Pavel M. Dolukhanov
Lu yna Doma«ska
Ali e Marie Haeussler
LeiuHeapost Ken Ja obs Valeriy I. Khartanovi h PhilipL.Kohl Nadezhda S. Kotova Ri hard W. Lindstrom Ilze Loze Dmitriy Nuzhnyi Inna D. Potekhina Dmitriy Telegin Vladimir I. Timofeev Aleksander A. Yanevi h LeonidZaliznyak 1 V O L U M E 5
•
1998w.Mar in78
Tel.(061)8536709ext. 147,Fax(061)8533373
EDITOR AleksanderKo±ko EDITOROFVOLUME Lu ynaDoma«ska KenJa obs EDITORIALCOMMITEE
SophiaS.Berezanskaya (Kiev),AleksandraCofta-Broniewska
(Pozna«), Mikhail Charniauski (Minsk), Lu yna Doma«ska
(ód¹), ViktorI. Klo hko (Kiev), Valentin V. Otrosh henko
(Kiev),PetroTolo hko (Kiev)
SECRETARY
MarzenaSzmyt
SECRETARYOFVOLUME
Andrzej Rozwadowski
ADAMMICKIEWICZUNIVERSITY
EASTERNINSTITUTE
INSTITUTEOFPREHISTORY
Pozna«1998
ISBN83-86094-04-4
Pavel M. Dolukhanov
Lu yna Doma«ska
Ali e Marie Haeussler
LeiuHeapost Ken Ja obs Valeriy I. Khartanovi h PhilipL.Kohl Nadezhda S. Kotova Ri hard W. Lindstrom Ilze Loze Dmitriy Nuzhnyi Inna D. Potekhina Dmitriy Telegin Vladimir I. Timofeev Aleksander A. Yanevi h LeonidZaliznyak 1 V O L U M E 5
•
1998CoverDesign: EugeniuszSkorwider
Lingvisti onsultation:MonikaWoj ieszek
PrintedinPoland
EDITORS'FOREWORD ... 7
KenJa obs,Lu ynaDoma«ska, "BEYONDBALKANIZATION"{AN
OUTLINEPROGRAMFORADISCUSSION ... 9
PavelM.Dolukhanov,THENEOLITHICWITHAHUMANFACE
ORDIVIDINGLINESINNEOLITHICEUROPE? ... 13
Ri hard W.Lindstrom,HISTORYANDPOLITICSINTHEDEVELOPMENT
ETHNOGENETICMODELSINSOVIETANTHROPOLOGY ... 24
Philip L.Kohl, NATIONALIDENTITYANDTHEUSE
OFTHEREMOTEPASTINTHECAUCASUS ... 34
Vladimir I.Timofeev, THEEAST|WESTRELATIONS
INTHELATEMESOLITHICANDNEOLITHIC
INTHEBALTICREGION ... 44
Ilze L oze,THEADOPTIONOFAGRICULTUREINTHEAREA
OFPRESENT-DAYLATVIA(THELAKELUBANABASIN) ... 59
DmitriyTelegin, MESOLITHICCULTURAL-ETHNOGRAPHIC
ENTITIESINSOUTHERNUKRAINE:GENESISANDROLE
INNEOLITHIZATIONOFTHEREGION ... 85
DmitriyNuzhnyi,THEUKRAINIANSTEPPEASAREGION
OFINTERCULTURALCONTACTSBETWEENATLANTIC
ANDMEDITERRANEANZONESOFEUROPEANMESOLITHIC ... 102
L eonidZaliznyak,THELATEMESOLITHICSUBBASE
OFTHEUKRAINIANNEOLITHIC ... 120
Aleksander A.Yanevi h, THENEOLITHICOFTHEMOUNTAINOUS
CRIMEA ... 146
Nadezhda S.Kotova,THEROLEOFEASTERNIMPULSEIN
DEVELOPMENTOFTHENEOLITHICCULTURESOFUKRAINE ... 160
Ali e MarieHaeussler, UKRAINEMESOLITHICCEMETERIES:
DENTALANTHROPOLOGICALANALYSIS ... 195
InnaD.Potekhina,SOUTH-EASTERNINFLUENCESON
THEFORMATIONOFTHEMESOLITHICTOEARLYENEOLITHIC
POPULATIONSOFTHENORTHPONTICREGION:
THEEVIDENCEFROMANTHROPOLOGY ... 226
L eiuHeapost,GENETICHETEROGENEITYOFFINNO-UGRIANS
(ONTHEBASISOFESTONIANMODERNANDARCHAEOLOGICAL
MATERIAL) ... 232
ValeriyI.Khartanovi h, NEWCRANIOLOGICALMATERIAL
ONTHESAAMIFROMTHEKOLAPENINSULA ... 248
This volume ontains the majority of the papers presented during a
onfe-ren ethattookpla e on16th-21stMay,1997inód¹,Poland.The onferen e was
organized by the Institute of Ar haeology, University of ód¹ and Departement
d'anthropologie, Universitede Montreal(Canada). The onferen e wasfundedby
theUniversityofód¹andbyIREX(InternationalResear h&Ex hangesBoard),
whi h also supported this publi ation. The publi ation was partly foundedbythe
Universityofód¹andbytheFoundationofAdamMi kiewi zUniversity,too.
The major questions of the onferen e were, 1) whatisthe urrenteviden e
foreastern orsouthernin uen es inthedevelopmentofeastern European
Meso-lithi andNeolithi populations,and2)to whatextentare urrentpoliti altrends,
espe ially the reassertion or, in some ases, the reation of ethni and national
identities, in uen ingourinterpretationsoftheprehistori data.
The idea for su h a onferen e ame into being through the o-organizers'
long-termstudiesofthedevelopmentofthoseprehistori humanpopulationswhi h
inhabitedthevastregionstret hingnorthandeastfromtheOderriverand
Carpa-thianMountainstothefoothillsoftheUrals. Ina traditionestablishedin modern
times byGordon Childe, virtually all of the transformationsof EasternEurope's
Neolithi Age human lands ape have been assumed to be responses to prior
de-velopments in the Balkan peninsula and Danube basin. We think that a body of
neweviden e requiresa renewedanalysisof thedistributionsof ultural produ ts,
peoples,andideas a rossEasternEuropeduringtheMesolithi throughtheEarly
Metal Age withina mu h wider geographi ontext than previouslyhas been the
ase.Thisin ludesgivingadequateattentiontothefar-rangingintera tionsof
om-munitiesbetweenthePonti andBalti areawiththoselo atedinboththeCau asus
andtheAralo-Caspianregions.
Wehope thatthisvolumewill ontributetosu ha redire tion offuture
ana-lyses.
Lu ynaDoma«ska
1.All datesintheB-PSare alibrated [see:Radio arbonvol.28,1986,andthe
next volumes℄(other versions are ited for thewish of authors).Deviations from
thisrulewillbe pointoutin notes.
2. The names of thear haeologi al ultures (espe ially from theterritory of
theUkraine)arestandarizeda ordingtotheEnglishliteratureonthesubje t(e.g.
Mallory 1989). In the ase of a new term, the author's original name has been
PLISSN1231-0344
PavelM.Dolukhanov
THE NEOLITHIC WITH AHUMAN FACE OR DIVIDING
LINES IN NEOLITHIC EUROPE?
Apparently, the time may be established with great pre ision when Europe
be amesplitupintotwofundamentallydistin tparts.Thatmayhavehappened
be-tween8,000and6,000BPun al.,duringtheHolo eneClimati Optimum,otherwise
knowntheAtlanti periodorAlthitermal.BythattimeEuropehadbeenpopulated
bythegroupsofearlymodernhumansforat least40,000 yearsagoandremained
basi allyuniformboth ulturallyande onomi ally.L o aldistin tions
a knowledge-able inthematerial ultureandstrategies ofsubsisten eintheUpperPalaeolithi
andMesolithi were ofase ondaryimportan e, allbasi typesofso ialbehaviour
and spiritual life being essentially similar from the Atlanti Europe to the Urals
[Dolukhanov1997℄.Onlyatthetimeof limati optimuma onsiderablepartof
so-uth-easternand entralEuropebe ame rapidly overedbythesitesof`agri ultural
Neolithi '.Atthesame time,theremainingpartofEurope,intheEastand
North--East,remained thearea of`forestNeolithi ',where theuse ofpotteryand minor
innovationsin thesphere of ulturedidnotalter thesubsisten esolidlybased on
food-gatheringstrategies,essentially similartothoseofthepre edingMesolithi .
Division of Europe into two major Neolithi areas is expli itly shownon
se-veral maps, startingwith thatofS.Piggot[1965℄andending upwith onere ently
publishedbyM.Zvelebil[1994℄(Fig.1).Ifones rutinisethesemapsattentivelyone
annotes ape thefeeling thatthedividingline betweentheNeolithi areas is
stri-kinglysimilartothatoftheeasternfrontieroftheNATOafteritslatestexpansion.
ThequestionariseswhetherthisboundaryformsanaturallineofdivideinEurope,
whi hsour esgodowntotheNeolithi ?Does Ar haeologyprovideadditional
ar-gumentsforthe laims su has:\Thenewly independentCentralEuropeanstates,
parti ularlyPoland,Hungary,theCze hRepubli andSlovakia onsiderthemselves
part of the West; they ategori ally refuse to be relegated to a Russian sphere of
in uen e or to a no-man's landbetween Western Europe andRussia
. . .
They are morally and politi ally partners of the West, seeking membership in the EuropeanUnionfortheire onomi well-beingandintheAtlanti Allian efortheirse urity"
[Peter Rodman intheWashington Post,13De ember 1994,p.A27℄.
The purposeofthis paperistodis uss therealityof theline of divideinthe
Fig.1.MajorfrontiersandNeolithi ulturesinEurope[afterZvelebil1994℄.
A-WesternDvina;B-Alpineforeland;1-EarlyNeolithi ofAnatoliaandGree e;2-Star evo-Cris;3
-LinearPottery;4-Cu uteni-Tripolye;5-FunnelBeakers;6a,b-ImpressedWares;7-IberianNeolithi ;
8-ChasseyandCortaillod;9-Neolithi ofAtlanti oastalareaandBritain;10-Dnieper-Donets;11
-CordedWare.
of Neolithi as a so io- ultural phenomenon, and se ondly, in the assessment of
possibles enariosofNeolithization.
L etusstartwiththetraditionalviewwhi hseestheNeolithizationasthespread
offarminge onomiessubstitutingthehunter-gatheringwhi hremainedhithertoan
only viable strategy of food-quest in Europe. There exist substantial di eren es
of opinion even within this paradigm, parti ularly regarding the on rete details
of Neolithi repla ement. Nonetheless one may note a remarkable onsensus in
thea knowledgementofthefundamentaldistin tionbetweentheworldoffarmers
and that of later hunter-gatherers. This distin tion was highlighted in then most
spe ta ularformbyIan Hodder[1990℄asthatbetween`domus'and`agros',timed
andwild.
Models of agri ultural expansion are deeply rooted in the pro essualist
tho-ught;theyobviously ndhistori alfoundationsinthere ordedeviden e ofa
om-paratively re ent olonisationoftemperateforestsbyagri ultural groups:thoseof
northernFinland (in the1500s)and UpperCanada (in the1700s). `Colonisation'
wedassubsisten estrategiesregulatingthe owoffoodresour es intothe ultural
systembymeansoftherepla ementofslow-growing ommunitieswithfast-growing
ones,ina ordan ewith theprin ipleof`leastpossible e ortandrisk'.
The model of olonisationas an equivalent toa dire t migration is
omnipre-sentin theworksofGordonChilde [1958℄.Inmore re ent timesthistooka form
ofa`demi expansion' orthe`waveofadvan e'[Ammerman,Cavalli-Sforza1973℄.
Analternative on ept,whi hisslowlybe omingpopular,isthatofdi usion
[Den-nell 1985℄ or,in thelatest version,of a reti ulatepro ess[Moor 1994b℄: reation
of ultural,linguisti andbiologi alunitsresultingfromintermarriage, assimilation
andborrowing. M.Zvelebil and P.A.Rowley-Conwy [1984℄havesuggested an
in-termediate model,whi h envisaged a gradual transitionfrom foraging to farming
andin ludesan`availability phase'duringwhi hfarmingisknownbutnotadopted
bythegroupsof hunter-gatherers, while intensive ex hanges in `materials and
in-formation'takepla e betweentwo` ulturallyande onomi ally'independenttypes
ofso iety.
Stemmingfromthesetheoreti alfoundationswemaynowembarkonthe
analy-sisoftwo asestudies,bothrelatedtotheNeolithi developmentbutintwodi erent
areas of Europe. The rst area fo uses onthe Upper Western Dvina at hment,
lyinginthemiddleofnon-agri ulturalNeolithi .The se ond asestudy entreson
theAlpineforeland,in theheartofagri ultural Neolithi Europe.
1. THEWESTERNDVINA
A ordingtotheavailable pollenandradio arbondata, the limati optimum
(Atlanti period)inthatareatooktheformofatleasttwowarmmaxima:7500
±
200 un al BP(6400-6200BC) (AT-1)and 5000±
200(AT-3)un al BP(3940-3870BC) [Khotinsky, et al. 1991℄. Investigations arried out in the Upper Western Dvinaat hment [Dolukhanov, etal. 1989℄ indi ated a pronoun ed ool interval (AT-2)
whi h separated thetwo peaks in thermophilousplants. This ool interval lasted
a.6,200-6,000un al BP (Fig.2),andfeatureda redu tioninthermophiloustrees
re e tinga dropofmean annual temperature,whi hyetremained above the
pre-sent-dayvalues.
DuringtheL ateAtlanti limati optimum(6,000-4,600/4,500un alBP;
5300--4700 BC), mixed broad-leaved woodlands with oak, elk, lime and alder rea hed
their maximum expansion. Computer simulations indi ate that the mean annual
temperature at thatstage ex eeded the present-dayvalues by2
o
C, with the
rain-fall being similar to thatof today[Khotinsky,etal. 1991℄. The subsequentEarly
Subborealstage(4,600/4,500-4,200un alBP;3000-2600BC)markeda onsiderable
de line intemperatureandalarge-s ale redu tionin broad-leavedforests.
hisasso iates[Miklyaev1995℄.Thearea,originallypartofahugei e-dammedlake,
was abundantly ri h in diversi ed wild-life resour es. It be ame attra tive to the
groupsof Epi-Palaeolithi huntersat thetime of YoungerDryas (11-10Kyr) and
remained anarenaofintensivesettlementeversin e.
L arge-s ale pottery-makingin thatarea, likewise in otherpartsof theboreal
North-EasternEurope, startedat around6.4-6.2 Kyrago(5500-5000BC). The
si-tes were usually lo ated near large and shallow lakes | theresidue of huge
i e--dammed basins ofthe L astI e Age,at thejun tionof end-moraini heightsand
sandy uviogla ial plains. The faunal remains |pra ti ally identi al at all the
si-tes|in ludedelk(whi hpredominates),wildboar,red deer,brownbear,aswell
as waterfowl. Among thenumerous sh remains, pike, per h, salmon and at sh
were the most ommon. No less that 30 edible plants were identi ed in the
ar- haeologi al deposits, among whi h hestnut and, espe ially, water hestnut were
parti ularlynumerous.Oneshouldnotein thatrespe tthatwater hestnut(Trapa
natans) isan amphibiousplantre entlywidely distributed in warmtemperate
Eu-rasia. Itsfruitsare ri h inprotein, fatandminerals. A ordingtohistori re ords,
loafs bakedfromits ourwere in use in an ient EgyptandThra e. Presently
wa-ter hestnut forms staple foodin ontinental Asia, Malaysia and India and used
espe ially in Chinese dishes. Fruits are also used in thepreparation of liniments
to treat elephantiasis, pestilentfevers, rheumatism, sores, sunburnand skin
om-plaints.Used also as foodforpigs andotherlivesto k inSoutheast Asia[Vankina
1970℄.
Atabout5.2Kyror4000BCanewtypeofsettlementemerged:pile dwellings
lo atedinthe oastalareasofshallowlakes.Thistraditionwasinpla eintheUpper
Dvina area fornolessthattwo millennia,anddisappeared onlyafter a prolonged
atastrophi oodingwhi hhitthearea3.6-3.5 Kyrago(2000-1800BC).
Basing ontheanalyses of the erami s (thete hnology, shapes ofthevessels
andornamentalpatterns)aswellasothergroupsofmaterial ultureA.M.Miklyaev
[1995℄hasidenti edseveral ulturalstagesinthelo alsequen e.Theearliestgroup
(theSerteya,6.4-6.2Kyr;5500-5000BC)featuringthi k-walled oni -shapedvessels
andhadnodire tanalogiesintheneighbouringareas.Boththe erami sand
bone--and-antlerindustryof thenext ulturalstage, theRudnya(6.2-5.5Kyr;5000-4000
BC),werebasi ally similartotheNarvian,a ulturaltraditionwidelyspreadinthe
North-EasternPeribalti .
Thenext ulturalstageisreferred as`Usvyatian'(5.2-4.0Kyr;4000-2500BC).
Thepotteryfeatureddi erentornamentalpatterns,some ofwhi hmaybeseen as
derivativesofFunnelBeakertraditions.Afterashort-livedtransitionalstage,anew
ultural traditionbe ame establishedin the area; the North-Belorussian,whi h is
seenasalo alvariantoftheCordedWare(4.0-3.6Kyr;2500-1900BC).Substantial
hanges are observable not only in the new types of erami s (Fig. 2), but also
in thestone inventory and, parti ularly, in a nearly total disappearan e of
bone--and-antlerindustry.The faunalassemblageofpile-dwellings ofNorth-Belorussian
ulture ontainthebonesofdomesti ates:sheep,goat,pigand attle,yettheirtotal
2. THEALPINEFORELAND
Morethan100Neolithi andBronzeAge lakesettlementsare knowntoexist
intheAlpinezoneofEurope:in Germany,Switzerland,Fran e,Italy,Austriaand
Slovenia.Theystartedappearing4200-4000BCanddisappearedby1500BC.An
in- reasedintensityinpile-dwelling onstru tionontheBodenL akeo urredbetween
3586and3500BC[S hli htherle,Wahlster1986℄.
Thetime oftheexisten eof pile-dwellings orrespondedtothe limati
opti-mum.A ordingtoM.R os h[1983℄,thermophiloustreeplants(ash,andalder)
star-tedspreadinginthearea at8500BP,bee h appearing atabout7300BP.Likewise
intheNorth-EasternEurope,a prolonged oolepisodeat6200BP( a 5000BC).
Itisgenerallya knowledgedthatNeolithi lakedwellersintheAlpineforeland
were essentially farmers andsto k-breeders.Yet a onsiderable partof thefaunal
remainsreportedfromthesesidesbelongedtowild spe ies.AttheSwissand
Ger-mansitesred deer was themost ommon,followed bybrownbear andwild boar.
The predominan e of wildspe ies wasstillgreater atthesitesof theFren hJura
[Petrequin, Petrequin 1988℄. In the ase of Lubljansko Barje region in Slovenia,
74% ofthetotalamountof bones belonged towild animals,with a prevalen e of
reddeer(Cervuselaphus|53%);brownbear(Ursus ar tosar tos)|11%andelk
(Al es al es)| 8%. The prevailing domesti animals were attle (Bos taurus) |
14%, with a small proportionof sheep (Ovis aries) | 7%. Pollen analyses shows
that the immediate environment was dominated by r and bee h forests [Budja
1997℄. The sites (Reshnikov kanal and Maharski prekop) are lo ated within the
lake basins, urrentlydrained bysmall hannels.Stratigraphi datasuggestseveral
hangesin thelake-levels duringtheHolo ene.
Thegeographi allo ationofAlpinelakedwellingssuggestagreatimportan e
of shing. This was on rmed by the numerous nds of sh bones (pike being
the most ommon) ombined with frequent o urren es of harpoons, hooksand
various shingdevi es.Theplantremainsidenti edinthedepositsoflakedwellings
show a predominan e of domesti ates: wheat (belonging to two spe ies: Triti um
mono o umL. andT.di o um S h),barley, millet. Atthesame time, onenotes
a onsiderable presen e of wild edible plants: hazel-nut, bee h, strawberry, rose,
bla kberry,wild pear, lime, and arnelian herry (whoseseeds onstitutestrata of
notablethi kness).Itishighlysigni ant, thatlike intheUpperDvina at hment,
dwellingsintheAlpineareawereusuallylo atedonthean ientla ustrinedeposits.
Itis stillmore importantthatvery oftenthearea withinan immediate vi inity of
the sites was totally unsuitable for agri ulture. H. S hli htherle and B. Wahlster
[1986:86℄ note the arable land in the Boden L ake area are usually found at the
distan e ofupto 1kmfrom thedwelling site; oftenhighin themountains,oron
theoppositeshoreofthelake.
Basing predominantlyonthepotterystyles, several ulturalgroupingsare
di-stinguishableinthesequen esofAlpinepile-dwellings.Inthearea ofBodenL ake,
dendro- hronologi almeasurements:Ai hb uhl: 4200-4000BC;Hornstaad:4000BC; Pfyn:
3843-3500 BC; Horgen: 3333-2863 BC; Corded Ware: 2690-2500BC, as well as
EarlyandMiddleBronzeAge ulturalunitswhi hlasteduntil a1500BC.
Summing up theeviden e forthe two areas, one may on lude that ultural
phenomena fairly similar in several respe ts had independently developed at the
same time intwo partsofEurope,bothintheso- alledagri ultural and
non-agri- ulturalNeolithi areas (Table 1).Onenotesparti ularlyremarkablesimilaritiesin
thegeneralenvironmentalsetting andin thete hniqueof house-building.In both
asesthiste hniquein ludedanenormousquantityofpointedpoststhrustintothe
la ustrinesilt,formingthefoundationofplatformsonwhi hvariousstru tureswere
ere ted.Inthebothareasthesettlementswereo upiedallyearround.Theliving
stru tureswere oftenrefurbished,rebuilt,movedtoa higherelevationfollowinga
riseoflake-level;onseveralo asionsmajor res ouldbere ognised.Thedwellings
were oftensurroundedbyfen esandpalisades.
Yet in the majority of ases the pile-dwellings emerged in a di erent
ultu-ralenvironment: theirinhabitantswereintera ting withdistin tso ialand ultural
groups. The only ex eption form thelevels of Corded Ware, a knowledgeable in
the both ases. This observation needs further elaboration, but before doing so,
oneneeds totou h upona sensitive theoreti al issue,related to theexisten e(or
non-existen e) oflarger-s ale ar haeologi al entities referred to as`ar haeologi al
ultures'.
The on eptof(ar haeologi al) ulturewasde nedinamostsu in tformby
D.Clarke[1968℄,asapolytheti setofspe i and omprehensiveartefa t-typeswhi h
onsistentlyre urtogetherinassemblageswithinlimitedgeographi areas.Proponents
ofa ` ultural-histori paradigm' arguedthatar haeologi al ulture orrespondedto
distin tso ial (ethni orlinguisti )units. Thus,Bordes viewedMousterian`fa ies'
identi ed byhim rstin Fran eand, laterinthewholeofEurope,asbelonging to
distin t`tribes'ofNeanderthalMan.This on eptbe ame rmlyestablishedin
Cen-tral andEasternEuropeanar haeologi al s hoolsin theearly20th entury, when
itsprin ipleswere expli itly formulatedbyG.Kossinna[1911:11℄:`sharplyde ned
ar haeologi al ulture areas orrespond without doubt to areas of parti ular
pe-oplesandtribes'.Itmaybeshownthattheprin iplesof` ultural-histori paradigm'
were omnipresent in the Sovietar haeology, parti ularly after the ollapse of the
stadial on ept ofthe1930s[Dolukhanov1995℄.
In ontrasttothat,the`pro essuals hool',whi hbe ame dominantinthe
An-glo-Saxonar haeologysin ethe1950s,tendedtoviewar haeologi al ultureasan
extra-somati means ofadaptation, a non-geneti responseto lo alenvironmental
hanges [Binford1972℄.Culturewas furtherviewedas a`general systemwith
sub-systems'[Clarke1968℄.Thisapproa hleftlittleornoroomforso ial, linguisti or
ethni interpretationsofar haeologi al ulture.
Afurtherblowtothe` ultural-histori paradigm'wasdeliveredbythes holars
belonging tothepost-pro essuals hoolin ar haeology. Basing ontheobservedor
imaginedla kof orrelationbetween ulturalstyled,ontheonehand,andlinguisti ,
Sequen esofWesternDvinaandAlpineNeolithi ultures
entire on eptofar haeologi al entitiesisa`robustrea tionaryview'.Thisnegative
approa hwasshared byC.Renfrew[1977℄andS.J.Shennan[1978℄,who onsider
ar haeologi al entities, in luding ulture,as` onstru tsof ourowndevising' whi h
are `uselessandmisleadingforanalyti al purposes'.
Ifnotamigration,whatelse?
Itishighlysigni ant,thatthe`Belorussian' ulturalassemblageintheWestern
Dvinalikewise numerousCorded Ware-related` ultures'intheeastern Balti area
in ludedonly limited elements ofCorded Ware tradition, mostly restri ted tothe
ordedornamentationon ertaintypesofvessels.Thisbe ameparti ularlyapparent
omponentanalysisofpotteryornamentalpatternsshowsagradualintrusionofan
alientradition,absorbedatthe nalstagesbythelo alone[Dolukhanov,Fonyakov
1984℄. A number of `hybrid' pottery assemblages is distinguishable at that time
bothin the eastern and western Peribalti area [see Timofeev in this volume℄. A
suggestionwasmade thatan in ltrationofCorded Waretraditionstakingform of
shared stylesof pots and also battle-axes may have resulted from a `regionalised
ontinuity'or`openso ialrelationships'[Whittle1996:285-7℄.
Signalsof sex andage groupsare learly re ognisable in CordedWare burial
sites.ThusintheFatyanovogravesthemaleswereusuallyburiedontherightside,
the head dire ted to thewest, while thefemale were foundon the left side, the
head towards the east.Shaft-hole axes were usually lo ated near the head in the
male'sgraves,andatthefeetin hildren'sgraves.Femalegravesusually ontained
jewellery,predominantlypendantsmadeofanimalbonesandteethaswellasamber
beads[Kraynov1972℄.
Theseobservationsevokethequestion:towhatextendtheCordedWareso iety
was male-dominated? This rises yetanother question: to what extend the gender
symbolismre e tstheso ialrole ofthesexes?InA.Whittle'sview[Whittle1996℄
the ommon o urren e of battle axes in male graves may be viewed rather as a
messageofatraditionof`integration,parti ipation, hospitalityandgenerosity'.
It is true that female representations were mu h more ommon among the
works of portable art in the Neolithi of South-Eastern Europe as ompared to
the Corded Ware-related zone further north. Yet the idea of `Mother Goddess'
as a symbol of pea eful matrifo al ultures in sharp ontrast to aggressive and
destru tivepatriar halworldofkurgans andbattleaxesisin reasingly viewedasa
puremythology[Hur ombe1995℄.
One anhardlyargue, thatthemajorityofhuman gurines(the`idols')found
in the Corded Ware ontext of forestedEastern Europe are obviouslyportraying
men (Fig. 3). This was a male fa e that looked at the astonished world when a
mummi ed body of a Neolithi `I eman' appeared from beneath the gla ier high
in theTyroleanAlpsin 1991.This manwasobviouslya hunter,whosebase- amp,
judgingfromtheradio arbondates(3350-3300BC)maywellhavebeenlo atedfar
below,atoneofthenumerouslake-sitesintheAlpineforeland.Hisequipment,the
lothandorgani remainsfoundonhim,all thatis learlyshowsthathislivelihood
wasbasedpredominantlyonhuntingandfood-gathering[Bar eld1994℄.
Ithadbeennotedlongagothatthepottery,andparti ularlythestylesinthe
potterydesign,were loselyrelatedtofemalesymbolism.Potswithfemininesymbols
orinshapeofwomenwerelargelyspreadinNeolithi Europe[Hodder1990:61-64;
Thomas, Tilley 1993℄.One an hardlydoubtthatthe on eptual linkbetween the
woman,thehouseandthepotterythathadbeenpostulatedbyI.Hodder[1990:216℄
inrelationtotheEuropeanNeolithi wasequally validfortheCordedWare area.
Thisobservationbe omesparti ularlysigni ant,ifonetakesintoa ountthegreat
importan eatta hedbyRussianar haeologists (basedmostlyontheethnographi
observations in Siberia) to pottery styles as a powerful ethni symbol [Tretyakov
Fig.3.`Idol'fromtheUsvyatyIVsite.
Earlierobservationsaboutthedominan eofmalegravesamongCordedWare
sitesin Denmark, are probably invalid or at least partially valid in respe tto the
borealforestsofEasternEurope.AttheCordedWare emeteryofAboraI(nearthe
LubanaL akeineasternL atvia)[L oze1979℄fouroutof veanatomi allyidenti able
skeletons belonged to women. Jewellery (mostly amber) prevailing in the grave
goods,one mayhardlydoubtthatfemales were thedominantamong61 skeletons
buriedthere.
When one tries to sum up the available eviden e in relation to theCorded
Ware/Battle-axe ultural area as a whole, several on lusions be ome apparent.
Firstandforemosta onsiderable degreeof ontinuityin respe ttothepre eding
ulturalunits isper eptible, above all inthegeographi al distributionofthesites.
These sitesremained basi ally in thesame areas as atthe previousstage, nonew
terrain was olonised. In most ases thesubsisten e patterndid notexperien e a
sto k-theappearan e ofelementsofsto k-breedinginapredominantlyhunter-gathering
ontext.Atthesametime onenotesa onsiderablediversityofsubsisten epatterns
whi hweredependantbothonthelo alresour ebaseand ulturaltraditions.The
most spe ta ular hanges are a knowledgeable in the pottery styles, whi h were
dire tlyrelatedtofemalegendersymbolism.Thusitistemptingtolinkthe ulture
hangemarkingthespread of theCorded Ware traditionwith themodi ationin
thematingsystemandrelatedtransformationintheso ialrole ofwomen.
One may note thata similar approa h had been adopted byT. Dobzhansky
[1962℄, whoviewed human ra es as gene poolsinitially developing in endogami
tribes.ThiswasfurtherdevelopedbyK.Ja obs[1994b℄whotreatedar haeologi al
ulturesintermsof so ialgroupingsformingmatingnetworkswith alarge degree
of losure.
Thelong-establisheds holarlytraditionlinkedthespreadofCordedWare
ul-tureswiththeproliferationoftheIndo-Europeanspee h.Thepresentwritershares
the on eptdevelopedbyC.Renfrew[1987℄a ordingtowhi htheIndo-European
languages hadappeared in Europemu h earlier,together withthe rstfarmers.I
agree with M.Zvelebil [1994℄that thispro ess involvedthe neighbouringgroups
ofhunter-gatherers,whowereembroiledin omplexso ialnetworkswiththe
om-munities of early farmers. During the L ate Neolithi | early Bronze Age, there
o urredanintensi ationofinter ommunal links, probablyresultingin the
deve-lopmentof more rmlyestablisheddiale ts. Onemay arguethatthetotalCorded
Warearea orrespondedtoasyetundi erentiatedBalto-Slavi -Germani
protolan-guage,whi hexisten ewas postulatedbyseverallinguists[Georgiev1959℄.
Regarding the initially set questions about the `dividing lines', I may stress
thatthey had never existed in thereality of Neolithi Europe. The Neolithi was
a multiple arriageway with bothfast and slow lanes. Inea h parti ular ase, the
individuals and the groups of individuals had a free hoi e, whi h lane to take.
Their hoi ewasin uen edbytheavailabilityofresour es,theirownexperien eand
traditions,as well byvariousfa torswhi h we shallnever beable tograsp. Butin
ea h asethe hosenstrategyprovedtobesuÆ iently su essful:itguaranteedthe
groupsurvival, basedthe onstant owandthesustainablerenewalofresour es.
TheEuropeanNeolithi wasahighlydynami so ialphenomenon,thegroups
involvedwere bound together bymultiple links via whi h boththe materials, the
genes, and thesymbolswere onstantly inter hanged. This was a so iety open to
innovationsand hange.Theobservabletransformationsinmaterial ultureandlife
stylewere butoutwardre e tionsof deep-rootedso ietal hanges whi h in luded
thereshapingofmating networks,themutationof genderrolesandthespread of
AR { Ar heologi kerozhledy,Praha.
AP { Ar heologia Polski,Wro ªaw.
AJPA { Ameri anJournalofPhysi al Anthropology,NewYork.
CA { CurrentAnthropology,Chi ago.
KSIA { Kratkiye Soobsh heniya Instituta Arkheologii Akademii
NaukUSSR,Moskva.
KSIA(Ukraine) { Kratkiye Soobsh heniya Instituta Arkheologii Akademii
NaukUSSR,Kiev.
KSOGAM { KratkieSoobs heniyaOdesskogoGosudarstvennego
Arkhe-ologi heskogoMuzeya,Odessa.
MASP { Materialy po Arkheologii Severnogo Pri hernomorya,
Kiev.
MIA { Materialy iIssledovaniyapoArkheologii,Moskva.
SA { SovetskayaArkheologiya,Moskva.
SAA { SovetAnthropologyandAr haeology,Moskva.
SE { SovetskayaEtnogra ya, Moskva.
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