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Abstract:

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Key words:7HUURULVWVDIHW\GHWHFWLRQFULPHDWWDFN

Rising crime and a high risk of terrorist attacks cause that predicting ag JUHVVLYH EHKDYLRU QRZDGD\V LV WKH DELOLW\ WKDW FDQ QRW EH XQGHUHVWLPDWHG

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become a necessity. In order to protect the security of citizens, including the requirement of eliminating direct attacks on life, health or property of indi viduals, the methods based on scientific research are applied.²

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2 J. Czapska, %H]SLHF]HĔVWZRRE\ZDWHOL6WXGLXP]]DNUHVXSROLW\NLSUDZD3ROSUHVV.UDNyZ

2004, s. 32.

Systems used at airports are the examples of utilizing research findings to predict aggressive behavior: methods of detecting potential terrorists, based on the analysis of behavior, emotions visible on faces, and physiological in

dicators.

In recent years the interest to improve the reliability of deception and hos

tile intentions detection techniques is related to the need of increasing the VDIHW\RIFLWL]HQVWKUHDWHQHGZLWKWHUURULVWDWWDFNV,QSDUWLFXODUWKH8QLWHG

States government through its security agencies is looking for and financing research on modern lie detection techniques.³

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ning a hostile act, merely by observing behavior. Some researchers are con vinced that scientific methods of detecting hostile intentions, among others by detecting deception, can help to catch terrorists and provide security. This article focuses on behavioral methods of detecting potential terrorists.

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In 1978, Ekman and colleagues developed the Facial Action Coding Sys

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to increase the accuracy of lie detection (lying defined as “a deliberate choice WRPLVOHDGDWDUJHWZLWKRXWJLYLQJDQ\QRWLILFDWLRQRIWKHLQWHQWWRGRVR´⁴

to 90%.

FACS is a method of describing and measuring facial behavior, based on REVHUYDEOHFRPSRQHQWVRIIDFLDOPRYHPHQWFDOOHGDFWLRQXQLWV$8DQGWKH

combinations of action units are forming a facial expression. FACS describes the contraction of various muscles, leading to different facial expressions by ZKLFKZHDUHDEOHWRUHFRJQL]HHPRWLRQV,QYROXQWDU\IDFLDOH[SUHVVLRQVPL

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4 P. Ekman, 6HOI'HFHSWLRQ$QG'HWHFWLRQ2I0LVLQIRUPDWLRQ>Z@6HOI'HFHSWLRQ$Q$GDS- WLYH 0HFKDQLVP" UHG -6 /RFNKDUG '/ 3DXOKXV 3UHQWLFH+DOO (QJOHZRRG &OLIIV 1-

1988, s. 230.

istic for experiencing one of the seven basic, universal emotions: anger, fear, disgust, contempt, sadness, surprise or happiness. Microexpressions are evo lutionarily acquired reactions occurring in the entire human species, regard

less of socialization, culture and age. In the course of socialization, people learn to control their facial expressions, and therefore it is possible to pretend H[SHULHQFLQJVSHFLILFHPRWLRQV+RZHYHUHYHQZLWKDQDELOLW\WRFRQWURODQ\

facial expressions, the current emotional state is revealed by other nonverbal messages, more difficult to control consciously.⁵ A number of studies indicate WKDWDOVRLPSRUWDQWLVWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIH\HVHVSHFLDOO\WKHSXSLOODU\UHIOH[

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tial behavior and keeping personal distance.⁶ In addition, the first reaction of WKHIDFHZKLFKODWHUFDQEHPDVNHGIRUH[DPSOHE\SXWWLQJRQDIDNHVPLOHLV

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fake expressions are usually held for too long, moreover it is not possible to FRQWURODOOWKHPXVFOHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKVSHFLILFIDFLDOH[SUHVVLRQV⁷

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promising indicators of lies, in terms of possible practical applications. He FRQFOXGHVEDVLQJRQWKHUHVXOWVRIKLVRZQUHVHDUFKWKDWSHRSOHRYHUO\UHO\

on verbal communication and are inclined to ignore or misinterpret the most explicit mimic, movement and voice indicators. The researcher also proves that training in recognizing nonverbal indicators of deception, described by him, improves the accuracy in identifying lies. Another argument in favor of this position by Ekman are the contradictions in reports of research on verbal LQGLFDWRUVRIOLHIRUH[DPSOHLWDSSHDUVWKDWWKHDQVZHUVJLYHQRQO\E\VRPH

people are indirect, evasive, and contain more information than the question required. Microexpressions are used to detect lies, and it makes possible to detect hostile intentions of the other person. To facilitate this process, Ekman suggests using a tool such as FACS, to enable assessment of facial expres

5 P. Ekman, 7HOOLQJ/LHV&OXHVWRGHFHLWLQWKHPDUNHWSODFHSROLWLFVDQGPDUULDJH, W. W.

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sion, but mastering it requires a lot of time. Facial Action Coding System, ZKLFKKDVVRIDUEHHQXVHGPDLQO\LQODERUDWRU\WHVWVSURYHGWREHDUHOLDEOH

and effective method of detecting lies, because the ability to detect microex

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Recognizing signs of emotion on the face can be trained through a de

signed by Ekman computer program called F.A.C.E. Training. The program LV FRPSRVHG RI WZR W\SHV RI WUDLQLQJ 0(77 0LFUR ([SUHVVLRQ7UDLQLQJ

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entific consultant.⁹

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detecting the subtle signs of aggression.¹⁰

Ekman’s recent scientific research is also focused on imaging facial physi ology as a method of detecting changes in the level of stress. He and his col

leagues conducted a study to prove the accuracy of estimates of the computer V\VWHPZKLFKXVHV DWKHUPDOFDPHUDPRQLWRULQJWKHUHDOWLPHFKDQJHVLQ

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declared from the security systems industry. The threat of terrorist attacks IRUFHVWKHXVHRIQHZVROXWLRQVWHFKQRORJLFDOO\DGYDQFHGV\VWHPVIRUTXLFN

efficient and massive monitoring of human behavior and physiology, in order WRGHWHFWFKDQJHVLQWKHOHYHORIDURXVDODVZHOODVHYDOXDWLQJLQUHDOWLPHWKH

risk of dangerous behavior, such as terrorist acts.¹¹

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man to detect suspicious passengers. The program is called SPOT (Screening 3DVVHQJHUVE\2EVHUYDWLRQ7HFKQLTXHVDQGLVEDVHGRQWUDLQLQJLQREVHUYD

tion skills to help them identify passengers at an early stage.

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utilizes noninvasive behavior observation and behavioral analysis techniques WR LGHQWLI\ SRWHQWLDOO\ KLJKULVN SDVVHQJHUV %'2 RIILFHUV DUH LQWHQGHG WR

detect persons exhibiting behavior that indicates that they may constitute a threat to aviation and air transport security.

The program is a derivative of other successful behavioral analysis pro JUDPVZKLFKKDYHEHHQLPSOHPHQWHGE\ODZHQIRUFHPHQWDQGVHFXULW\SHU

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officers are screening travelers for involuntary physical and physiological UHDFWLRQVZKLFKSHRSOHH[KLELWLQUHVSRQVHWRIHDURIEHLQJGLVFRYHUHG0DQL

festation of some of these behaviors does not automatically mean that an in

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a nonthreatening origin.¹²

BDO officers are trained to detect suspicious or unusual behavior in pas VHQJHUVWKH\GHWHUPLQHZKHWKHUWKHSDVVHQJHUVDUHDWKUHDWEDVLQJRQWKHLU

responses to a set of routine questions. Security officers ask three to four questions (e.g., „Where have you been?”, „Where are you traveling?”, „What LVWKHSXUSRVHRI\RXUWULS"´Ä'R\RXKDYHDEXVLQHVVFDUG"´ZKLOHORRN

ing for minute facial cues that may indicate deception or malicious intent.

The primary responsibility of the BDO officers is to observe the behavior of passengers going through the security checkpoint.¹³ Individuals exhibiting specific observable behaviors may be referred for additional screening at the FKHFNSRLQWLQFOXGLQJSHUVRQDODQGRQH¶VFDUU\RQEDJJDJHSK\VLFDOLQVSHF

tion. Referrals are based on specific observed behaviors only, not on one’s appearance, race, ethnicity or religion.

BDO officers add an element of unpredictability to the security screening SURFHVVZKLFKLVHDV\IRUSDVVHQJHUVWRQDYLJDWHEXWGLIILFXOWWRPDQLSXODWHE\

terrorists. It serves as an important additional level of security in the airport environment, requires no additional specialized screening equipment, can be easily deployed to other modes of transportation and presents yet another challenge the terrorists need to overcome in attempt to defeat the security system.

To 2011 Ekman has taught about 1,000 BDO experts and continues to consult on the program. The methodology used in SPOT has never been sub

jected to controlled scientific tests, because neither Ekman nor TSA have disclosed the specific cues used to identify potential threats, citing security reasons. Ekman has largely stopped publishing, not to provide any help to terrorists trying to cheat the system.

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Evidence of the SPOT program effectiveness provides statistics: in the first phase of the program, from January 2006 to November 2009, according WRWKH76$DJHQF\EHKDYLRXUGHWHFWLRQRIILFHUVUHIHUUHGPRUHWKDQ

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explosives. The vast majority of those subjected to another inspection contin

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Similar safety programs are implemented in many other airports around WKHZRUOG$W+HDWKURZ$LUSRUWLQ/RQGRQWKH%ULWLVKJRYHUQPHQWLVLP

plementing behavior detection officers in a program modeled in part on the 6327ZKLOH'HSDUWPHQWRI+RPHODQG6HFXULW\LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVOHDGV

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terest in similar programs.¹⁵

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ogy Directorate of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security began search LQJIRUQHZPHWKRGVDQGVWDUWHGWRVSRQVRUUHVHDUFKDLPHGDWGHYHORSLQJDQG

testing tools and methodologies for identifying and assessing potential threat GHFHSWLRQ DQG KRVWLOH LQWHQW LQ UHDO WLPH RQ WKH VSRW DQG QRQLQYDVLYHO\

and at better understanding of the phenomenon of terrorism, improving na tional security, and accelerating movement of people through checkpoints.

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Achieved in effect is the FAST technique (Future Attribute Screening 7HFKQRORJ\GHYHORSHGXQGHUWKH'+6SURJUDPFDOOHG6RFLDODQG%HKDY

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415.

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such as SPOT. It consists in the fact that passengers passing through a secu

rity gate are monitored in terms of nonverbal signals of intent to harm oth ers. This technology is designed to catch suspicious behavior, and thereby SRWHQWLDOWHUURULVWVZLWKFDPHUDVDQGVHQVRUVPHDVXULQJVXEWOHSK\VLRORJLF

changes that can be assessed remotely and in real time, including eye move

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gies necessary to receive these signals, are noninvasive and easy to integrate LQWRFURZGHGRSHUDWLQJDUHDVXFKDVDLUSRUWV,QDGGLWLRQWRGHWHFWLQJVLJQDOV

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bility of automating this process using sensors and detection algorithms, and LQWHJUDWLQJWKHV\VWHPZLWKRWKHUWHFKQRORJLHVDLPHGDWLGHQWLI\LQJLQGLYLGX

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databases.¹⁶

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port”, is designed to read the intentions of potential terrorists, for example DWDLUSRUWV,WUHPLQGVSRO\JUDSKEXWWKHUHLVQRQHHGRIGLUHFWFRQWDFWZLWK

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monitored individual, and their action does not depend on direct questioning.

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ture and BioLIDAR, a laser radar that measures heart rate and respiration.

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line, or passing through the control gate.

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than those achieved by specially trained persons. Daniel and Jennifer Mar

tin’s malintent theory underlying the FAST technique is based on the assump tion derived from the behavioral sciences, that the hostile intentions translate

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into specific physiological responses and behavior. Scientists have proven WKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQSV\FKRSK\VLRORJLFDOLQGLFDWRUVDQGLQWHQWLRQV7KH

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els of hostile intent and deception, focusing on behavioral and verbal cues, DQGVHFRQGDQDXWRPDWHGVXLWHRIQRQLQYDVLYHVHQVRUVDQGDOJRULWKPV,Q

tegrated, these sensors automatically detect and track the input cues to the models. According to the developers of this technology it has the potential to UHYROXWLRQL]HWKHVFUHHQLQJDQGLQWHUYLHZLQJSURFHVVE\VXSSRUWLQJDFFHVV

control for strategic infrastructure, such as airports.¹⁸

While existing screening technologies, such as biometrics, offer the po WHQWLDOWRGHWHFWDOUHDG\NQRZQWHUURULVWVWKH)$67WHFKQRORJ\IRFXVHVRQO\

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behavior, in relation to the situational context and appropriateness of behav

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bile and multimodal technologies, using behavioral and physiological sensors ZKLFKSURYLGHFXOWXUDOO\QHXWUDOLQGLFDWRUVRIKRVWLOHLQWHQW%\FUHDWLQJWKH

FAST technology, DHS hopes to simplify the control of the airport by us

ing recent advances in the development of screening techniques focused on behavior.¹⁹

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18 Deception..., op. cit.

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2011.

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The SAFEE system (Security of Aircraft in the Future European Envi

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transport. The vision of this project is to build an advanced system of aviation VDIHW\ZRUNLQJXQGHUWKHWKUHDWRIWHUURULVWDWWDFNRQWKHDLUFUDIW7KHPDLQ

objective of this system is to provide a completely safe flight from departure WRDUULYDOGHVWLQDWLRQZKDWHYHUWKHLGHQWLILHGWKUHDWVDUH7KHEDVLVRIWKH

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tions may go through the different airport controls and security measures, ac cess an aircraft and initiate a hostile action. Therefore there is a need to secure the plane, as the last barrier of attack.²⁰

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systems detecting threats and providing reliable information about the threat WRWKHIOLJKWFUHZ7KHPRQLWRULQJV\VWHPRIDLUSDVVHQJHUVFDOOHG2QERDUG

Threat Detection System, designed to prevent the abduction of the aircraft, WUDFNVSDVVHQJHUVZLWKPLQLDWXUHFDPHUDVLQVWDOOHGLQHYHU\VHDWLQWKHSODQH

and analyzes their behavior. This technology has to distinguish the ordinary SDVVHQJHUVIURPWKRVHZKRPD\WKUHDWHQRWKHUVDQGWKHPVHOYHV$SSOLHGH\H

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increased frequency suggests higher level of stress. Cameras have to con

tinually monitor and record every movement of the passenger, to analyze the H[SUHVVLRQRIWKHIDFHWKHIUHTXHQF\RIEOLQNLQJH\HPRYHPHQWVZHWWLQJWKH

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deceive. In addition to the cameras in the seats, installed microphones might EHLQVWDOOHGZKLFKPD\SLFNXSHYHQVRIWO\VSRNHQZRUGV$QDO\VLVRIHDFK

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of the possibility of a terrorist attack, such that took place on 11 September.

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All audio and video materials about the behavior of passengers are to be reset after each flight to protect passenger rights.²¹

An important aspect of behavior analysis is the issue of avoiding discrimi

natory ethnic profiling, such as recognizing any person of Arab origin as a SRWHQWLDOWHUURULVW3UHVHQWHGEHORZDUHFDVHVWXGLHVRIWUDLQLQJRIIHUHGWRRI

ficers in order to develop their abilities to perceive and analyze suspicious be havior, diverting attention from the characteristics that may refer to prejudice, such as race, ethnicity or religion.

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emy for Police and Security Entities. The SDR is used as a tool to identify cases of potential violence, disrupting public order, illegal activity and fatal attacks. It is intended to protect public space and mass events and to increase security skills for the analysis of behavior: directs attention to behavior that might require police action, and diverts attention from the immutable char DFWHULVWLFVVXFKDVVNLQFRORU'XULQJWKHWUDLQLQJRIILFHUVOHDUQKRZSHRSOH

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at Schiphol airport and in various units of the Dutch police.

In the United Kingdom, police training is conducted under the Behavior

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chusetts State Police in the United States and adapted for use by the British Transport Police. The training is based on profiling of the behavior of people ZKRDUHXQGHUVWUHVVDWDLUSRUWVDQGWUDQVSRUWKXEV0DVVDFKXVHWWV6WDWH3R

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in the September 11 attacks, departing from Boston’s Logan International Airport and arriving at the airport before the attacks. They created a set of cri WHULDZLWKZKLFKLWLVSRVVLEOHWRLGHQWLI\WKHEHKDYLRURISHRSOHXQGHUVWUHVV

21 Security…, op. cit.

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criteria have been adapted to British conditions using information gathered from the 7 July bomb attacks on the London Underground. The mandatory WUDLQLQJRI%$66SDVVHGDOOWKHRIILFHUVRI%ULWLVK7UDQVSRUW3ROLFHZRUNLQJ

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The training emphasizes that there is no racial or religious profile of terrorist, because the attacks are carried out by the people of all ethnic groups.²²

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legislation is being adapted to the requirements of the European Union and LQWURGXFHVDFRKHUHQWV\VWHPRIFLYLODYLDWLRQVHFXULW\$FFRUGLQJWRQHZUHF

ommendations, security control at airports is to be conducted by private se FXULW\FRPSDQLHVZRUNLQJDV$LUSRUW6HFXULW\6HUYLFH62/DQGQRORQJHU

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security at the airport, among others by observing passengers and searching LQ D FURZG IRU WKRVH SHRSOH ZKR EHKDYH LQ D VXVSLFLRXV PDQQHU QDPHO\

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many countries.²³

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resist it.²⁵ The introduced amendments are aimed at improving aviation safety and streamlining the process of airport management.

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24 &RPEDWLQJ7HUURULVP5HVHDUFK3ULRULWLHVLQWKH6RFLDO%HKDYLRUDODQG(FRQRPLF6FLHQFHV, Raport NSTC, Washington 2005.

25 P.E. Rubin, %HKDYLRUDO6FLHQFHDQG6HFXULW\UHIHUDWZ\JáRV]RQ\SU]HG6XEFRPPLWWHHRQ

Investigations and Oversight Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives 2011.

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committee on Investigations and Oversight Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives 2011.

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