Edyta Sokalska
Bureaucracy in perception of Cyril
Northcote Parkinson
Studia Prawnoustrojowe nr 9, 371-381
2009
Edyta Sokalska
U n iw e r s y te t W a rm iń s k o -M a z u rs k i
Bureaucracy in perception
o f Cyril Northcote Parkinson
T o d ay th e t e r m “b u r e a u c r a c y ” s u g g e s ts la c k o f in itia tiv e , r o u tin e a n d e x c e ssiv e a d h e r e n c e to r u le s . O fte n i t is c o n n e c te d w ith in efficien cy , r e d ta p e , o r e v e n m o re s e rio u s , a n im p e r s o n a l force d o m in a tin g th e liv e s o f in d iv id u a ls. A s i t w ill b e sh o w n , th i s t e r m h a s d if f e r e n t m e a n in g s a n d c o n n o ta tio n s . T h e v o lu m e o f th e l i t e r a t u r e o n th e s u b je c t o f b u r e a u c r a c y a n d its r a t e o f in c r e a s e is a s im p re s s iv e a s t h e m a g n itu d e o f th e p h e n o m e n a w h ic h i t tr ie s to a n a ly z e a n d e x p la in . C o n tr ib u tio n s to th e th e o r y o f b u r e a u c r a c y h a v e com e fro m m a n y sid e s: psychology, sociology, p o litic a l scie n ce, so c ia l p s y c h o logy, th e o r y o f o r g a n iz a tio n s , eco n o m ics, b u s in e s s a d m in is tr a tio n . C y ril N o r th c o te P a r k in s o n is o n e o f t h e s c h o la rs w h o w e re i n t e r e s t e d in t h e e ffic ie n t b u r e a u c r a c y a n d e ffic ie n t a d m in is tr a tio n . H is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f “b u r e a u c r a cy” w ill b e in tr o d u c e d in th e se c o n d p a r t o f th i s stu d y , b e c a u s e a t f ir s t th e e v o lu tio n o f th e te r m “b u r e a u c r a c y ” w ill b e sh o w n .
T h e w o rd “b u r e a u c r a c y ” s te a m s fro m th e F r e n c h w o rd b u r e a u u s e d to r e f e r a w r itin g d e sk , a n office, a w o rk p la c e , w h e r e o fficials w o rk e d , a n d a G re e k su ffix -k r a tia o r -k r a to s d e n o tin g p o w er, r u l e 1. T h is t e r m c a m e in to u s e s h o r tly b e fo re th e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n o f 1789, a n d fro m th e r e r a p id ly s p r e a d to o th e r c o u n tr ie s . P r o b a b ly a F r e n c h e c o n o m is t J e a n C la u d e M a rie V in c e n t de G o u rn a y w a s its in v e n to r. I n th e b u r e a u s h e s a w th e f o r th or e v e n th e f ifth fo rm o f th e g o v e rn m e n t w h ic h h e c a lle d b u re a u c ra c y . H e u s e d to s a y t h a t i n F r a n c e th e r e w a s a n illn e s s c a lle d “b u r e a u m a n i a ”2. B u r e a u c r a cy fo r h im m e a n t im p e rfe c t g o v e r n m e n t o f o fficials w h o w a n te d to c ro ss t h e i r o w n ro le s . D e G o u r n a y s t a r t e d th e c o n c e p t t h a t is a liv e to th e s e d ay s - a p e jo ra tiv e c o n n o ta tio n o f th e te rm . O n th e o th e r h a n d , in a l e t t e r o f J u ly 1,
1 See different definitions of bureaucracy: [online] <http://dictionary.reference.com/ serch?q=bureaucracy>, retrieved on 24.09.2007.
1764, F r e n c h B a r o n de G rim m d e c la re d : ”W e a r e o b s e s s e d b y th e id e a o f r e g u la tio n , a n d o u r M a s te r o f R e q u e s ts r e f u s e s to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t th e r e is a n in f in ity o f th in g s in a g r e a t s t a t e w ith w h ic h a g o v e rn m e n t s h o u ld n o t c o n c e rn i t s e l f ’3. I n a n o th e r l e t t e r o f J u l y 15, 1765, B a r o n d e G rim m also w ro te : “T h e r e a l s p ir it o f th e la w s i n F r a n c e is t h a t b u r e a u c r a c y o f w h ic h th e la te M o n s ie u r de G o u rn a y u s e d to c o m p la in so g re a tly : h e r e th e offices, c le rk s , s e c r e ta r ie s , in s p e c to r s a n d i n t e n d a n t s a r e n o t a p p o in te d to b e n e fit th e p u b lic i n t e r e s t , in d e e d th e p u b lic i n t e r e s t a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n e s ta b li s h e d so t h a t offices m ig h t e x is t”4.
O n a la r g e s c a le i t w a s s t a r t e d to t a l k a b o u t b u r e a u c r a c y in th e 1 9 -th c e n tu ry . T h is t e r m w a s u b iq u ito u s in G e r m a n y a n d th e r e b u r e a u c r a c y w a s a s y n o n y m o f d is a d v a n ta g e s a n d d e fe c ts. F o r e x a m p le , K a r l M a rx s a w b u r e a u c ra c y a s a d is tu r b in g e le m e n t o f th e m o d e rn society. I n M a r x ’s th eo ry , b u r e a u c r a c y r a r e ly c r e a te s n e w w e a lth b y its e lf, b u t r a t h e r c o n tro ls , c o o rd i n a te s a n d g o v e rn s th e p ro d u c tio n , c o n s u m p tio n a n d d is tr ib u tio n o f w e a lth . T h e b u r e a u c r a c y a s a so c ia l s t r a t u m d e riv e s i ts in c o m e fro m th e a p p r o p r ia tio n o f p a r t o f th e so c ia l s u r p lu s p ro d u c t o f h u m a n lab o r. W e a lth is a p p r o p r i a t e d b y th e b u r e a u c r a c y b y th e la w th r o u g h ta x e s , t r ib u te s , fees, le v ie s, lic e n s in g , e tc. B u r e a u c r a c y is th e c o st o f society. O f c o u rs e its c o st m a y b e a c c e p te d a s i t m a k e s so c ia l o r d e r p o s s ib le a n d m a i n t a i n s i t b y e n fo rc in g th e r u le o f la w 5. N e v e r th e le s s th e r e is a c o n s ta n t co n flic t c o n n e c te d w ith th is co st, b e c a u s e i t h a s th e h u g e e ffe c t o n th e d is tr ib u tio n o f in c o m e s. A ll p r o d u c e rs t r y to g e t th e m a x im u m r e t u r n fro m t h e i r p ro d u c t a n d m in im iz e a d m i n is t r a t i v e c o sts. T ypically, in e p o c h s o f s tr o n g ec o n o m ic g ro w th , b u r e a u c r a cies p r o lif e r a te , a n d w h e n eco n o m ic g ro w th d e c lin e s, a f ig h t b r e a k s o u t to c u t b a c k b u r e a u c r a tic co sts. C e n tr a l to M a r x is t’s c o n c e p t o f s o c ia lis m is th e id e a o f w o r k e r ’s s e lf - m a n a g e m e n t, w h ic h a s s u m e s th e i n te r n a liz a tio n o f m o r a li ty a n d s e lf - d is c ip lin e a m o n g p e o p le t h a t w o u ld m a k e b u r e a u c r a tic s u p e r v i sio n a n d c o n tro l r e d u n d a n t, to g e th e r w ith a d r a s tic r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e d iv is io n o f la b o r in society. B u r e a u c r a c ie s e m e rg e to m e d ia te c o n flic ts o f i n t e r e s t o n th e b a s is o f law , b u t i f th o s e c o n flic ts o f i n t e r e s t d is a p p e a r, b u r e a u c r a c ie s w ill b e r e d u n d a n t 6.
D e s c rib in g b u r e a u c r a c y a s a d e fe c tiv e o fficial co rp s w a s w id e ly a d o p te d in F r a n c e . I t w a s H o n o re de B a lz a c w h o c o n tr ib u te d to s u c h re c e p tio n w ith
3 Baron de Grimm and Diderot, Correspondence litteraire, philosophique et critique, 1753-69, 1813, vol. 4, p. 146, 508 - cited by M. Albrow, Bureaucracy, Pall Mall Press, London, 1970, p. 6.
4 Ibidem, p.16.
5 As far as Marx conception of bureaucracy is concerned, see N. P. Mouzelis, Organisation and Bureaucracy: An Analysis of Modern Theories, published by Aldine de Gruynter, New York,
1967, pp. 8-14.
6 See Marx comments on the state bureaucracy in his Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, [online] <www.marxist.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/index.htm>, retrieved on 25.09.2007.
h is bo o k B u r e a u c r a c y p u b lis h e d in 1 8 3 7 7. T h is p e jo ra tiv e , d y s fu n c tio n a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f b u r e a u c r a c y s t a r t e d to b e a d o p te d b y d iff e re n t la n g u a g e s a n d c o u n trie s . F o r e x a m p le in E n g la n d t h is te r m c a m e in to u s e in th e f ir s t p a r t o f 1 9 -th c e n tu ry . T h e t e r m “b u r e a u c r a c y ” h a d d if f e r e n t sy n o n y m s in d iffe re n t c o u n tr ie s a n d m a n y o f th e m w e re o f c o u rs e p e jo r a tiv e , lik e F r e n c h p a p e r a s serie a n d fo n c tio n n a r is m e , R u s s ia n k a n c e la r y z m , G e r m a n V ie lsc h re ib e re i a n d V ielreg iererei, P o lis h o fic ja n ty z m a n d u r z q d o m a n ia . E n g lis h “r e d t a p e ” w as a d e ris iv e fo rm fo r th e e x c e ssiv e r e g u la tio n o r rig id c o n fo rm ity to fo rm a l r u le s t h a t w a s c o n s id e re d r e d u n d a n t o r b u r e a u c r a tic a n d h in d e r s o r p r e v e n ts a c tio n o r d e c isio n - m a k in g . I t w a s a n d i t is u s u a lly a p p lie d to g o v e rn m e n t, b a t c a n a lso b e a p p lie d to o th e r fo rm s o r g a n iz a tio n s . R e d t a p e g e n e r a l ly in c lu d e s th e fillin g i n u n n e c e s s a r y p a p e rw o rk , h a v in g m u ltip le p e o p le o r c o m m itte e s a p p ro v e a n y d e c isio n , o b ta in in g o f u n n e c e s s a r y lic e n s e s a n d v a r io u s ro le s t h a t m a k e c o n d u c tin g o n e ’s a f fa irs m o re d iffic u lt a n d slow er. T h e o rig in s o f th e t e r m a r e o b sc u re , b u t p ro b a b ly t h e y a r e c o n n e c te d w ith th e 1 7 -th a n d 1 8 -th c e n tu r y E n g lis h p ra c tic e o f b in d in g o fficial p a p e r s a n d d o c u m e n ts w ith re d ta p e .
I t is w o r th m e n tio n in g t h a t m o d e rn sociology a f te r M a x W e b e r’s c o n c e p tio n o f b u re a u c ra c y , tr ie s to u s e th e t e r m “b u r e a u c r a c y ” i n a n o t p e jo ra tiv e w a y 8. B u r e a u c r a c y f r e q u e n tly b e c o m e s a c o n c e p t in sociology a n d p o litic a l sc ie n c e r e f e r r in g to th e w a y t h a t e x e c u tio n a n d e n f o rc e m e n t o f r u le s a r e o rg a n iz e d . A cc o rd in g to M a x W eber, liv in g in th e to p le v e l o f P r u s s i a n to ta li- ta r is m , fo u r s t r u c t u r a l c o n c e p ts a r e c e n tr a l to a n y d e f in itio n o f t h a t te rm : 1. A w e ll - d e fin e d d iv is io n o f a d m in is tr a tiv e la b o r a m o n g p e r s o n s a n d offices. 2. A p e r s o n a l s y s te m w ith c o n s is te n t p a t t e r n s o f r e c r u i t m e n t a n d s ta b le lin e a r c a re e rs . 3. A h ie r a r c h y a m o n g offices, s u c h t h a t th e a u th o r ity a n d s t a t u s a r e d if f e r e n tia lly d is tr ib u te d a m o n g a c to rs. 4. F o r m a l a n d in fo r m a l n e tw o r k s t h a t c o n n e c t o r g a n iz a tio n a l a c to r s to o n e a n o th e r th r o u g h flow s o f in f o r m a tio n a n d p a t t e r n s o f c o o p e ra tio n 9.
B u r e a u c r a c y is th e a d m in is tr a tiv e s t r u c t u r e o f a n y la rg e o r g a n iz a tio n , p u b lic o r p r iv a te . I d e a lly b u r e a u c r a c y is c o n n e c te d w ith im p e r s o n a l ro le s o f b u r e a u c r a ts , r e c r u itm e n t b y c o m p e te n c e a n d fix ed s a la r ie s .
I t is s ig n ific a n t t h a t i t is s o m e tim e s fo rg o tte n t h a t t h e t e r m “b u r e a u c r a cy” is v e ry s im ila r to th e t e r m “a d m in is tr a tio n ”. S o m e tim e s th e s e te r m s cro ss
7 H. Balzac, Bureaucracy, 1937, [online] <www.intratext.com./IXT/ENG0807/>, retrieved on 24.09.2007.
8 More about Max Weber’s perception of bureaucracy see: E. Sokalska, Biurokracja jako metoda funkcjonowania nowoczesnej administracji w ujęciu Maksa Webera, „Studia Prawno ustrojowe” 2003, nr 2, pp. 115-124.
w ith e a c h o th e r o r e v e n cover. T h e t e r m “a d m in is tr a tio n ” is e v e n m u c h o ld e r t h a n t h e t e r m “b u r e a u c r a c y ”. I t s te a m s fro m th e L a tin w o rd m in is tr a r e , w h ic h m e a n s se rv ic e . C o n n e c tin g w ith p re fix a d - th e w o rd m in is tr a r e s t a r t e d to m e a n ‘m a n a g e ’. “A d m in is tr a tio n ” h a s m a n y m e a n in g s . I t c a n b e t r e a t e d as th e m a n a g e m e n t o f a n y o f a n y office, b u s in e s s o r o rg a n iz a tio n ; a s t h e d u ty o r d u tie s o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r in a p p ly in g th e e x e c u tiv e fu n c tio n s o f t h e p o sitio n ; a s th e f u n c tio n o f a p o litic a l s t a t e in e x e rc is in g its g o v e r n m e n ta l d u tie s ; a s th e m a n a g e m e n t b y th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f s u c h d u tie s ; a s a b o d y o f a d m i n i s t r a to r s , e s p e c ia lly in g o v e rn m e n t; a s th e p e rio d o f se rv ic e o f a g o v e r n m e n ta l a d m i n i s t r a t o r o r b o d y o f g o v e r n m e n ta l a d m in is tr a to r s ; a s a n y g ro u p e n t r u s te d w ith e x e c u tiv e o r a d m in is tr a tiv e p o w e rs; a s a n a c t o f d is p e n s in g ( a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e s a c r a m e n ts ) 10. A n d re w D u n s ir e a c c e p te d f if te e n d iffe re n t m e a n in g s o f t h a t t e r m 11.
I t s h o u ld n ’t b e fo rg o tte n t h a t to th e t e r m “p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n ” is n o t e x a c tly so f a r d if f e r e n t fro m th e t e r m “p r iv a te a d m in is tr a tio n ”, b u t t h is t e r m is r a t h e r c o n n e c te d w ith a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, a n d p u b lic a ffa irs . “P u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n ” c a n b e b r o a d ly d e s c rib e d a s th e im p le m e n ta tio n a n d s tu d y o f g o v e r n m e n t policy. I t is lin k e d to p u r s u in g th e p u b lic goods by e n h a n c in g civ il so c ie ty a n d so c ia l ju s tic e .
U n d e n ia b ly b u r e a u c r a c y a s w e ll a s p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n e x is te d in im p e r ia l R o m e a n d C h in a a n d in th e n a tio n a l m o n a rc h ie s . “A d m in is tr a tio n ” u n d e r s to o d fu n c tio n a lly s h o u ld h a v e e x is te d in th e d iffe re n t h is to r ic a l ty p e s o f s ta te s , b u t n o t e v e ry k in d o f o r g a n iz in g a c tiv ity o f th e s t a t e co u ld h a v e m e a n t “a d m in is tr a tio n ”. L i t e r a t u r e p a y s a t t e n t i o n to t h e f a c t t h a t o n ly s u c h o r g a n iz in g a c tiv ity o f th e s t a t e c a n b e c a lle d a d m in is tr a tio n , w h ic h is c o n d u c te d b y b u r e a u c r a tic s y s te m a n d in c lu d e s im m e n s e r a n g e o f th e so cial c a s e s a n d is r e g u la te d b y g e n e r a l s y s te m o f law.
P ro b le m s o f b u r e a u c r a c y a n d p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n w e re d e a lt w ith b y m a n y s c h o la rs a n d th in k e r s , e v e n i f t h e y d id n ’t u s e th e s e te r m s . T h in k e r s s u c h P la to , A r is to tle a n d M a c h ia v e lli w ro te a b o u t th e m o ra l a n d p o litic a l n a t u r e o f p ro b le m s c o n n e c te d w ith o r g a n iz a tio n o f p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n . M a c h ia v e lli w ro te h is b o o k T h e P rin c e , w h ic h o ffe re d t h e g u id e lin e fo r E u r o p e a n r u le r s . T h e n a tio n a l s t a t e w a s th e r e ig n in g m o d e l o f th e a d m in is tr a tiv e o r g a n iz a tio n fro m th e 1 7 -th c e n tu r y in W e s te r n E u ro p e . T h e s e s t a t e s n e e d e d a n o r g a n iz a tio n fo r th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f la w a n d o rd e r. T h e n e e d fo r e x p e r t civ il s e r v a n ts w ith th e k n o w le d g e a b o u t ta x e s , a d m in is tr a tio n s ta tis tic s a n d m ilita r y grew . I n th e 1 8 -th c e n tu r y F r e d e r ic k W illia m I o f P r u s s i a e s ta b li
10 Dictionary.com Unambridged (v 1.1). Based on the Random House Unambridged Dictio nary, Random House, Inc.,2006, [online] <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/%20admini- stration>, retrieved on 27.09.2007.
s h e d a n e co n o m ic a n d so c ia l sch o o l o f th o u g h t (c a m e ra lis m ) in P r u s s i a to re fo rm a society. J o h a n n H e in r ic h G o ttlo b J u s t i , th e m o s t w e ll k n o w n p r o fe s s o r o f c a m e r a lis m , lin k e d c a m e r a lis m a n d th e id e a o f n a t u r a l la w w ith e a c h o th e r, b u t th e le a d in g p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n s c h o la r a t t h a t tim e - C h r is tia n W o lff-w asn ’t a c a m e r a lis t.
L o re n z v o n S te in is c o n s id e re d th e f o u n d e r o f th e sc ie n c e o f p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n . H e w a s sin c e 1885 a p ro fe s s o r i n V ie n n a . H e a p p lie d n e w o p in io n s c o n c e rn in g th e sc ie n c e o f p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n , w h ic h w a s c o n s id e re d to b e a fo rm o f a d m in is tr a tiv e law . H is in n o v a tiv e o p in io n s w e re c o n n e c te d w ith th e p o in t t h a t th e sc ien ce o f p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n w a s t h e i n t e g r a tin g sc ie n c e o f s e v e r a l d is c ip lin e s , lik e p o litic a l sc ie n c e s, sociology, p u b lic fin a n c e a n d a d m in is tr a tiv e law . A c c o rd in g to L o re n z v o n S te in th e sc ie n c e o f p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n w a s a n in te r a c tio n b e tw e e n th e o r y a n d p ra c tic e . H e c o n s id e re d th e p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n a s le a d in g p ra c tic a lly , b u t th e th e o r y h a d to fo rm th e b a s e . F o r h im p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n s h o u ld s tr iv e to a d o p t a sp ecific m e th o d .
I t s h o u ld n ’t b e fo r g o tte n t h a t a s ig n ific a n t p e r s o n w h o c o n s id e re d p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n w a s W oodrow W ilso n in th e U n ite d S ta te s . I n 1887 h e w ro te T h e S t u d y o f A d m in is tr a tio n , in w h ic h h e c o n s id e re d fo u r m o d e rn c o n cep ts: s e p a r a tio n b e tw e e n p o litic s a n d th e p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n ; c o n s id e r a tio n o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t fo rm a c o m m e rc ia l p e rs p e c tiv e ; c o m p a ra tiv e a n a ly s is b e tw e e n p o litic a l a n d p r iv a te o r g a n iz a tio n a n d p o litic a l s c h e m e s; r e a c h in g e ffectiv e m a n a g e m e n t b y t r a i n i n g civ il s e r v a n ts a n d a s s e s s t h e i r q u a lity . T h e s e p a r a tio n b e tw e e n p o litic s a n d th e p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n , w h ic h W ilso n a rg u e d , h a s b e e n th e s u b je c t o f d e b a te s fo r a lo n g tim e , a n d d if f e r e n t p o in ts o f v iew o n t h is s u b je c t d if f e r e n tia te p e rio d s in th e sc ie n c e o f p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n . L a t e r L u th e r G u lic k 12 a n d L y n d a ll U rw ic k in t e g r a t e d th e id e a s o f e a r lie r th e o r is ts lik e H e n r i F a y o l in to a c o m p re h e n s iv e th e o r y of a d m in is tr a tio n . T h e y b e lie v e d t h a t t h e th o u g h ts o f F a y o l o ffe re d a s y s te m a tic t r e a t m e n t o f m a n a g e m e n t o f c o m p a n ie s a s fo r a d m in is tr a tiv e sc ie n c e s. T h e y d id n ’t s e p a r a t e th e tw o d is c ip lin e s , b u t t h e y b e lie v e d t h a t th e a d m in is tr a tio n , w h ic h ex c e e d s th e b o r d e r s b e tw e e n th e p r iv a te a n d t h e p u b lic secto r, c o u ld e x ist. L a te r , th e sc ie n c e o f a d m in is tr a tio n w o u ld focus p r im a r ily o n th e g o v e rn m e n t o r g a n iz a tio n s 13.
W illia m N is k a n e n i n a u g u r a t e d in 1971 a n in f lu e n tia l n e w s tr e a m o f r a tio n a l ch o ice a n a ly s is in p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n . I n h is “b u d g e t-m a x im a li- z in g ” m o d e l a r g u e d t h a t r a tio n a l b u r e a u c r a c ie s w ill a lw a y s a n d e v e ry w h e re
12 More about his conception see: B. R. Fry, Mastering Public Administration: From Max Weber to Dwight Waldo, Chatham House Publishers, New Jersey, 1989, pp. 73-88.
13 About development of education in public administration see: F. C. Mosher , American Public Administration: Past, Present, Future, University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, 1975, pp. 11-49.
s e e k to in c r e a s e t h e i r b u d g e ts , th e r e b y c o n tr ib u tin g s tr o n g ly to s t a t e g ro w th . H e to o k a p a r t in th e U S C o u n c il o f E c o n o m ic A d v iso rs u n d e r P r e s id e n t R o n a ld R e g a n . N is k a n e n ’s m o d e l p ro v id e d a s tr o n g u n d e r p in n in g fo r th e w o rld w id e t r e n d to w a r d s c u tb a c k s o f p u b lic s p e n d in g . H is a p p r o a c h w a s c r itiq u e d b y a r a n g e o f a u th o r s w h o a r g u e d t h a t o fficial’s m o tiv a tio n s a re m o re p u b lic i n t e r e s t o rie n te d .
C y ril N o rth c o te P a r k in s o n w a s a n a v a l h i s t o r i a n a n d a u t h o r o f m o re t h a n s ix ty b o o k s. T h e m o s t fa m o u s o f h is w o rk s - P a r k in s o n ’s L a w - w a s h is b e s t se lle r, w h ic h le d h im to b e a lso c o n s id e re d a s a n i m p o r ta n t s c h o la r in th e fie ld o f p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n . H e w a s b o r n in 1909 in B a r n a r d C a s tle , D u r h a m in E n g la n d . H e w a s t h e y o u n g e s t so n o f W illia m E d w a r d P a r k in s o n w h o w a s a n a r t i s t a n d p r in c ip a l o f Y ork S chool o f A rts a n d C ra f ts . T h e y o u n g P a r k in s o n a tte n d e d S t. P e t e r ’s S chool i n Y ork, t h e n E m m a n u e l C o lleg e a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a m b rid g e , w h e re h e w a s g r a d u a t e d in 1932 a n d re c e iv e d h is B a c h e lo r o f A r ts d e g re e . P a r k in s o n d e v e lo p e d a n i n t e r e s t in n a v a l h is to ry, w h ic h h e p u r s u e d w h e n th e P e llo w fa m ily g a v e h im a c c e ss to fa m ily p a p e r s a t th e r e c e n tly e s ta b lis h e d N a tio n a l M a r itim e M u s e u m , a llo w in g h im to w r ite h is f ir s t b o o k E d w a r d P ellow , V is c o u n t E x m o u th , A d m i r a l o f th e R e d in 1934. I n 1935, a s a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t a t K in g ’s C o lleg e in L o n d o n , h e w ro te h is th e s is o n W a r in th e E a s te r n S e a s, 1 7 9 3 -1 8 1 5 , w h ic h w a s a w a rd e d th e J u l i a n C o r b e tt P riz e i n N a v a l H is to r y fo r 1935 a n d P a r k in s o n e a r n e d a P h .D . in h isto ry . A s a g r a d u a t e s tu d e n t, P a r k in s o n in 1934 jo in e d th e T e r r ito r ia l A rm y as a m e m b e r o f th e 2 2 nd L o n d o n R e g im e n t a n d c o m m a n d e d a n in f a n t r y c o m p a n y a t th e ju b ile e o f K in g G e o rg e V. T h e n h e c o m m a n d e d a n in f a n t r y u n ity of th e C a m b rid g e U n iv e r s ity O ffic e rs’ T r a in in g C o rp s. I n 1938 h e b e c a m e s e n io r h is to r y m a s t e r a t B lu n d e ll’s S chool in T iv e rto n a n d w h e n G r e a t B r ita in e n te r e d th e II- n d W o rld W ar, P a r k in s o n w a s a n in s tr u c to r a t th e R o y al N a v a l C o lleg e in D a r tm o u th . I n 1940 h e w a s c o m m is s io n e d a n A rm y c a p ta in in th e Q u e e n ’s R o y a l R e g im e n t, w h ic h le d to a r a n g e o f s t a f f a n d m ilita r y te a c h in g p o s itio n s in B r ita in . D u r in g th e w a r h e a t t a i n e d th e r a n k of m a jo r a s a m e m b e r o f th e Q u e e n ’s R o y al R e g im e n t o f th e B r i t i s h A rm y. I t w a s d u r in g h is w a r tim e se rv ic e , w o rk in g i n t r a i n i n g a n d a d m in is tr a tio n fo r th e B r itis h W a r O ffice a n d th e R o y al A ir F o rc e , t h a t h is in s p ir a tio n fo r P a r k in s o n ’s L a w w a s b o r n 14.
D e m o b iliz e d fro m t h e A rm y in 1945 C y ril N o rth c o te P a r k in s o n w a s a n a p p o in te d l e c tu r e r in h is to r y a t th e U n iv e r s ity O f L iv erp o o l. I n 1950 h e w as a p p o in te d R a ffle s p ro fe s s o r o f h is to r y a t th e n e w ly e s ta b lis h e d U n iv e r s ity of M a la y a in S in g a p o re , w h e re h e in i t i a t e d a s e r ie s o f i m p o r ta n t h is to r ic a l
14 More about C. N. Parkinson’s life, education and military career see: C.M. Turnbull, “Parkinson, Cyril Northcote (1909-1993)” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 2004.
m o n o g r a p h s o n th e h is to r y o f M a la y a , p u b lis h in g t h e f ir s t o f th e s e r ie s in 1960. A fte r s e rv in g a s v is itin g p ro fe sso r a t H a r v a r d U n iv e rs ity in 1958 a n d th e U n iv e rs ity o f Illin o is a n d th e C a lifo rn ia U n iv e rsity , B e rk e le y in 1959 1960, h e re s ig n e d h is p o s t in S in g a p o re a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f M a la y a to becom e a n in d e p e n d e n t w rite r. To av o id a h ig h ta x a t i o n in B r ita in , h e s e ttle d a t S t. M a r t i n ’s, G u e r n s e y ( th e C h a n n e l Is la n d s ). H is w r itin g s fro m th i s p e rio d in c lu d e d a s e r ie s o f h is to r ic a l n o v e ls a b o u t th e N a p o le o n ic e r a , c o n n e c te d w ith a fic tio n a l n a v a l o fficer fro m G u e r n s e y - R ic h a r d D elency. A t th e a g e of 83 P a r k in s o n d ie d in 1993 in C a n te rb u ry . I n a d d itio n to h is c a r e e r a s a p r o f e s s o r o f h is to ry , P a r k i n s o n w a s a p ro lific w r i t e r a n d p u b lis h e d a n u m b e r o f b o o k s p r io r to r e le a s in g P a r k i n so n s L a w a n d O th e r S tu d ie s in A d m in is tr a tio n . H is e x p e r tis e in n a v a l h is to r y t r a n s l a t e d in to th e b u lk o f t h a t w o rk , a n d h e w a s h ig h ly r e g a r d e d a s o n e o f th e fo re m o s t n a v a l h is to r ia n s in G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d th r o u g h o u t th e fa d in g B r itis h E m p ire . T h e p u b lic a tio n o f P a r k in s o n ’s L a w a n d O th e r S tu d ie s in A d m in is tr a tio n b y H o u g h to n M ifflin C o m p a n y i n B o s to n i n 1957 m a r k e d a s o m e w h a t n e w d ire c tio n fo r th e h is to r ia n . N e x t y e a r a lm o s t th e s a m e book w a s p u b lis h e d b y J o h n M u r r a y in G r e a t B r i t a i n w ith a c h a n g e d title : P a r k in s o n ’s L a w o r th e P u r s u it o f P ro g re ss15. L ik e P e t e r B rie m lo w s a y s , P a r k i n so n “w ro te n o t in j a r g o n o r a lg e b r a b u t in b r illia n tly r e a d a b le E n g lis h . H e p u b lis h e d n o t i n to m e s b u t in te r s e e s s a y s , th e m o s t fa m o u s le s s t h a n n in e p a g e s lo n g . H e u s e d h is to r ic a l a n d m ilita r y a n a lo g ie s , b u t t h e n h e h a d a c tu a lly b e e n a h i s t o r i a n a n d a so ld ier. H e w a s s c a th in g ly w itty , so m u c h so t h a t so m e r e a d e r s a s s u m e d t h a t h is p u rp o s e w a s o n ly s a tir ic a l”16.
C y ril N . P a r k in s o n ’s th e m o s t fa m o u s w o rk w a s a b o o k t h a t e x p a n d e d u p o n a h u m o ro u s a r tic le t h a t h e h a d f ir s t p u b lis h e d in th e E c o n o m is t m a g a z in e in N o v e m b e r 1955, s a tir iz in g g o v e r n m e n t b u r e a u c r a c ie s . T h is c o llectio n o f s h o r t s tu d ie s e x p la in e d th e in e v ita b ility o f b u r e a u c r a tic e x p a n s io n , a rg u in g t h a t “w o rk e x p a n d s so a s to fill th e tim e a v a ila b le fo r i ts c o m p le tio n ”17. T h is w a s th e s o u rc e o f t h e m a x im “w o rk e x p a n d s to fill th e tim e a v a ila b le ”. F o r P a r k in s o n g e n e r a l re c o g n itio n o f th e fa c t t h a t w o rk e x p a n d s so a s to fill th e tim e a v a ila b le fo r its c o m p le tio n “is th e fa c t s h o w n in th e p ro v e rb ia l p h r a s e »It is th e b u s ie s t m a n w ho h a s tim e to sp a re « . T h u s a n e ld e rly la d y o f le is u re c a n s p e n d th e e n t i r e d a y in w r itin g a n d d is p a tc h in g a p o s tc a r d to h e r n ie c e a t B o g n o r R eg is. A n h o u r w ill b e s p e n t in fin d in g t h e p o s tc a r d , a n o th e r in
15
There are many many mistakes in publications connected with C. N. Parkinson as far as the title of his most popular book is concerned. The author of this work (Edyta Sokalska) owns the first printing of Parkinson’s book and shows the proper title.16
P. Brimelow, How do you cure injelitance? (C. Northcote Parkinson, the father of Parkin son’s Law), published on vdare.com on March 28, 2003, [online] <www.vdare.com/pb/parkin- son_review.htm>, retrieved on 22.08.2007.17
Cyril Northcote Parkinson, Parkinson’s Law and other studies in Administration, Ho ughton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1957, p. 33.h u n t i n g fo r sp e c ta c le s , h a l f a n h o u r in s e a r c h fo r t h e a d d r e s s , a n h o u r a n d a q u a r t e r i n c o m p o sitio n , a n d tw e n ty m in u te s i n d e c id in g w h e th e r o r n o t to ta k e a n u m b r e lla w h e n g o in g to th e m a ilb o x in th e n e x t s t r e e t . T h e to ta l e ffo rt t h a t w o u ld o ccu p y a b u s y m a n fo r th r e e m in u te s a ll to ld m a y in th is fa s h io n le a v e a n o th e r p e r s o n p r o s t r a t e a f te r a d a y o f d o u b t, a n x ie ty , a n d to il”18. T h e n h e a s s u m e s : “g r a n te d t h a t w o rk (a n d e s p e c ia lly p a p e rw o rk ) is th u s e la s tic in its d e m a n d s o n tim e , i t is m a n if e s t t h a t th e r e n e e d b e little o r no r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e w o rk to b e d o n e a n d th e size o f th e s t a f f to w h ic h i t m a y b e a s s ig n e d . A la c k o f r e a l a c tiv ity d o es n o t, o f n e c e ssity , r e s u l t in le is u r e . A la c k o f o c c u p a tio n is n o t n e c e s s a r ily re v e a le d b y a m a n if e s t id le n e s s . T h e t h i n g to b e d o n e s w e lls in im p o r ta n c e a n d c o m p le x ity in a d ir e c t r a tio w ith th e tim e to b e s p e n t. T h is fa c t is w id e ly re c o g n iz e d , b u t le s s a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n p a id to its w id e r im p lic a tio n s , m o re e s p e c ia lly in th e fie ld o f p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n . P o litic ia n s a n d ta x p a y e r s h a v e a s s u m e d (w ith o c c a sio n a l p h a s e s o f d o u b t) t h a t a r is in g to ta l i n t h e n u m b e r o f civ il s e r v a n ts m u s t re fle c t a g ro w in g v o lu m e o f w o rk to b e d o n e . C y n ics, in q u e s tio n in g th is b e lie f, h a v e im a g in e d t h a t th e m u ltip lic a tio n o f o fficials m u s t h a v e le ft so m e o f th e m id le o r a ll o f th e m a b le to w o rk fo r s h o r te r h o u r s . B u t t h is is th e m a t t e r in w h ic h f a ith a n d d o u b t s e e m e q u a lly m is p la c e d ”19.
To b e m o re e x p lic it, th i s c a s e sh o w s t h a t w o rk e x p a n d s a s to fill th e tim e a v a ila b le , b u t m a n y o th e r e x a m p le s w e re a lso g iv e n b y P a r k in s o n . M o st o f th e p o p u la tio n a s s u m e s t h a t a g ro w in g civ il se rv ic e re fle c ts a g ro w in g w o r k lo a d . P a r k in s o n in s is ts t h a t s itu a tio n is m u c h d if f e r e n t a n d h e u s e s th e fo llo w in g a r g u m e n ts . C iv il s e r v a n t is o v e rw o rk e d . H e h a s o n ly a few o p tio n s: h e m a y le a v e , s h a r e h is w o rk w ith c o lle a g u e s a s th e s a m e le v e l o r a p p o in t tw o ju n io r s . I t is i m p o r ta n t to n o te t h a t h e h a s to a p p o in t tw o ju n io r s , b e c a u s e a s in g le s u b o r d in a te w o u ld v e r y q u ic k ly a s s u m e a lm o s t e q u a l s t a t u s w ith A in t h e i r o w n m in d s a s w e ll a s o th e r s a n d w o u ld th e r e f o r e b e a riv a l. T h is is a lso a r e a s o n a g a in s t s h a r in g th e w o rk w ith so m e o n e o n th e s a m e lev el. So now , a s s u m in g A d id n ’t le a v e , w e h a v e A a n d tw o s u b o r d in a te s B a n d C. V ery so o n e i t h e r B o r C w ill c o m p la in a b o u t b e in g o v e rw o rk e d a n d tw o m o re s u b o r d in a te s to th e m w ill b e a p p o in te d . A n o th e r tw o w ill h a v e to b e a p p o in te d to k e e p th e o th e r o r ig in a l s u b o r d in a te h ap p y . T h e r e is a s i t u a tio n i n w h ic h s e v e n p e o p le is d o in g th e w o rk o f o n e m a n . A ll w ill b e b u s y p a s s in g p a p e r w o r k o r e -m a ils b e tw e e n th e m s e lv e s , c o rre c tin g e a c h o th e r g r a m m a r , p a s s in g d e c isio n s in d if f e r e n t d ire c tio n s , a n d w a n tin g so m e o n e e ls e to t a k e th e b la m e . P e r s o n A is n o w r e d u c e d to m a n a g e m e n t, s o m e th in g h e m a y n o t b e h a p p y w ith , in fa c t h e m a y h a v e h a d h is le v e l o f in c o m p e te n c e e n fo rc e d o n h im .
18 Ibidem, p. 33. 19 Ibidem, p. 34.
P a r k in s o n h a d a few v a ria tio n s of h is idea. O n e b e in g t h a t in d ecid in g on c a p ita l p ro je cts th e tim e ta k e n to re a c h th e decisio n w ill b e in v e rse ly im p o rta n t tim e to th e cost o f th e schem e. F o r e x a m p le , b u ild in g a m u lti-m illio n p o u n d te n t in L o n d o n goes th r o u g h o n th e nod, b u t d ecid in g w h a t s h a p e th e a s h tra y s w ill b e w ill in v o k e a m o n th -lo n g project. H e th e o ris e s t h a t w h e n th e co sts go w a y b e y o n d th e inco m es of th o s e d ecid in g th e y sw itc h off, a f te r a ll w h a t’s a n o th e r m illio n h e re o r th e re . W h e n a m o u n ts a r e c lo s e r to th o s e t h e y a r e u s e d to in t h e i r o w n liv e s th e y a r e m o re w illin g to d e b a te o v e r a few th o u s a n d 20.
P a r k in s o n ’s L a w s t a t e s t h a t b u r e a u c r a c y e x p a n d s a ll th e tim e w h ic h w a s b a s e d o n e x te n s iv e e x p e rie n c e i n t h e B r i t i s h C iv il S e rv ice. T h e s c ie n tific o b s e rv a tio n s w h ic h c o n tr ib u te d to t h e la w ’s d e v e lo p m e n t in c lu d e d B r itis h o v e r s e a s e m p ir e d e c lin e d in im p o r ta n c e b u t th e n u m b e r o f e m p lo y e e s a t th e C o lo n ia l O ffice in c re a s e d . A c c o rd in g to C y ril N. P a r k in s o n , th i s s it u a t i o n is m o tiv a te d b y tw o fo rces: “A n official w a n ts to m u ltip ly s u b o r d in a te s n o t r iv a ls , a n d o fficials m a k e w o rk fo r e a c h o th e r ”21. H e a lso n o te d t h a t th e to ta l o f th o s e e m p lo y e d in s id e a b u r e a u c r a c y ro s e b y 5 -7 % p e r y e a r ir r e s p e c tiv e o f a n y v a r ia tio n in t h e a m o u n t o f w o rk to b e done.
I t is n o tic e a b le t h a t P a r k in s o n a lso p ro p o s e d a r u le a b o u t th e efficien cy o f a d m in is tr a tiv e co u n cils. H e d e fin e d a c o e ffic ien t o f in e ffic ie n c y w ith th e n u m b e r o f m e m b e rs a s th e m a in d e te r m in in g v a r ia b le . I n h is e s s a y T h e s h o r t lis t o f p r in c ip le s o f se le c tio n a w r ite r sh o w s o n e o f t h e m a in a s p e c ts of w e ll w o rk in g p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n - th e p ro b le m o f s e le c tio n a d e q u a te p e o p le to its sta ff. A p r o p e r choice o f th e r i g h t p e r s o n n e l s h o u ld b e r e a lly ta k e n in to a c c o u n t b y a d m in is tr a tiv e b o a r d s 22. A d m in is tr a tio n n e e d s p r o p e r p e op le, w ith p r o p e r p e r s o n a lity a n d e d u c a tio n .
P a r k in s o n ’s L a w - “w o rk e x p a n d s to fill th e tim e a v a ila b le ” is k n o w n a s h is f ir s t law . B u t s e v e r a l o th e r id e a s h a v e b e e n a t t r i b u t e d to h im . P a r k i n s o n ’s S e c o n d L a w s ta n d s t h a t e x p e n d itu r e s r is e to m e e t in co m e. W r ite r ’s d is c u s s io n o f th e d y n a m ic s u n d e r ly in g th e h is to r ic e x p a n s io n a r y te n d e n c ie s o f g o v e r n m e n t b u d g e ts , r e a s o n in g a s a lw a y s fro m th e s e lf - in te r e s te d b e h a v io u r of in d iv id u a ls , c o n c lu d e d t h a t p r o g r a m s c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d p ie c e m e a l. O n ly a c r o s s -th e -b o a rd c u ts w ill w ork. F o r m u la te d in 1962, P a r k in s o n ’s T h ir d L a w s t a t e s t h a t e x p a n s io n m e a n s co m p lex ity , a n d c o m p le x ity decay. T h is id e a d e fie d th e c o n s e n s u s o f th e d a y to a n e x te n t t h a t is e a s ily fo rg o tte n . E c o n o m is ts b e lie v e d in ec o n o m ie s o f scale. N o w th e a d v a n ta g e s o f r e s tr u c tu r in g , e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p a n d d e c e n tr a liz a tio n a r e g e n e r a lly a c k n o w le d g e d , e v e n if n o t a lw a y s a p p lie d . B u t P a r k i n so n ’s a t t i t u d e s till p la c e s h im a t h w a r t t h e tid e . F o r e x a m p le , h e is o p p o se d to B r i t a i n ’s m e m b e r s h ip in th e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n ity .
20
Parkinson’s Law, created on 5.06.2001, [online] <www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A563843>.21
C. N. Parkinson, Parkinson’s Law or The Pursuit of Progress, John Murray, London, 1958, p. 5.T h e o th e r P a r k in s o n ’s id e a is k n o w n a s th e L a w o f T riv ia lity : th e tim e s p e n t o n a n y ite m o f a c o m m itte e ’s a g e n d a w ill b e i n in v e r s e p r o p o r tio n to th e s u m o f m o n e y in v o lv e d . P a r k in s o n w a s in t e r e s t e d i n c o m m itte e b e h a v io u r a n d e x a m in in g t h e h is to r y o f B r i t i s h C a b in e t h e a r g u e d th e m o s t effectiv e size fo r a n y m e e tin g is five. U n f o r tu n a te ly i n t e r e s t g ro u p s p r e s s in g fo r r e p r e s e n ta tio n in e v ita b ly e x p a n d a c o m m itte e in s ta g e s to tw e n ty , a t w h ic h p o in t c o n v e r s a tio n w ill n o t b e e ffic ie n t, b e c a u s e m e m b e rs w ill s t a n d to m a k e th e m s e lv e s h e a r d a n d t h e n w ill s t a r t g iv in g sp e e c h e s a n d th e u s e f u l m e m b e r s w ill b e m a k in g p la n s to s e ttle o u ts ta n d in g is s u e s l a tte r . I n th e L a w o f D elay, w h ic h m e a n s d e la y is th e d e a d lie s t fo rm o f d e n ia l, P a r k in s o n a n a ly s is th e in c e n tiv e s t h a t in s p ir e n e g a tiv is m in officials.
T h e re a r e m o re id e a s c o n n e c te d w ith th e w o rk o f b u r e a u c r a t s a t t r i b u t e d to P a r k in s o n , fo r e x a m p le :
- I f th e r e is a w a y to d e la y im p o r t a n t d e c isio n th e good b u re a u c ra c y , p u b lic o r p r iv a te , w ill fin d it,
- T h e n u m b e r o f p e o p le i n a n y w o rk in g g ro u p te n d s to in c r e a s e r e g a r d le s s o f th e a m o u n t o f w o rk to b e d o n e,
- T h e p ro g re s s o f sc ie n c e v a r ie s in v e r s e ly w ith th e n u m b e r o f jo u r n a ls p u b lis h e d ,
- D a ta e x p a n d s to fill th e sp a c e a v a ila b le ,
- T h e tim e s p e n t in a m e e tin g o n a n ite m is in v e rs e ly p r o p o r tio n a l to its v a lu e (u p to lim it),
- A n e n te r p r is e e m p lo y in g m o re t h a n 1000 p e o p le b e c o m e s a s e lf-p e rp e tu a t i n g e m p ire , c r e a tin g so m u c h i n t e r n a l w o rk t h a t i t n o lo n g e r n e e d s a n y c o n ta c t w ith th e o u ts id e w o rld .
I t s h o u ld b e u n d e r lin e d t h a t a v ita l P a r k in s o n c o n tr ib u tio n to th e fie ld o f a d m in is tr a tio n s tu d ie s w a s h is d ia g n o s is o f w h y c e r ta in o r g a n iz a tio n s s u d d e n ly d e te r io r a te : th e r is e o f a u th o r ity o f in d iv id u a ls w ith u n u s u a lly h ig h c o m b in a tio n s o f in c o m p e te n c e a n d je a lo u s y (“i n je lita n c e ”). F o r th e w r ite r “th e in j e l i t a n t in d iv id u a l is e a s ily re c o g n iz a b le fro m t h e p e r s is te n c e w ith w h ic h h e s tr u g g le s to e je c t a ll th o s e a b le r t h a n h im s e lf, a s also fro m h is r e s is ta n c e to th e a p p o in tm e n t o r p ro m o tio n o f a n y o n e w h o m ig h t b e p ro v e a b le r in c o u rs e o f tim e . H e d a r e s n o t say, »Mr. A s te r is k is too able«, so h e s a y s , » A ste risk ? C le v e r p e r h a p s - b u t is h e so u n d ? I in c lin e to p r e f e r M r. C y p h e r« . H e d a r e s n o t say, »M r A s te r is k m a k e s m e fe e l sm a ll« , so h e sa y s, »Mr. C y p h e r a p p e a r s to m e to h a v e th e b e t t e r ju d g m e n t« . So M r. C y p h e r is p ro m o te d a n d M r A s te r is k goes e ls e w h e re . T h e c e n tr a l a d m in is tr a tio n g r a d u a lly fills u p w ith p e o p le s tu p id e r t h a n th e c h a ir m a n , d ir e c to r a n d m a n a ger. T h e r e w ill so o n b e a n a c tu a l c o m p e titio n in s tu p id ity , p e o p le p r e te n d in g to b e e v e n m o re b r a in le s s t h a n th e y a r e ”23. O r g a n iz a tio n s s h o u ld b e c u re d of in je litie s s p o n ta n e o u s ly a n d fa st.
I t is w o r th m e n tio n in g t h a t C y ril N . P a r k in s o n ’s th o u g h ts a r e w ell k n o w n in P o la n d . T h e re a r e d iffe re n t t r a n s l a t i o n s o f h is m o s t p o p u la r books a n d s tu d ie s 2 4 . O n e o f th e P o lis h p r o m o te rs o f P a r k in s o n ’s id e a s w a s J .S . L a n g ro d . T h e s e is s u e s w e re a lso p r e s e n t in th e w r itin g s o f J . K u r n a l, A. Ł o p a tk a , F. R y s z k a a n d T. D re w n o w sk i. T o d ay m a n y o f u s r e g a r d b u r e a u c r a c y a s a d ir ty w o rd , s u g g e s tin g r e d ta p e , in e ffic ie n c y a n d o ffic io u sn e ss. O f c o u rse b u r e a u c r a c ie s c a n d e v elo p t h e se f e a tu r e s , e s p e c ia lly i f a u th o r itie s h ig h ly c e n tr a liz e d . H o w e v e r b u r e a u c r a c ies a r e b e t t e r fo r so m e t a s k s t h a n o th e r s . M a y b e b u r e a u c r a c ie s a r e n o t w ell- s u ite d to in d u s tr ie s i n w h ic h te c h n o lo g y c h a n g e ra p id ly . C y ril N . P a r k in s o n d id n o t g iv e a c o m p le te g u id e to m a n a g e m e n t. H is p r im a r y focus s e e m s to b e r a t h e r b u r e a u c r a tic t h a n c o m m e rc ia l. B u t in fa c t w h a t h e h a s to s a y is a p p lic a b le to a n y k in d o f o r g a n iz a tio n .P a r k in s o n ’s in itia lly s a tir ic a l la w s o f b u s in e s s a n d a d m in is tr a tio n m a y b e in t e n o r tw e n ty y e a r s w ill b e r e g a r d e d n o t p u r e ly a s h u m o ro u s b u t a s s e r io u s s ta t e m e n t s o n h o w b u s in e s s w a s c o n d u c tin g a t th e tim e o f w ritin g . T h e in e v ita b ility o f b u r e a u c r a tic e x p a n s io n t h a t h e p r e d ic te d r e a lly ta k e s p la c e th e s e d ay s.
S treszczen ie
N in ie js z a p r a c a j e s t p r ó b ą p r z e d s ta w ie n ia s tu d ió w C y rila N . P a r k in s o n a , k tó r y j e s t je d n y m z u c z o n y c h z a jm u ją c y c h się z a g a d n ie n ia m i z w ią z a n y m i z p r a w id ło w y m fu n k c jo n o w a n ie m a d m in is tr a c ji p u b lic z n e j. N a jp ie r w d o k o n a no a n a liz y t e r m i n u „ b iu ro k r a c ja ”, p r z e d s ta w io n o je g o e w o lu cję o ra z p o d e jśc ia do te g o ż p ro b le m u w lit e r a t u r z e . B iu r o k r a c ja n ie r o z e r w a ln ie z w ią z a n a b y ła z a d m in is tr a c ją p u b lic z n ą , n a le ż a ło w ięc z a p r e z e n to w a ć je j c h a r a k t e r z p u n k t u w id z e n ia h is to r ii a d m in is tr a c ji.P a r k in s o n je s t u w a ż a n y za uczonego, k tó ry w n ió sł is to tn y w k ła d w d zied zi n ę a d m in is tra c ji publicznej. N a jb a rd z ie j z n a n e w y d aje się być tzw. p ra w o P a r k in so n a , w e d łu g k tó re g o p ra c a ro z sz e rz a się p ro p o rcjo n aln ie do c z a su w y znaczo nego do jej w y k o n a n ia . P ra w o to odnosi się do o rg a n iz a c ji fo rm a ln y c h ty p u b iu ro k ra ty c z n e g o i o z n a c z a , że je ż e li u r z ę d n ik m a o k re ś lo n y c z a s n a w y k o n a n ie d a n e g o z a d a n ia , z a d a n ie to z o s ta n ie w y k o n a n e w m o żliw ie j a k n a j d a l sz y m te r m in ie . Z p o z o ru s a ty ry c z n e i p e łn e h u m o r u z a sad y , k tó r e o k r e ś la się ja k o p r a w a P a r k in s o n a , d o ty c z ą c e fu n k c jo n o w a n ia a d m in is tr a c ji p u b lic z n e j o ra z b iz n e s u , w rz e c z y w isto śc i s ą p e łn y m k r y ty k i o ra z tr o s k i s p o jrz e n ie m n a sp o só b d z ia ła n ia u rz ę d n ik ó w p a ń s tw o w y c h i sa m o rz ą d o w y c h . N ie u c h ro n n o ś ć r o z r o s tu a p a r a t u b iu ro k ra ty c z n e g o - j a k i p rz e p o w ie d z ia ł C y ril N . P a r k in s o n - z a z n a c z a się n ie s te ty w w ię k sz o śc i w sp ó łc z e sn y c h a p a r a tó w p a ń stw o w y c h .
