopher. “Online-religion/religion-online and virtual communi- WDV´,QReligion on the Internet: Research prospects and promises, edited E\ -HIIUH\ . +DGGHQ DQG 'RXJODV ( &RZDQ  1HZ<RUN -$,

Press, 2000.

+HIQHU 5REHUW ³0XOWLSOH PRGHUQLWLHV &KULVWLDQLW\ ,VODP DQG +LQGXLVP LQ

D*OREDOL]LQJ$JH´$QQXDO5HYLHZRI$QWKURSRORJ\

Hervieu-Léger, Danièle. La religion pour mémoire3DULVOH&HUI

Hervieu-Léger, Danièle. La religion en miettes ou la question des sectes3DULV

Calmann-Lévy, 2001.

+XQWLQJWRQ 6DPXHO ³7KH FODVK RI FLYLOLVDWLRQV´ Foreign Affairs, summer 

.QRWW.LP³6SDWLDO7KHRU\DQG0HWKRGIRUWKH6WXG\RI5HOLJLRQ´Temenos



.RQJ/LO\³0DSSLQJµQHZ¶JHRJUDSKLHVRIUHOLJLRQSROLWLFVDQGSRHWLFVLQ

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Meintel, Deirde, Marie Nathalie LeBlanc. “La mobilité du religieux à l’ère de ODJOREDOLVDWLRQ´Anthropologie et sociétés;;9,,

Lefebvre, Henry. La production de l’espace3DULV$QWKURSRV

Liogier, Raphaël. Souci de soi, Conscience du Monde: vers une religion Globa- le?3DULV$UPDQG&ROLQ

Luca, Nathalie. “Borrowings go Round and Round. Transcending Borders and 5HOLJLRXV)OH[LELOLW\´Diogenes

Massey, Doreen. For Space/RQGRQ6DJH

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Obadia, Lionel. “Globalization and New Geographies of Religion. New UHJLPHVLQWKHPRYHPHQWFLUFXODWLRQDQGWHUULWRULDOLW\RIFXOWVDQGEHOLHIV´

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Ritzer, George. 7KH *OREDOL]DWLRQ RI 1RWKLQJ 7KRXVDQG 2DNV 3LQH )RUJH

Press,2004.

Robertson, Roland. *OREDOL]DWLRQ6RFLDO7KHRU\DQG*OREDO&XOWXUH/RQGRQ

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Roy, Olivier. *OREDOL]HG ,VODP The Search for a New Ummah 1HZ<RUN

Columbia University Press, 2004.

Roy, Olivier. “La communauté virtuelle. L’internet et la déterritorialisation de O¶LVODP´Réseaux

Tomlinson, John. *OREDOL]DWLRQDQG&XOWXUH&KLFDJR8QLYHUVLW\RI&KLFDJR

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Warnier, Jean-Pierre. La mondialisation de la culture3DULV/D'pFRXYHUWH

Waters, Malcolm. *OREDOL]DWLRQQGHGLWLRQ/RQGRQ5RXWOHGJH

Zuckerman, Phil (Ed.). $WKHLVPDQG6HFXODULW\9RO,VVXHV&RQFHSWVDQG

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Zuckerman, Phil (Ed.), $WKHLVP DQG 6HFXODULW\ 9RO  *OREDO ([SUHVVLRQV.

Santa-Barbara, Denver, Oxford, Praeger/ABC-Clio, 2010.

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