The Land Administration Domain Model

ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

Land

Use

Policy

jou rn al h om ep a g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / l a n d u s e p o l

The

Land

Administration

Domain

Model

Christiaan

Lemmen

_,

_Peter

_van

_Oosterom

_,

_Rohan

_Bennett

a_{DutchCadastre,LandRegistryandMappingAgency,Apeldoorn,P.O.Box9046,7300GHApeldoorn,TheNetherlands}

b_{DelftUniversityofTechnology,FacultyofArchitectureandtheBuiltEnvironment,DepartmentOTB,GISTechnologySection,P.O.Box5030,2600GADelft,}

TheNetherlands

c_{UniversityofTwente,FacultyITC,POBox217,7500AEEnschede,TheNetherlands}

a

r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o

Articlehistory: Received31March2014 Receivedinrevisedform 19December2014 Accepted7January2015 Keywords: Landpolicy Landmanagement Landadministration Landregistrationandcadastre LandAdministrationDomainModel (LADM)

SocialTenureDomainModel(STDM)

a

b

s

t

r

a

c

t

Societaldriversincludingpovertyeradication,genderequality,indigenousrecognition,adequate hous-ing,sustainableagriculture,foodsecurity,climatechangeresponse,andgoodgovernance,influence contemporarylandadministrationdesign.Equally,theopportunitiesprovidedbytechnological devel-opmentalsoinfluencedesignapproaches.TheLandAdministrationDomainModel(LADM)attempts toalignboth:thedatamodelprovidesastandardisedglobalvocabularyforlandadministration.Asan internationalstandarditcanstimulatethedevelopmentofsoftwareapplicationsandmayacceleratethe implementationoflandadministrationsystemsthatsupportsustainabilityobjectives.TheLADM cov-ersbasicinformation-relatedcomponentsoflandadministrationincludingthoseoverland,inwater, belowthesurface,andabovetheground.Thestandardisanabstract,conceptualmodelwiththree pack-agesrelatedto:parties(peopleandorganisations);basicadministrativeunits,rights,responsibilities, andrestrictions(ownershiprights);spatialunits(parcels,andthelegalspaceofbuildingsandutility networks)withasubpackageforsurveying,andrepresentation(geometryandtopology).Thispaper examinesthemotivation,requirementsandgoalsfordevelopingLADM.Further,thestandarditselfis describedandpotentialfuturemaintenance.Despitebeingaveryyoungstandard,‘born’on1stDecember 2012,itisalreadypossibletoobservesomeoftheimpactofLADM:examplesareprovided.

©2015TheAuthors.PublishedbyElsevierLtd.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-ND license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Introduction

Theworkdescribedinthispaperisthefirstsuccessfulattempt tocreateanacceptedinternationalstandardintheland adminis-trationdomain.

Landadministrationisalargefield;thefocusoftheLADMis onthat partof land administrationthat is interested in rights, responsibilitiesandrestrictionsaffectingland(orwater),andthe geometrical(geospatial)componentsthereof.TheLADMisa con-ceptualmodel,andnotadataproductspecification.TheLADMis adescriptivestandard,notaprescriptivestandard.Domain spe-cificstandardisationisneededtocapturethesemanticsoftheland administrationdomainontopoftheagreedfoundationofbasic standardsforgeometry,temporalaspects,metadataandalso obser-vationsandmeasurementsfromthefield.ThestandardfortheLand AdministrationDomainservesthefollowinggoals:

∗ Correspondingauthorat:DutchCadastre,LandRegistryandMappingAgency, Apeldoorn,P.O.Box9046,7300GHApeldoorn,TheNetherlands.

Tel.:+8618291456407.

E-mailaddress:chrit.lemmen@kadaster.nl(C.Lemmen).

-establishment of a shared ontology implied by the model. Thisallowsenablingcommunicationbetweeninvolvedpersons (information managers,professionals, and researchers)within onecountryandbetweendifferentcountries.Thisisrelevantin thedeterminationofrequiredattributesandinsetting responsi-bilitiesonmaintenanceofdatasetsincaseofimplementationof LandAdministrationinadistributedenvironmentwithdifferent organisationsinvolved.Thisisalsoinsupportofthedevelopment oflandadministrationsystemsascoreinSpatialData Infrastruc-ture,SDI, or:Geo InformationInfrastructures (GII).Onemore issueisglobalisation;therearealreadyideasforandapproaches tointernationaltransactions,e.g.withintheEuropeanUnion.Also inrelationtocarboncreditsregistration,

-supportforthedevelopmentoftheapplicationsoftwareforland administration.Thedatamodelisthecorehere.Supportinthe developmentoflandadministrationsystemsmeansprovisionof anextendableandadaptablefundamentforefficientandeffective developmentbasedonaModelDrivenArchitecture(MDA).This approach offersautomaticconversions frommodelsto imple-mentation,wherelocaldetailscanbeaddedtotheconceptual modelfirst,

-facilitation of cadastral data exchange with and from a dis-tributedlandadministration.WithinSDI(GII)combinationsof http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.01.014

landadministrationdatawithotherdatasourcesshouldbe pos-sible.Forexamplelegaldatarelatedtocadastralobjectswithdata fromothersourcesdescribingphysicalobjectsasroads,buildings orutilities.Exchangecanbebetweencadastres,landregistries andmunicipalitiesandbetweencountriesinafederalstateor betweencountries;etc.,and:

-supportfor data quality management in land administration. Useofstandardscontributestotheavoidanceofinconsistencies betweendatamaintainedindifferentorganisationsbecausedata duplicationcanbeavoidedasmuchaspossible.Itshouldbenoted herethatastandardiseddatamodel,whichwillbeimplemented, canbesupportiveinthedetectionofexisting inconsistencies. Qualitylabelsareimportantforallattributes.

Aspecialisation,orperhapsarguablyageneralisationofLADM, istheSocialTenureDomainModel(STDM);see(Augustinusetal.,

2006;Augustinus,2010;FIG,2010).DevelopedinparalleltoLADM,

itbroadensthescopeof landadministration.It providesa land informationmanagementframeworkthatintegratesstatebased andnon-statebasedlandsystems.Italsointegratesadministrative andspatialcomponents.Doingso,themodeldescribes relation-shipsbetweenpeopleandlandinanunconventionalmanner:it hasthepowertotacklelandadministrationneedsincommunities, suchaspeopleinnon-staterecognisedsettlementsandcustomary areas.Theemphasisisonsocialtenurerelationshipsasembedded inthecontinuumofthelandrightsconceptpromotedbytheGlobal LandToolNetworkandbyUN-Habitat(UN-Habitat,2008).

InthispapertheLandAdministrationDomainModel(LADM) and its design and developmentare presented. The paper has synthesisesprogressivedevelopments outlinedin earlier works

(Lemmen, 2012;Lemmen etal., 2013a,b).First, themotivation,

backgroundandgoalsofLADMareprovided in“LADM motiva-tion,backgroundandgoals”.LADMsupportslandadministration systemdevelopment.Landadministrationandlandadministration systemssupporttheimplementationofthecontemporary soci-etaldemands,embodiedinlandpolicies(cf.UN/ECE,1996).That is,thelandadministrationdesignshouldalignwiththesocietal requirementsasdescribedinByamugisha(2013),CheeHai(2012),

Enemark(2012),FAO(2012),FIG(2010),andUN-Habitat(2003,

2004,2008,2012).Anefficientmeansforachievingthisalignment

isthroughthedevelopmentandutilisationofalandadministration standard.Inotherwords:astandardcanbridgethegapbetween landpoliciesandinformationmanagementopportunities.Inthis regard,LADMmustbebroadlyaccepted:it shouldbeadaptable tolocalsituations(Lemmen,2012).AnoverviewofLADM require-mentsisgivenin“LADMrequirements”.TheLADMasavailablein theInternationalStandardISO19152ispresentedin“TheLADM (ISO19152)”,is basedonthecommonpattern of‘people–land’ relationships.Themodelshouldcoverthebasicdatarelated com-ponentsoflandadministration(legal/administrative,mappingand surveying)and itshould satisfydiverseuserrequirements. The domainmodelinitsimplementationcanbedistributedover dif-ferent organisations withdifferent tasks and responsibilities. A veryfirstoverviewofLADMimpactandfuturedevelopmentsare discussedin“ImpactofLADMandfuturedevelopments”and “Con-clusionsandrecommendations”arepresented.

LADMmotivation,backgroundandgoals

Contemporarypolitical objectivesincludingpoverty eradica-tion,genderequality,indigenous recognition,adequatehousing, sustainableagriculture, foodsecurity, climatechange response, andgoodgovernance,substantiallyrelatetoaccesstoland,andto land-relatedopportunities.Howgovernmentscommencedealing withissuesrelatingtolandaccessanduse,isoftendefinedasland

policy(UN/ECE,1996).However,arobustlandpolicyisonething, havingthetoolstoenforcethepolicyisanotheraltogether:the well-regardedlandpoliciesofKenyaandNamibia,amongstothers, providetestament.Consequently,governmentsneedinstruments like regulationsand administrative procedures to supportland tenuresecurity,landmarkets,landuseplanningandcontrols,land taxation,andthemanagementofnaturalresources.Itiswithinthis contextthatthefunctionoflandadministrationsystemscanbe identified:asupportingtooltofacilitatetheimplementationofa landpolicyinthebroadestsense.

Even in contemporary times, most countries (states or provinces) develop their own unique land administration sys-tems. Some countries operate a deed registration, while other operates a title registration.Some systemsare centralised, and othersdecentralised.Somesystemsareprimarilybasedona gen-eralboundariesapproach,others onfixedboundariesapproach. Somelandadministrationsystemshaveafiscalbackground, oth-ersalegalone(BogaertsandZevenbergen,2001;UN/ECE,1996). However,organisationalstructureswithdistributed responsibil-itiesandever-changingsystemrequirementsmaketheseparate implementationandmaintenanceoflandadministrationneither cheapnorefficient.Furthermore,differentimplementationsofland administrationsystemscomplicatecross-jurisdictionsystem inter-operability(e.g.inaninternationalcontextsuchaswithinEurope orinanationalcontext(e.g.inalessdevelopedcountry)whereit mayhappenthatdifferentpartnersindevelopmentco-operation ondesignandprovidedifferentlandadministrationsystems with-outco-ordination).

Standardisationissupportiveandhelpfulindesignand (fur-ther)developmentoflandadministrationsystems.Itisrelevant tokeepdataandprocessmodelsseparate,thismeansthat (inter-organisational)processescanbechangedindependentfromthe datasetstobemaintained.Thedatamodelcanbedesignedinsuch awaythattransparencycanbesupported:thisimpliesinclusion ofsourcedocumentsandinclusionofthenamesofpersonswith rolesandresponsibilitiesinthemaintenanceprocessesofthedata model.

Standardisation is a well-known subject in thefield of land administration.Standardisationconcernsaprescribedapproachto theidentificationofparcels,documents,persons,controlpointsand manyotherissues.Itconcernstherepeatableorganisationoftables intheregistrationandreferencesfromthosetablestoother com-ponents(e.g.sourcedocumentsandmaps)includingarchives.It concernsagreedmethodsforcodinganduseofabbreviations,(e.g. foradministrativeareas).Italsoconcernssetworkflows.Allthis isvalidforbothpaperbasedandfordigitallandadministration systems.

LADMrequirements

Internationally,thedemand fora widelyaccepted standard-iseddomainmodelinlandadministrationemergedintheearly 2000s,partlyasaresultofCadastre2014(KaufmannandSteudler, 1998)andmoregenerallyfromdiscussionsregarding technologi-calopportunityandsocietaldemandsembeddedinlandpolicies. ThiswishwassupportedbytheInternationalFederationof Sur-veyors(FIG)andUN-HabitatandalsobytheFoodandAgricultural Organisation(FAO)oftheUnitedNations(UN).

Itwasrequiredthatthedatamodelshouldbeabletofunction asthecoreofanylandadministrationsystem.Thestandardhad tobeflexible,widelyapplicableandfunctionasagatheringpoint ofastate-of-the-artinternationalknowledgebaseonthistheme. Afteranextensivedesignanddevelopmentprocedure,startingin 2002withintheFIGandfrom2008withinISOTC211,and involv-ingmanystakeholdersfromUNHabitat,EU/JointResearchCentre,

Table1

LADMrequirements.

No. Requirement Impact

1 Acontinuumofland

rights

TheTripleObject(SpatialUnit)–Right(RRR)–Subject(Party)isthecommonpatternforlandadministrationandisthebasic structure(Lemmen,2012).Groupingsofobjectsorsubjectsshouldbesupported.Theflexibilityofthemodelshouldbebased ontherecognitionthatpeople’slandrelationshipsappearinmanydifferentways,dependingonlocaltradition,culture, religionandbehaviour.

Itshouldbepossibletomergeformalandinformaltenuresystemsinoneenvironment.Landrightsmaybeformalownership, apartmentright,usufruct,freehold,leasehold,orstateland.Itmaybesocialtenurerelationshipslikeoccupation,tenancy, non-formalandinformalrights,customaryrights(whichcanbeofmanydifferenttypeswithspecificnames),indigenous rights,religiousrights,possession,or:nolandrights(noaccesstoland).Theremaybeoverlappingtenures,claims, disagreementandconflictsituations.Thisisanextensiblelisttobefilledinwithlocaltenancies–flexibleandextensible codingoftypesofrightsandrestrictions,etc.isneeded.

People–landrelationshipscanbeexpressedintermsofpartieshaving(social)tenurerelationshipstospatialunits.Thisisin supporttoaccesslandforall(UN-Habitat,2008).ItisinsupporttoLArequirementsasin(FAO,2012).

2 Acontinuumofland userightclaimants (subjectsorparties)

Partiescanbepersons,orgroupsofpersons,ornon-naturalpersons,thatcomposeanidentifiablesingleentity.Anon-natural personmaybeatribe,afamily,avillage,acompany,amunicipality,thestate,afarmer’scommunity/co-operation,aslum dwellersgroup/organisation,areligiouscommunity,andsoon.Thislistmaybeextended,anditcanbeadaptedtolocal situations,basedoncommunityneeds.Itshouldbenoticedthatapersoncanholdashareinaright,e.g.incaseofmarriage,or groupsofpersonsholdingrights.Women’saccesstolandcanbeorganisedbyregistrationorrecordationofsharesinrights. 3 Acontinuumofspatial

units(objects)

Representationofabroadrangeofspatialunits,withaclearqualityindication,shouldbepossible.Spatialunitsaretheareas ofland(orwater–e.g.waterrightsandthemarineenvironment)wheretherightsandsocialtenurerelationshipsapply. Spatialunitscanberepresentedasatext(“fromthistreetothatriver”),asasketch,asasinglepoint,asasetofunstructured lines,asasurface,orasa3Dvolume–seeforexampleFourie(1998)andFourieandNino-Fluck(2000).Seealsothe‘axesof variation’inLarsson(1991).

4 Abasicadministrative units(orBasicProperty Unit)

IncombinationtotheTripleObject–Right–Subjecttheconstellationofbasicpropertyunitsshouldbesupported.The purposeofabasicadministrativeunitisthegroupingofspatialunits,whichhavethesamerights,etc.attached.Abasic propertyunitcanhaveauniqueidentifier–meaningthatallspatialunitsbelongingtothisbasicpropertyunithavethesame identifier).ApropertyunitcanplaytheroleofaParty:apropertyunitmaybeownedbyoneormoreotherpropertyunits.To getagenericterminologytheBPUshouldbecalled‘BasicAdministrativeUnit’.

5 Arangeofdata acquisitionmethods

Surveyingshouldbesupported;boundaryshouldbeincludedinrelationto‘Object’inthisTriple.Surveysmayconcernthe identificationofboundariesofspatialunitsonaphotograph,animage,oratopographicmap.Surveyscanbeconventional landsurveys,basedonhand-heldGPS.Inallcasestherepresentationof‘legal’realityshouldbedistinctedfromthe‘physical’ reality.Theremaybesketchmapsdrawnuplocally.Dependingonthelocalsituation,differentregistrationsorrecordingsof landrightsarepossible.Inruralareastherecanbespatialunitscoveringcustomaryareas.Thosespatialunitscanberecorded as‘textbased’spatialunits,whereboundariesaredescribedinwords.Oras‘linebased’spatialunits,drawnonlowaccurate satelliteimages.Thetribemayberepresentedbyitschief.Formalpropertybasedspatialunitscanconcernformally registeredownershipwitharelatedownerandwithidentifiedboundariesbyaccuratefieldsurveys.The(social)tenure relationshiptothespatialunitsmayberepresentedbypointscollectedwith(hand-held)GPSinstruments–source documentsmaybeprintedfromwebsitesprovidingspatialdata.

Spatialunitsinurbanbusinessdistrictscanbeconventionalparcelswithhighaccurateboundaries.Spatialunitsinresidential areascanbederivedfromaerialphotographs.Ortotalstations,radardetection,recording,cyclomedia,Pictometry,orother sensorscanbeused.Digitalvideoorvoicerecordingarealsopossible;seeBarry(2005).

Dataqualityofspatialdatamaybeimprovedinalaterstageofdevelopment.

Note:Personidentificationisnotaprimaryresponsibilityofcadastreandlandregistry,butmightbeofrelevanceinLAprocesses.It canbeobservedthatbiometricapproachesarecomingmoreandmoreavailable;inpassports,inaccesstocountries.Identification documentscanbe‘time-line’disruptedwhennewdocumentsareprovided.Itshouldbepossibletolinkfingerprintstopoints (co-ordinates).

6 Arangeofauthentic sourcedocuments

Inclusionofnewdataanddataupdatesshouldbedocumented.Thisconcernslegaladministrativedata,spatialdataand technicaldata.

Updatinginoneorganisationmayneedupdatinginanotherorganisation.

7 Transparency Thenamesofpersonsresponsiblefortransactionsarepartofthedataset(conveyors,surveyors,registrars,etc.).Allupdates shouldbetraceable.Thisisonereasonformanagementofhistoryandfordocumentationofallupdates.

8 History Distributedsystemsorusersmaynotonlybeinterestedatthecurrentstateofobjects,buttheymayneedahistoricversionof theseobjects.Itmaybethattheorganisationresponsibleforthemaintenanceoftheobjectsisnotinterestedinhistory;the distributedusemayrequirethis.Deedbasedsystemsrequiremaintenanceofhistory,titlebasedsystemsmayrequire maintenanceofhistory,e.g.incaseofdistributedsystems.

9 Differentorganisations InFIG(1999)itishighlightedthattheflowofinformationrelatingtolandandpropertybetweendifferentgovernment agenciesandbetweentheseagenciesandthepublicmustbeencouraged.Whilstaccesstodata,itscollection,custodyand updatingshouldbefacilitatedatalocallevel,theoveralllandinformationinfrastructureshouldberecognisedasbelongingto anationaluniformservicetopromotesharingwithinandbetweennations.SeealsoWilliamsonandTing(2001).

Landadministrationdatacanbemaintainedbydifferentorganisations.Andwithinoneorganisationatmanysites. Administrativeterritoriesfororganisationscanbecompletelydifferent.TheLADMisexpectedtobeimplementedasa distributedsetof(geo-)informationsystems,eachsupportingthemaintenanceprocesses(transactionsinlandrights, establishmentofrights,restrictionsandresponsibilitiesandtheinformationsupplyofpartsofthedataset,representedin thismodel(diagram),therebyusingotherpartsofthemodel.Note:thisimpliesthatitmustbepossibletousedataindata infrastructures–wheredataareproducedbydifferentorganisations.Thereareopportunitiesforgreatercosteffectivenessin areassuchassubcontractingworktotheprivatesector;increasingcostrecoverythroughhigherfees,salesofinformation, andtaxes;andbylinkingtheexistinglandadministrationrecordswithawiderrangeoflandinformation.SeealsoBogaerts andZevenbergen(2001)andFourie(1998).

Organisationsarebecomingmoredependentofeachotherandareinfactforcedtoopenness(ofsystems)andexchange(of data).Developmentssuchaschainorientation,digitisationandnewtechnologiesareleadingtothefadingofphysicalproduct concepts.

10 Keepdatatothesource (withinSDI)

Todayalldata(spatialandthematic)canbestoredinaDataBaseManagementSystem(DBMS).

Informationproductsarebecomingflexiblecombinationsofdigitaldatacomponentsandadditionalfacilitiesandservices. Thiscanreplacetheexchangeofcopiesofdatasetsbetweenorganisations.MultisourceInformationproductsrequire avoidanceofredundancyandgoodstandardisationprotocols.

Table1(Continued)

No. Requirement Impact

11 Existingstandards ExistingISOandOGCstandardsshouldbefollowed,particularlytheISO191XXgeographicinformationstandards.

Furthermore,LADMshouldbebasedontheconceptualframeworkof‘Cadastre2014_{(KaufmannandSteudler,1998).The}

layersoftheCadastre2014ModelmapwelltoGISlayers,eachlayerhasassociationswithnon-spatialtables,thelayerset-up hastobeflexible,andgeometrycanbebasedonISOgeometryandISOtopology.

AremarkrelatedtotheCadastre2014principleoflegalindependenceisthatitshouldbepossibletoincludeexplicitrelations betweendifferentthemes,e.g.rightsandrestrictions.Overlaysarenotaccurateenoughinmanycases.

12 Referencesystem Provisionsmustalsobemadetoaccommodatefuturechangesinthenetworkthatmayoccurasaresultoftechnical improvements.Thesemayaffectallco-ordinatebasedsystems.Ifco-ordinatesareanessentialcomponentofthecadastral systemthanthesurveytechniquemustbecapableofproducingthese.Imagerycanbeuseddependingontheuser requirements,cost,andtimingamongotherfactors.Itshouldbepossibletoincludealldocumentationondatacollectedas evidencefromthefield.

13 Identifiers AkeycomponentinLASsisthespatialunitidentifier(UN/ECE,2004),theparcelidentifierortheuniqueparcelreference number.Thisactsasalinkbetweentheparcelitselfandallrecordrelatedtoit.Itfacilitatesdatainputanddataexchange. Therecanbeaneedtochangeidentifiersduringdatacollection.

Identificationsshouldbefreeofsemantics,thereisaneedfor‘identification’providers,e.g.forparcels,areas,names,rights, restrictions,taxation,mortgage,landuse,surveyanddocument.

14 Quality Usersofcadastralinformationneedclarity,simplicityandspeedintheregistrationprocess.Theinformationmustbeas completeaspossible,reliable(whichmeansreadywhenrequired),andrapidlyaccessible.Consistencybetweenspatialand legaladministrativedataisimportant.Topologyintegratedwithgeometryandotherattributesisrelevant.Thesystemmust bereadytokeeptheinformationuptodate.

DataqualityofspatialdatamaybeimprovedinalaterstageofdevelopmentofaLAS,thishastobedocumented. Forcombineddataproductsfromdifferentsourcesthequalitydescriptionsandmetadatarelatedtotheoriginaldataare relevantinrelationtoliabilityandinformationassurance.

GenericversioningandqualitylabellingforallcontentsofLADMisneeded.

InternationalFederation of Surveyorsand representativesfrom South Africa, The Netherlands, Canada, Japan, Kenya, South Korea,USA,Finland,Sweden,Germany,France,Hungary,Malaysia, Thailand,Denmark,AustraliaandSpain.Thisstandardwasnow publishedbytheInternationalOrganisationforStandardisationISO inDecember2012.

ThedevelopmentofLADMisbasedonuserneeds:a comprehen-siveoverviewofrequirementsfortheLandAdministrationDomain isavailablein(Lemmen,2012;Table1).Openmarketsand globali-sationrequireasharedontologyallowingenablingcommunication betweeninvolvedpersonswithinonecountryandbetween dif-ferentcountries.Effectiveandefficientsystemdevelopmentand maintenanceofflexible(generic)systemsaskforfurther standard-isation.Astandardisedlandadministrationdomainmodelshould beassimpleaspossible,inordertobeusefulinpractice. Addi-tionally,itshouldbeadaptableandadoptabletolocalsituations. Moreover,thetechnologyadoptedshouldbesufficientlyflexible tomeetfutureneedsandtopermitsystemgrowthandchange.

TheLADM(ISO19152)

A commondenominator, or thepattern can be observed in global land administration systems: legal/administrative data, party/person/organisation data, spatial unit (parcel)/immovable objectdata,dataonsurveyingorobjectidentificationand geomet-ric/topologicaldataareallincluded(Lemmen,2012).Alongwith therequirementsanddriversdiscussedabove,thesewerethe ini-tialbasisforLADMdesign.Subsequently,thedesignoftheLADM occurredincrementally.Afterpreparatoryworksofalmostsixyears theLADMwassubmittedtotheISOandparalleltoCEN,thisisthe ComitéEuropéendeNormalisation.

TheDraftInternationalStandard,publishedbyISOasISO19152, coversbasicinformationrelatedtocomponentsofland adminis-tration(includingwaterandelementsaboveandbelowtheearth’s surface).Itincludesagreementsondataaboutadministrativeand spatialunits,landrightsinabroadsenseandsourcedocuments (e.g.deedsorsurveys).Therightsmayincluderealandpersonal, formalrightsaswellasindigenous,customaryandinformalrights. Alltypesofrestrictionsandresponsibilitiescanberepresented.The draftstandardcanbeextendedandadaptedtolocalsituations;in thiswayitisarguedthatmost,ifnotall,people–landrelationships mayberepresented.

The UML class diagram is represented in Fig. 1. The three mainpackagesoftheLADMconsistofthePartypackage(green), theAdministrativepackage(yellow)andtheSpatialUnitpackage (blue)withitssubpackageRepresentationandSurvey(red).

Themainclassofthepartypackage(seeFig.2)ofLADMisclass LAPartywithitsspecialisationLAGroupParty.Thereisanoptional associationclassLAParty-Member.APartyisapersonor organi-sationthatplaysaroleinarightstransaction.Anorganisationcan beacompany,amunicipality,thestate,orachurchcommunity.A ‘groupparty’isanynumberofparties,formingtogetheradistinct entity.A‘partymember’isapartyregisteredandidentifiedasa con-stituentofagroupparty.Thisallowsdocumentationofinformation tomembership(holdingsharesinrights).

Theadministrativepackage(seeFig.3)concernstheabstract class LARRR (with its three concrete subclasses LARight, LARestrictionandLAResponsibility),andclassLABAUnit(Basic AdministrativeUnit).A‘right’isanaction,activityorclassofactions thatasystemparticipantmayperformonorusinganassociated resource.Examplesare:ownershipright,tenancyright,possession, customaryrightoraninformalright.Arightcanbeauseright. Rightsmaybeoverlappingormaybeindisagreement.A ‘restric-tion’isastatebasedornon-statebasedentitlementtorefrainfrom doingsomething;e.g.itisnotallowedtobuildwithin200mofa fuelstation;orservitudeoramortgage(classLAMortgage)asa restrictiontotheownershipright.A‘responsibility’isaformalor informalobligationtodosomething.A‘baunit’(anabbreviation for‘basicadministrativeunit’)isanadministrativeentity consist-ingofzeroormorespatialunits(parcels)againstwhichoneor moreuniqueandhomogeneousrights(e.g.anownershiprightor alanduseright),responsibilitiesorrestrictionsareassociatedto thewholeentityasincludedinthelandadministrationsystem. Anexampleofa‘baunit’isabasicpropertyunitwithtwospatial units(e.g.anapartmentoragarage).A‘basicadministrativeunit’ mayplaytheroleofa‘party’becauseitmayholdarightof ease-mentoveranother,usuallyneighbouring,spatialunit.Theremay berelationshipsbetweenBAUnits.

The spatial unit package (see Fig. 4) concerns the classes LASpatialUnit, LASpatialUnitGroup, LALevel, LALegalSpace Network, LALegalSpace-BuildingUnit and LARequired RelationshipSpatialUnit (this class is notrepresented in Fig.4). A ‘spatial unit’ can be represented as a text (“from this tree to that river”), a point (or multi-point), a line (or multi-line),

Fig.1.TheLandAdministrationDomainModel.(Forinterpretationofthereferencestocolorinthetext,thereaderisreferredtothewebversionofthisarticle.)

Fig.2.PartyPackage(classes,withattributes,constraints,andoperations).

representingasinglearea(ormultipleareas)ofland(orwater)or, morespecifically,asinglevolumeofspace(ormultiplevolumes ofspace).Singleareasarethegeneralcaseandmultipleareasthe exception. Spatialunits arestructured ina way tosupportthe creationandmanagementofbasicadministrativeunits.A‘spatial unitgroup’is agroupof spatialunits;e.g.: spatialunitswithin anadministrativezone(e.g.asection,acanton,amunicipality,a department,a provinceora country)orwithinaplanningarea. A‘level’ isa collectionofspatial unitswithageometricand/or topologicand/orthematiccoherence.

The Spatial Unit Package has one Surveying and Repre-sentation Sub-package with classes such as LASpatialSource, LAPoint,LABoundaryFaceStringandLABoundaryFace.Pointscan beacquired in thefield byclassical surveys orwith images. A survey is documented with spatial sources. A set of measure-mentswithobservations(distances,bearings,etc.)ofpoints,isan attributeofLASpatialSource.Theindividualpointsareinstancesof classLAPoint,whichisassociatedtoLASpatialSource.2Dand3D

representations of spatial units use boundary face string (2D boundariesimplyingverticalfacesformingapartoftheoutside ofaspatialunit)andboundaryfaces(facesusedin3D representa-tionofaboundaryofaspatialunit).Co-ordinatesthemselveseither comefrompointsorarecapturedaslineargeometry.

All classes (except LASource) inherit from VersionedObject (VersionedObjectisnotrepresentedinthefigures). VersionedOb-jectcontainsqualitylabelsandattributesforhistorymanagement. IntheLADM,administrativesourcesandspatialsourcesare mod-elled,startingwithanabstractclassLASource.LASourcehastwo subclasses:LAAdministrativeSource,andLASpatialSource.

Implementation of the LADM can be performed in a flexi-ble way; the draft standard can be extended and adapted to local situations. External links to other databases (supporting information infrastructure type of deployment), e.g. addresses, are included(see Fig. 5).Legal implicationsthat interfere with (national)landadministrationlawsareoutsidethescopeofthe LADM.

Fig.3. Administrativepackage(classes,withattributes,constraints,andoperations).

TheLADMisorganisedintoseveralpackagesasexplained.It islikelythatmorepackageswillbedeveloped.Besidesbeingable topresent/documentthemodelincomprehensiveparts,another advantageofusingpackagesisthatitispossibletodevelopand maintainthesepackagesinamoreorlessindependentway.LA modellingdependsalot onthescopeofthemodels;e.g.ifone LandAdministrationmodelincludesapersonregistrationandthe othermodeljustreferstoaperson,thenthetwomodelsmaylook different,buttheintentionsarethesame.Onlythesystem bound-aryoftheinvolvedmodelsisdifferent.However,theboundaryof theLADMisarbitraryinacertainsense.Perhaps,also(someofthe) currentpackagesofthemodelshouldbeconsideredasseparate modelsoutsidetheLADM;ormoremodelsinsidetheLADMmay beneeded.Thefollowingisalistofclasses,orpackagesofclasses thatarerelatedto,butoutsideLADM:

-spatial(coordinate)reference system.It shouldbenoted that thephysical implementation of a reference systemis part of conventional cadastral systems. There can bemore then one reference system for different parts of the territories where suchsystemsareimplemented;e.g.onelocalcoordinatesystem pervillage.Spatialreferencesystemsarethebasis forgetting nationwidecadastralspatial dataavailable.In LADMthe Spa-tialReferenceSystem(SRS)appearviatheGMPointattributein theLAPoint,LASpatialUnitand LASpatialUnitGroup;viathe

GM CurveattributeinLABoundayFaceandviatheGMSurface attributeinLABoundayFaceclasses.Infactthoseattributesare re-usedfromISO19111,spatialreferencingbyco-ordinates;and ISO19107spatialschema–GMpointandGMMultiCurveand GMSurfacearedefinedhere.Forthis reasonspatialreference systemsareexcludedfromLADM,aswellfeaturetypesforspatial data,

-orthophotos,satelliteimagery,andLidarandelevationmodels. Hereitshouldbenotedthatorthophoto’sandsatelliteimagery maybeverywellusedasbasisfordataacquisitioninthefieldof cadastralboundarydata(LemmenandZevenbergen,2010).The cadastralboundariescanbeidentifiedinthefieldontopofsuch images.Theimagerysourcecanbedescribedinattributesinthe LASpatialSourceclass,andintheDQElementattributewhich ispartoftheLAVersionedObjectclass.Theimagesitselfmay includedinLADMusingLASpatialSouce,

-topography(planimetry).Againthisisconsideredtobeadomain in it itself. Topographic maps (ordatabases withtopographic data)maybeusedasabasisforcadastralboundarydata acqui-sitionandmaintenance;thetopographicmaps/datacanbeused asspatialsource(asevidencefromthefield).

-geology, geo-technical and soil information. This is relevant informationinrelationtominingandlanduse(agricultural) man-agement–thosearedomainsinitself.TheLADMsupportsthe inclusionofattributesasresultsofdatacollectionprocesseson

Fig.4.Spatialunitpackage(classes,withattributes,constraints,andoperations).

geology,soil,etc.InthiswayaLandAdministrationformining maybebuiltup;thiswouldincludeconcessionsandexploration companiesasparties,

-(dangerous)pipelinesandcableregistration.Thisconcernsthe physicalregistrationofcablesandpipelines–goodexternal ref-erencesarepossiblehereusingtheextPhysicalUtilityNetworkID attribute under LALegalSpaceUtilityNetwork assubclass from LASpatialUnit.LADMisaboutlegalspacein3D.Thisincludes ofcoursetheregistrationofaccesstoutilitiesasrestrictionsto otherlandrightsofotherparties(rightsofway,encumbrances, andservitudes).Itisveryimportanttorecognisethatlegalspace aroundautilitycableorpipelinedoesnotnecessarilycoincide withthephysicalspaceofacableorpipelineinanetwork. Utili-tiescanbeinvisible–antennasshould“see”eachotherforsignal transmissions. For all utilities a 3D partition of space is very helpfulin representation.Thismayalsoincludeaccessto,e.g. airports,

-address registration (including postal codes). Standards for addressesare under developmentasISO 19160. Addressesin LADMconcernspatialunitaddresses(“object”addresses)butof coursepartiescanhaveaddresses(“subject”addresses)–butin LADMthoseaddressesareconsideredtobeavailableviaextParty class:thisisthepopulationregister,orthecompanyregister.Of coursetheexternaladdressclassasintroducedherebelowcan beincludedinaLADMimplementation,

-buildingregistration,both (3D)geometryand attributes (per-mits),this concerns thephysical registration.Theregistration oflegalspacein3DisincludedinLADM.Legalspacedoesnot necessarilycoincidewiththephysicalspaceofabuilding,

-naturalpersonregistration–theauthenticpersondataare con-sidered tobe in thepopulationregister: name, dateof birth, personaddress,sex,etc.,

-non-naturalperson(company,institution)registration.Samefor typicalattributesofnonnaturalpersons,e.g.companies, -pollutedarearegistration.Thismaybesubjectofregistration.In

facttheresponsibilities asaconsequencefromsuchpollution ortherestrictionsfollowingfromit canbeincludedin LADM. Thisdomainofpollutedarearegistrationcouldbeanextension inthefuture.Somethingsimilarmaybevalidforenergylabelsfor buildings,miningrightregistration,

-culturalhistory,(religious)monumentsregistration.Thiscanbe includedusinglocalattributesdefinedforthispurpose,

-ship- and aeroplane (andcar) registration.Even car registra-tioncomesinhereincaseofdistinctionbetweenmovablesand immovable’s.Butshipsandairplanesmaybedefinedas immov-able–becausetherecanbeamortgageestablished.

Mostoftheregistrationrelated issuesidentifiedherecanbe includedin LADMusingitsbasicstructure and optionsof local extensions.Inallcasestheprocesseswillnotbethesubjectof mod-elling,onlytheoutcomesofprocesses(steps)canbeincludedin suchextendedlocalversionsofLADM.

The(Draft) InternationalStandard(ISO,2011,2012)and has beendevelopedonthebasisofasetofuserrequirementsderived fromexistingliterature,fromexperiencefrompractise,both per-sonalandfromexpertsfrommanydifferentcountriesandearlier publicationsonLADM,includingearlierversionspublishedwithin

Fig.5. Externalclasses.

Allrequirementsfrom“LADMrequirements”aresupportedin LADM.Codelistsforpartytype,grouppartytype,andpartyrole typeallowforflexibilityistherepresentationandextensibilityof parties(includingpartieswithresponsibilitiesintransactions.Code listsforrighttype,restrictiontype,responsibilitytype,mortgage type,baunittype,sourcetypeallowtheflexibleimplementation ofthecontinuumoflandrights(combinedwiththeassociations betweenclasses).Similarcodelistsareavailableforspatialunits andforareamanagement.

LADMismaintainedbyISO/TC211.Relevantexisting interna-tionalstandards1_{havebeenre-usedinLADM.Thosedatastandards}

are accepted in the world of the Geographical Information

1 _{Forexample:ISO/IEC13240:2001,Informationtechnology—Document}

descrip-tionandprocessinglanguages—InterchangeStandardforMultimediaInteractive Documents(ISMID);ISO19107:2003,GeographicInformation—Spatialschema; ISO19108:2002,GeographicInformation—Temporalschema;ISO19111:2007, GeographicInformation—Spatialreferencingbycoordinate;ISO19115:2003, Geo-graphicinformation—Metadata;ISO19125-2:2004,Geographicinformation— Simplefeatureaccess—Part2:SQLoption;ISO19156:2011,Geographicinformation —Observationsandmeasurements.

SystemsandData BaseManagementSystems–and maintained byISOTC211.

LADMisaconceptualmodelandisalreadyinuseassuch (coun-tryprofiles,integrationinthedataspecificationofcadastralparcels in INSPIRE (INSPIRE, 2009) and the Land Parcel Identification SystemoftheEuropeanUnion(ISO,2012),basisforsoftware devel-opmentinitiativesatFAO(FAO,2011)andUNHabitat(FIG,2010), etc.,(seealsoLemmen,2012),thenextstepsincludeelaborating (viaa country profile)and realizinga technical model suitable forimplementation: databaseschema(SQL DDL),exchange for-mat(XML/GML),anduserinterfaceforeditanddissemination.A goodoptionforthisisthecollaborationbetweenFIGandOGCto standardisethistechnicalmodel(withoptionssuchasCityGMLor LandXML).

ImpactofLADMandfuturedevelopments

LADM allowsfor theimplementationof a rich functionality over distributed environment. Someof theofferedoptions still havetobediscovered,forexampleduringpilots.ALADM commu-nityisdeveloping.Sofarworkshopshavebeenorganisedin2003,

Enschede,theNetherlands,in2004,inBamberg,Germany,in2009, QuebecCity,Canadaandin2012inRotterdam,theNetherland,and 2013inKualaLumpur,Malaysia.

ThemajorimpactofLADMwillbethroughitsrecognitionas anISOstandardforthedomainoflandadministration.ISO stan-dardisation is a comprehensive,extensive, formal process with continuouspeerreviewsanditerationsbasedonexperienceof ear-lierimplementations.ForLADMthis(creative)approachresultedin findingcommondenominatorsinlandadministration.The innova-tionisintheavailabilityoftheLADMasabasisforstructuringand organisingofrepresentationsofpeopletolandrelatedinformation, indatabases,inagenericway.ThismeansthattheLADMisoneof thetools(orbetter:conditions)forawiderangeoforganisational andsocietalactivities.LADMhasbeendesignedinsuchawaythat itcaneasilybechangeddependingonlocaldemands.Useofthe standardisfarawayfrom‘dogmaticimplementations’withfixed rules;onthecontrarytheapproachisasflexibleaspossible.Itoffers acommonlanguageforLAthatenablesmutualunderstanding.ISO hasastandardupdatecycleforrevisionsofstandards.

Withregardstopracticalimplementation,attheinternational level, LADM functionality supports emerging land administra-tion design philosophies. LADM supports the Global LandTool Network’s (GLTN) the continuum of land rights (management of different tenures in one environment), the continuum of approaches,thecontinuumofrecordation,thecontinuumof spa-tialunitsandsubjects.LADMopensoptionsnowtobridgegaps between cultures where People to Land relationshipsare con-cerned,definitivelynotonlyinsupportofglobalisation,butalso withastrongattentiontobringsupportintheprotectionofland rights(tenuresecurity)forall.Inthisregard,UN-Habitat,thelead GLTNagency,promotedthedevelopmentofSTDM(FIG/UN Habi-tat,2010).TheSTDMisasub-versionoftheLADMthatpresents a generic and inclusive solution as a way forward for build-ingflexiblelandadministrationsystems.TheSTDMsoftwareand sourcecodewerereleasedsimultaneouslyatthe2014FIGCongress in Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia (FIG, 2014a).As of December2013, pilotsinKenya,Columbia,andHaitihadbeenundertaken.Scaled rollout wasoccurring in parts of Uganda. Meanwhile, capacity developmentprogrammesregardingSTDMhadbeendeliveredto professionalsinNamibia,Lesotho,SouthAfrica,Botswana, Mozam-bique,Zimbabwe,Tanzania, Kenya,Malawi,NorthSudan, South Sudan, Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines,Indonesia,Jamaica,andTrinidadandTobago(andother CaribbeanIslands).Meanwhile,furtherrolloutswereplannedfor DRC,ZambiaandFiji(Augustinus,2014).

TheOrganisationofEasternCaribbeanStates(OECS)providesa specificexampleofapplication.Itisdevelopingregionallandpolicy guidelinesaddressingthecriticallandissues(Griffith-Charlesetal., 2013).Theseguidelinesaretorepresentanintegratedapproachto landpolicydevelopmentasthebasisforlandadministration frame-worksforthememberstates.Landagenciesofthememberstates aremandatedtoparticipateintheinitiativeandhavethuscreated aproject-basedmomentumuponwhichthedevelopmentofthe STDM(SocialTenureDomainModel)canderivestakeholder sup-port.InthiscontextareasonablegoalofSTDMimplementationis itsintegrationwithorupdatingoftheformallandadministration systems.Toachievethis,alldatamustbecollectedusingthesame structure:Party–SocialTenureRelationship–SpatialUnit.Itmust alsobedeterminedinadvancewhetherthe‘Party’wouldbea nat-uralperson,ahousehold,orfamily.Thesocialtenurerelationships aredefinedinacodelist,whichisauniversalsetofallthepossible instancesintheOECS(Griffith-Charlesetal.,2013).

In parallel to GLTN developments, FAO maintains land tool developmentprogrammes–alsoinfluencedbyLADM.SOLAisan opensourcesoftware tooldeveloped since 2011.The aimisto providealowcostlandadministrationalternativeforlandagencies

indevelopingcountries–andsubsequentlysupportadherenceto theFAO/CFS‘VoluntaryGuidelinesontheResponsibleGovernance ofTenure’(FAO,2012).Theguidelinesdealextensivelywiththe roleoflandadministrationsystemsinsupportinglandtenure secu-rity.PilotsofthesoftwarewereconductedinSamoa,Nepal,and Ghana.InLesotho,thesoftwarehasalsobeenimplementedaspart ofongoinglandadministrationdevelopmentefforts.Meanwhile, therecentlyreleasedcloudbasedversionoftheSOLA,‘OpenTenure CommunityServer’,whilstnotyetpublic,isbasedupontheLADM. Alsoattheinternationallevel,LADMsupportsimplementation ofFIGs‘Fit-for-purposeLandAdministration’approach(Enemark etal.,2014).Fit-for-purposemeansthatthelandadministration systems–andespeciallytheunderlyingspatialframeworkoflarge scalemapping–shouldbedesignedforthepurposeofmanaging current landissues withinaspecific countryor region–rather than simply following more advanced technical standards.The fit-for-purpose approach is participatoryand inclusive.Benefits relatetothe opportunityofbuildingappropriate land adminis-trationsystems withina relativelyshorttime andforrelatively lowandaffordablecosts.Thefit-for-purposeapproachisarealistic approachthatisscalableandcouldmakeasignificantdifference intheintermediatetimeframe,andtheflexibilityinLADM sup-ports thephilosophy. Indeed, viaFIG the original ISO proposal wassubmitted.Atregionallevel,LADMhasalsoinfluences devel-opments,specificallywithintheEuropeanCommission’sINSPIRE initiative.ThedirectiveaimsatestablishingaEuropean-wideSDI. Cadastralparcelsarearecognisedlayer.INSPIREandLADM devel-oped in parallel,however, developmentsregarding theINSPIRE cadastralparcelsaretailoredtoalign withtheLADMapproach. It shouldbenotedthat theLandAdministrationDomainModel (LADM)providesawidercontextfortheINSPIREcadastralparcels becauseLADMincludesadditionalinformationonrights(boundto nationallegislation)andowners,whichareoutsidethedirectscope ofINSPIRE(INSPIRE,2009).

Meanwhile,withinnationalandstatebasedland administra-tionagencies,LADMcansupportsystemdesignanddevelopment, withcoverage ofall tenuretypes. LADMcanoperate informal and informal environments (“self made land administration”). LADMdescribesthedatacontentsoflandadministrationin gen-eral.ImplementationoftheLADMcanbeperformedinaflexible way; thestandard canbeextended and adaptedtolocal situa-tions. Already available publishedworks from various contexts include:Paixãoet al. (2013),Choonand Seng (2013),Shin and

Kwak(2013),Zhuoetal.(2013),andZulkiflietal.(2013).

Mean-while,othercountriesalreadyexpressinginitialinterestintermsof alignmentordevelopmentinclude:Malaysia(Zulkiflietal.,2013), Zimbabwe (Paradzayi et al., 2014), Belize, Brazil (Paixãoet al., 2013),TrinidadandTobago(FIG,2014b),Cyprus,Portugal,Lesotho, Honduras, Canada,Indonesia,Uganda, Senegal,Vietnam, China, Zambia,AlbaniaandSouthKorea(http://isoladm.org).Further evi-denceforthepotentialutilisationofLADMinsystemdevelopment isprovidedinAnnexAoftheISOstandard.Sixcountryprofiles andspatialandlegalprofilesareincluded,inrespectivelyAnnex D,AnnexEandAnnexF.Beyondsystemdevelopment,LADMcan alsosupportthequalityupgradingofexisting(notproperly main-tained)datasets(consistencybuildingandvalidation)(seeMa –der etal.,2013),andthemanagementofawiderangeof documenta-tion.Thelatterpointconcernsevidencefromthefieldandlegal, transactional,andadministrativedocuments,landadministration development.InLAorganisations,LADMcanalsobelinkedto work-flowmanagement.ProcessesarenotintegratedinLADM,linkingis possiblebyroletypes,versioning,qualitylabelsandexchangeof databetweeninvolvedorganisations.Soon(2013)demonstrated theformalisationofdomainontologyfromnatural languagefor LandAdministration. In order tobuild thedomainontology to emphasise userroles, additional classes and relationshipshave

beenadded.Theontologyattemptstosupportland administra-tionsystemsthataimtoservecustomersmoreproactivelyforland administrationroutineprocessessuchasregistrationsoflandtitles andsubmissionsofsurveyplans.

Betweenagenciesandorganisationsdealingwithspatialdata, LADMsupportsstructuringandorganisingdatabase interoperabil-ity.Databasescanbeimplementedinadistributedenvironment indifferentorganisationswithdifferentresponsibilities inLand Administration and population registration. In short, LADM is usablewithinaSpatialDataInfrastructure(SDI).Thisconcernsthe dataexchangebetweenorganisationsinvolvedinland administra-tion.TheLADM“packages”havebeenintroducedforimproved rep-resentationoftasksandresponsibilities(whichcanbeindifferent organisations).LADMcanbeabasisforcombiningdatafrom differ-entLASs;e.g.LASswithdatasetsonformalandinformalPeopleto Landrelationships.TheInternationalStandardincludes informa-tiveexamplecaseswithPeopletoLandrelationships demonstrat-ingtheflexibilityofthestandard.ForimplementationinSDIthe linkstoexternalclassesinotherregistrationsareimportant.

Forsoftwareanddatabasedevelopers,LADMprovidesthe pre-ferredstable(butextensible) standardsasa startingpointfor a development.LADMallowsaflexible,step-by-stepapproachesin thedevelopmentofaLandAdministrationsystembasedonthe needs,prioritiesandrequirementsofusersandthesociety.Thiscan becombined,inanaturalway,withorganisationaldevelopment withproperalignmenttoICTdevelopment,seeGilroy(2013).In 2014,ESRI,oneoftheworld’slargestsuppliersofGISsoftware, com-mencedmeasurestoincorporateLADMintoitssoftwareofferings

(ESRI,2013).Inaddition,BentleySystems,anothermajorprovider

ofGISsoftware,undertookstepstoalignproductofferingswith LADM.

Within the land administration research community, LADM impacts upon several other developments. For example, when consideringthecompletedevelopmentlifecycleofruraland,in particular,urbanareas,manyrelatedactivitiesshouldoftenalso support3Drepresentations(andnotjustthecadastralregistration ofthe3DspatialunitsassociatedwiththecorrectRRRsandparties). Theexactnamingoftheseactivitiesdiffersfromcountryto coun-try,andtheirorderofexecutionmaydiffer.However,insomeform oranother,thefollowingstepsperformedbyvariouspublicand privateactors,whichareallsomehowrelatedtocadastral regis-tration,arerecognised:developandregisterzoningplans,design newspatialunits/objects;acquireappropriateland/space;request andprovide(aftercheck)permits,etc.Severaloftheactivitiesand theirinformationflowsneedtobestructurallyupgradedfrom2D to3Drepresentations.Becausethischainofactivitiesrequiresgood informationflowsbetweenthevariousactors,itiscrucialthatthe meaningofthisinformationiswelldefined–animportantrolefor standardisation.ImportantareISO19152(LADM)andISO19156 (ObservationsandMeasurements),andveryrelatedandpartially overlappingisthescopeofthenewOGC’sLandDevelopment– StandardsWorkingGroup(LD-SWG),withmoreofafocusoncivil engineeringinformation,e.g.,theplannedrevisionofLandXML(to bealignedwithLADM).Thisphenomenon isespecially truefor 3Dcadastralregistrationbecauseitisbeingtestedandpracticed inanincreasingnumberofcountries.Forexample,forbuildings (above/below/onthesurfaceorconstructionssuchastunnelsand bridges),and(utility)networks,thisoverlapisclear.LADMis focus-ingonthespatial/legalside,whichcouldbecomplementedbycivil engineeringphysical(model)extensions.Itisimportanttoreuse existingstandardsasafoundationandtocontinuefromthatpoint toensureinteroperabilityinthedomaininourdeveloping envi-ronment.

Finally, LADM will provide a structured approach to main-tainingglobalstandardsanddiscourseinthelandadministration domain. ISO guarantees maintenance of the standard – future

developments in the domaincan beincluded in this way. The standardhasbeendevelopedbyexpertsfromallovertheworld:UN HabitatLandTenureSectionwithitscomprehensiveknowledgeon customarytenuresystems,EUJointResearchCentrewithabroad knowledgebaseonINSPIREandLPIS,theUnitedNationsSchoolfor LandAdministrationStudieswithmanyalumniontoppositions inlandadministrationorganisationsinmanycountriesand rep-resentativesfromLandAdministrationorganisations,universities andnormalisationinstitutescollaboratedinthedevelopment.

Conclusionsandrecommendations

LADM,aninternationalstandardforthedomainofland admin-istration,isintendedtoassistthealignmentoflandadministration designwithsocietaldemandsembeddedinnationalandstateland polices.Fundamentally,themodel isbuiltupon andadheresto theconceptsofthecontinuumoflandrightswhendescribingland interests.Itcoversbasicinformationrelatedtocomponentsofland administration:landadministrationincludeswaterandelements aboveandbelowtheearth’ssurface(ISO,2012),andpeople.Those componentsconcern:partyrelateddata;dataonRRRsandthebasic administrativeunitswhereRRRsapplyto;dataonspatialunits andonsurveyingandtopology/geometry.Thedatasetsinthose componentsarerepresentedinUMLpackagesandclassdiagrams. Alldatainalandadministrationaresupposedtobedocumented in(authentic)sourcedocuments.Thosesourcedocumentsarethe basisforbuildingupatrustedandreliablelandadministration,as basisfortransactionsandfortheestablishmentofnewlandrights inalandadministration,seeforexample(Uitermarketal.,2010).

LADMiscapableofsupportingtheprogressiveimprovementof cadastres,includingboththegeographicandotherelementsand ofsupportingfit-for-purpose cadastralrequirements.LADMcan potentiallybeusedtosupportorganisationalintegration,for exam-ple,betweenoftendisparatelandregistryandcadastralagencies. LADMcanhelptoreconcilesuperfluousgovernmentdatabasesand reducethelargeamountofdataredundancythatcurrentlyexists. Finally, regarding future recommendations, the following statements, echoing participant sentiment from the 5th LADM Workshopin Malaysia,aremade. First,LADM requires mainte-nance,otherwise, it willdisappear. Thismeans the‘use’ ofthe standardrequiresongoingmonitoring(i.e.numberofdownloads fromISO).Second,investigationonLADMcanbeintegrated,and shouldbeintegrated,withothergeo-informationstandards(e.g. tolinklegalspacestotheirphysicalcounterpartrepresentedin cityGML, landXML, BIM/IFC)should be undertaken. Third, how LADMcodelistscouldprovidethebasisforestablishingacomplete catalogueofgloballandpeoplerelationships–ifsuchadatabase isdeemednecessary(registrieswouldbeneededformanagingthe content:codelistvaluesandtheirdefinitions)couldalsobe under-taken.Fourth,whilstISOmaintainsitsownmaintenanceapproach, anotherform of governancestructure – potentially a reference group–isneededtofurtherprogresstherefinementand mainte-nanceofthestandard(e.g.codelists,newitems).Fifth,TheLADM usercommunityshouldmakealleffortstointeractonanannual orbiannualbasistofurthershareanddevelopthestandard.Sixth, toensuretheglobalrelevanceandapplicationofthestandard,it isrecommendedtoapplyfurtherresearchontheneedfor explo-rationofwhether,andhow,LADMcancontributetothePost-2015 globaldevelopmentagenda.

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