Bioelectronics: a background area for biomicroelectronics in the science of bioelectricity.

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Roczniki Filozoficzne Tom XXXIV, zeszyt 3 - 1986

JÓZEF H. ZON

BIOELECTBONICS: A BA.CKGROUND AHEA FOR BIOMICEOELEGTRONIGS IN THE SCIENCE OF BIOELECTRICITY

Abstract

B i o e l e c t r o n i o s i s a branch of science of bioelectricity dealing with biologioal systems and life processes from the angle of either p h y s i c a l or a p p l i e d e l e c t r o n ' i o s with an im to describe the eleotronic properties of biosystems and to es- tablish their role in physiological phenomena, including the coupling that exists between the biological systems and their environment. Q u a n t u m b i o c h e m i s -

t r y , p h y s i o s o f b i o l o g i o a l s o l i d s t a t e,and the studies in the dependence of organisms on the ezternal factors which may be realized with the involvement of the electronic features of bio

structures have been the three domains mainly contributing to the bioelectronio research. Because of the difficulties stemming from the c0m.ple2d.ty of organisms as well as from the lack of methodological and semantical studies, bioeleotronios as a whole seems presently to be in a phase of slowing down its development. This does not hołd true, however, as fa r as the development of b i o m i c r o e - l e c t r o n i o s a new subdomain in b i o e l e c - t r o n i c s, is conoerned. I n fact, this biology-oriented counterpart of m o l e c u l a r e l e c t r o n i c s has been inherent in most of the bioelectronio studies sińce the very beginning of this discipline.

Introductory remarks

Continuing the tradition set by L. Galvani the s c i e n c e o f b i o e l e c t r i c i t y aims at considering all the essen- tia l aspects of the relationship betwen various manifestations of electricity and the processes of l i f e . One of the fields of these studies is the border area between e l e c t r o n i c s and b i o- 1 o g y called b i o e l e c t r o n i c s .

B i o e l e c t r o n i o s /biological electronics = electronics and electrodynamics of biological systems and processes/ may be defined as the area of the appłications of concepts and methods of

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184 Józef B. Zon

both phyaical and applied eleotronios to living ayatema and their components in order to: firstly, identify the eleotronio propertiea of and eleotronio prooeasea in theae systema, and, seoondly, to ahow what and how important role they may play in the life phenomena. The activity in the latter area may be also labeled as p h y s i o l o - g i c a l e l e o t r o n i o s. As the worka oharacterizing bioelectronios are lacking, the aim of the present article is to describe it , yet from a speoifio angle, namely, to show it as an area, where a new branch - b i o m i c r o e l e o t r o n i o s - is taking shape, Eowever, a oloser description of this only seemingly new area of study will be the subject of a separate paper / 1 / .

The development of bioelectronios, attaining its greatest rate in the sixties, haa been auffering a noticeable slowing-down in recent years.lt results from the meta-theoretioal reaaons, on the one hand, and from various obatacles related to the aubject of study,on the other. The main aource of the difficulties of the latter category is the structural and functional complexity of biosystema which deciaively comea into play when one haa to deal with the multioellu- lar and multiorganiamal systems.

Facing seemingly unsurmountable obstacles when trying to un- equivooally relate the eleotrio, magnetic, and eleotromagnetio pro

pertiea and phenomena in biologioal materiale and biostructures with biological processes, the investigators have inoreaaingly been paying attention to the aimpler as well as simplified /a r t i f ic ia l / ob- jeota. Thia is aooompanied with a drift of the originally bioeleotronic reaearoh to the technology-related studies. This, in turn, results in shifting them oloser and closer to the areas whioh tho- ugh closely related to bioeleotronics, as e .g . b i o m a t e r i a ł - b a s e d m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s , b i o t e c h n o l o g i c a 1 e l e o t r o n i c a o r m i o r o e l e c t ro- b i o n i c s, are different from bioeleotronics itse lf.

Aa far as the former category of diffioulties is oonoerned, one may notice that there as also a lack of meta-theoretioal studies devoted to the methodology of bioeleotronics, ita, speoifio objeot of investigation, and the rangę of aims it is supposed to take. Also the hiatorically arisen contamination of the meaning of the word

"bioelectronios" ia of no smaller aignifioance. These subject-related and metathaoretioal ąueationa will shotiy be dealt with in the second part of this article.

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A Brane h of Bioelectricity: Bioeleotronics 185

The fronts of researoh in bioeleotronios

At present, one may distinguiah at least three directions of tle researoh in the eleotronio propertiea of biosystems and their signi- ficanoe to life prooesses /F ig . 1 / . The firat one may be identified with a biology-oriented derivation of q u a n t u m c h e m i a - t r y, known also as q u a n t u m b i o o h e m i s t r y . l t direotly aims at the desoription of the eleotronio structure of biomo- leoulea and at deducing from it their physioo-chemical propertiea.

Indirectly, thia disoipline attempts at reyealing the connection that exista between the eleotronio structure of biomolecules / 2 / or vari-

ouspharmaoeutioals / 3 , 4 / and their biologioal signifioance. The ba

sie / 5 / worka by A. and B. Pullmans may be regarded as deciaive steps initiating and shaping thia area /5- 8/ of study, Ita fruitful conti- nuation of it is due mainly to P-0. LtJwdin / 9 / and J . Ladik /1 0 ,1 1 /.

The second direotion was initiated some fifty years ago /12-15/

by the suggeation that the charge and energy migration in biosystems may be realized by the mechanisms essentially the same, as those active in the non-biologioal solida. The basie feature of the studiea in this fie ld has been paying attention to the propertiea of biomaterials which are p h y s i c a l - o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l e l e c t r o n i o s -related, eapecially to the conductivity of the eleotronio type and the phenomena conneoted with this kind of electrical conduction. The reaulta of the research oarried out along these lines have been exhaustively aummarized in /16- J1/.

Apart from the investigation oriented at the phenomena and the propertiea eaaentially conneoted to the long-range migration of the eleotronio charge carriers, new vistas of research were opened when such propertiea as piezo- /J2-41, 45/» pyro- /38- 41/, ferroelectrio- ity/42-46/ eztraordinary dieleotrio propertiea of biomaterials /4 7t

4 8 / , liquid oiyatallinity /49 ~ 5 2/f and the eleotret atate /53-55/ became the targeta of investigation. For worka reviewing the above men

tioned fielda of atudy aee /5S- 58/.

Motivated by both the need of learning about the eleotronio phe

nomena involved in the realization of the proceasea o i life and by the demands of the ourrent teohnology for the oonstruction of oheap and effioient ayatems fo r, e .g . the converaion of light into electricity, many attempta have been undertaken at inveatigating these phe-

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186 Józef E. Zon

nomena in the model and reconatituted ayatema. Aa in the natural biological unita esrfcremely large number of faotora oontribute to the observed phenomena, the modelling approach makes it possible to asaesa which group from thia multitude of componenta plays the essential ro

le in a given proceas. On the other hand, the attempta at the recon- struotion of an electronic property in a previoualy diaassembled sys

tem, allow one to tell which of the atudied propertiea are the result of a direot aumming up of the propertiea of the unita belonging to the lower level of organization, and which are the propertiea of the system aa a whole.

As far aa the imreatigation in thia area is concerned, the works on the electronic conductivity and photoelectric phenomena in pure lipida of biomembranea, bilayer lipid membranea /1 7 , 59-62/, modified bilayer lipid, /2 4 , 6J-65/, reconatituted chloroplast and visual receptor membranea /6 2 , 64-66/, as well as piezoelectricity in the oriented biomolecular films /67-69/ may be mentioned here as the examples of the investigation carried out in this domain.

The third front of bioelectronic studies consists of the attempta at ezplaining in the terma of p h y s i c a l as well as a p p l i e d e l e c t r o n i c s the mechanisms /mainly of ele

ctronic naturę/ underlying important biological phenomena /70-80,92 -101/ and at the deacribing the influence of varioua factora on the living structures that are considered - implicitly or esplicitly as electronico-chemical syatema capable of life /81- 91/. Thia kind of approach to the phyaical basis of the phenomena of life is best examplified in the publications of such authors ass B. 0 . Becker, F.

W. Cope, A. Szent-GyOrgyi, P. H. Callahan, and W. Sedlak /5 6 , 85, 90, 92-100, 124-125/.

The factors limiting the development of bioelectronics Sloraing down of the rate of the development of bioelectronics that became evident in recent years may be braoed back to the difficulties arising from the complerity of the structure and functions of bioaystems and to aome metadisoiplinary circumstances.

As far as the first category of these difficulties is concerned, i t may be observed that the higher the level of the organization of the system, the bigger the number of factors and mechanisms which ahould be taken into consideration, when trying to satisfactorily

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A Branch of Bioelectricity: Bioelectronics 187 esplain how a high-level physiological reaponse ia connected to an external factor by a chain of physico-chemical eventa. As a reault, when dealing with the most complex systems, a very rich body of im

portant data is gained at the prioe of their high controversiality, aa far aa a clear-cut connection between the influencing factora and the physiological response is concerned. On the other hand, the research done on the most aimplified syatems / e .g . on models/ allowa one to olearly point out the properties and chains of events coupling the influencing fac to r/s/ with the observed phenomena. However, a serious limitation on the degree of adeąuacy between the conditions and mechanisms operating in the living, highly complex aystems and the model ones is the usual price paid for thia clarity.

One of the main metatheoretical difficulties of this discipline stemms from the lack of the reflection on the methodological statua of it , which results among other things in the multiplicity of mea- nings which may be ascribed to the very word "bioelectronics". The following / 1 / part of this atudy is meant to satisfy this need, yet only on the example of biomicroelectronics, which shares most of ita esaential featurea with bioelectronics. The semantic difficulties will be shortly characterized in the closing section of this para- graph.

The difficulties related to the ob;ject of study

1 . Ą u a n t u m b i o c h e m i s t r y has been suffering aubatantial difficulties arising from the limitations on the ability to perform extreemely large number of calculations in a finite time, which is reąuired for getting satisfactorily precise results, especially when dealing with large biomolecules. The results of satisfy.- ing exactness are obtained only then one deala with relatively smali, iaolated molecules or polymers consisting of simple repeating units.

The calculations get more involved, i f one wanta to take into consideration the presence of such ubiąuitous molecules as water in biosystems.

To oyercome these restraints many methods simplifying the cal

culations have been applied and specific typea of model molecular systems have been dealt with aa, e .g . polypeptidea or połynucleotides composed of repeating units of well defined aminoacid or nucleotide seąuencea /102-104/. No doubt, the reaulta obtained make a progreaa

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188 Józef R. Zon

mainly in methods of revealing the properties of more and more complex molecular and supramolecular systems by various means provided by ą u a n t u m o h e m i s t r y , yet the ultimata target of these calculations - the properties of the real molecules in their natural milieu - remains still distant. I t may be added, however, that the results of ąuantum mechanical caloulations even at their present level of exaotness may well satisfy the needs of e .g . ą u a n t u m p h a r m a o o l o g y / i . e . the applioation of the theories and methods of ąuantum ohemistry to the molecules of interest to pharmaoology/, b i o m o l e o u l a r e l e c t r o - n i c s, and may bridge ąuantum ohemistry with the s o l i d s t a t e m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s o f b i o s y s t e m s .

2. As far as the results obtained with the application of the methods of s o l i d s t a t e e l e c t r o n i c s to biomaterials are concerned, it should be realized that a typicał procedu

ra of searching for electronios-related properties of biomaterials involves: isolation, purification, and preparing the sample for the electrical measurements. Mitochondria, chloroplasts, rods and cones of the visual receptor, baoterial chromatophores, cellular nuclei /a s well as the molecular and supramolecular components of these un its/, tendons and bones have been the most freąuently used objects in such investigations. The preparation of these structures for the electrical measurements involves such denaturating steps as drying, forming the samples with bhe application of high pressure, and cove- ring their surfaces with conducting materials. Sometimes the measu

rements are carried out in temperatura ranges extending far beyond those, which are typical for normal functioning of a given biostruc- ture. Less drastic methoda involve, e .g . the measurements done on the suspensions of isolated cells and their substructures in electro- lytes of known, yet not physiological, composition. It is therefore not surprizing that the results obtained in such circumstances may be put to doubt as to whether they really reveal the properties of biostructures themselves.

Although the above mentioned measurements have indeed shown that the investigated biomaterials have interesting properties /from the electronic point of view/, it seems that oonsidering these results as a proof for the occurence of these properties in real living s.tructures is extremely risky. The procedures of the isolation and

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A Branch of Bioeleotricity: Bioeleotronic3 189 preparing the samples for measurements may well eliminate or impart some properties in the samples tested. Therefore, it must be admit- ted that i f b i o e l e o t r o n i o s were developed solely ac- oording to this methodology, it would give no substantial progress in the learning of the eleotronio features of living atructures'.It does not mean, however, that this type of strategy may not be useful for b i o l o g y - o r i e n t e d e l e c t r o n i c s , one branch of which is b i o m o l e c u l a r e l e c t r o n i c s .

The research done on biomateriala prepared in the way that only well controlled changes are induced, is a variant of the above strat

egy which is closer to the biological situation. In such a case, one proceeds from a satisfactorily described and controlled physical situation - still being far away from the one which is charactęris- tic of the native atructures - to a more natural one. The works on the influence of such factors as variable content of Water on the naturę of charge carriers and the value of electrical conductivity /105- 107/, or the influence of these factors on the characteristics of piezoelectrio polarization /108-110/ are good examples of studies approximating the biological situation. They were often undertaken for the sake of bridging the knowledge of the eleotronio properties of denaturated biostructures with the information gathered on the physiologically active ones.

The modelling strategy has also important drawbacks to it,which should be kept in mind when assessing its contribution to the lear

ning about the electronics underlying or co-determining the processes of l i f e . In many experiments it has been shown that the electronic processes and properties do really occur in the model systems, yet there st ill remain serious doubts whether these same do occur and are of significance in the intact biosystems. In this connection it should be remarked that when undertaking a study on a model sys

tem, a given property is paid the prevailing attention and measures are usually taken to eliminate those factors which in normal conditions would mask or even błock the manifestation of it . In doing so, the conditions for the appearanoe of the property may even be crea- ted, althiough they may not be present in normal physiological context.

There is also another risk arising from this same source. Name- ly , in the result of the above mentioned adjustment procedure, a given eleotronio property may reveal itself with a much greater degree

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190 Józef H. Zon

of expressivness in the model ayatem. than i t doea in the natural one.

Therefore, no matter how great aignifioanoe the knowledge gained on model systems may have f o r , e . g . b i o m o l e c u l a r e 1 e o - t r o n i ć a, f or b i o e l e c t r o n i c s it s e l f i t may be of ąuestionable v alue, i f the real b io logical contest was not paid due conaideration.

3. The situation is not much better when one is dealing with the electronic properties and their physiologioal role in intact sin

gle organisma or with populations of them. In this case, it ahould be atressed that they differ substantially form those of the inanimate naturę and from those oonatructed by man, with respect to their uni- que and complea: composition, structure, functions, and - what is of not lesser importance - their history. Even greater ia the differen- ce when groupa of organisma well fitted to their environments are the subjjećt of investigation. Due to this complexity the identifica- tion and establishing the role of the eleotronic properties and processes in an individual organism or in populations of them must remain debatable.

Aa far as the interaction between the environment and organisms that is realized via the "electronic link" / i . e . those in which elec

tronic properties of and/or eleotronic phenomena in biosystems play a significant role/ is ooncerned, it bas been shown that it may only be revealed, i f the rełevant changes are followied on a sufficiently numerabie groups of organisma or sets of biological events. This iś the fundamental reąuirement for a justified application of various statistical evaluations. First of a ll, the statistical method whicE is applied must be appropriate, i . e . it muat be fitted to the size and the ąuality of the colleoted raw data; secondly, there should be no bias in collecting and/or interperting the data; thirdly, the obtained correlations must be satisfactorily aignificant; fourthly, it should be kept in mind that the obtained correlations alone do not prove that there is a direct or causal relationship between variables.

Therefore, the eziatence of a causal relationship between, e .g . the disturbances in the State of health in a given population /111-114/

and the incidence of an "e 1 e o t r o n i o s -related" factora may be ąuestioned / 1 1 5 / either on the procedural grounds or the basis of principlea mentioned above.

Taking together all of the above mentioned restricting factors, i,t should be stressed that the researcn oarried in eaoh of the aboye

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A Branch of Bioelectricity: Bioelectronics 191 mentioned directiona is not, and should be not, considered as isola-

ted from the context formed by the other ones. To be relevant to b i o e l e c t r o n i c s , it should be directed by /as st ill not clearly expresses and accepted/ generał theories, hypotheses, and empirical strategies aimed at the identifying the electronic featurea of biosystems and relating them to the role they might play in the physiological, ecological, and evolutionary processes. Otherwise,the results obtained - especially those gained on the complez biosystems - would be purely descriptive, not allowing one to understand why the observed events could take place and which new phenomena and properties should be searched for.

Semantical difficulties

B i o e l e c t r o n i c s , similarily as biopbysics, may naiv rowly be understood as the mere application of the electronic appa- ratus and measuring techniques to the living objects. It may also be defined as an application of biosensors, i .e . devices that incorpo- rate a biologically derived senaing element in intimate contact with or integrated within an electronic transducer in biomedical analytics / 1 1 5 /« In this way it is reduced to the role which only accidentally may touch upon the very electronic features of biosystems.

On the other hand, i f b i o e l e c t r o n i c s is under

stood as a systematic study of the electronic properties and processes underlying and co-determining the course of life processes, or - in analogy to the dynamical biochemistry - a s p h y s i o l o g i - c a l e l e c t r o n i c s , a ąuestion about the typa of e 1 e c- t r o n i c s relevant to these investigations may immediately be asked. The reason is that there are at least two basie and many derived types of e l e c t r o n i c s. The first one is the so called p h y s i c a l e l e c t r o n i c s /incoiporating both c 1 a s- s i c a 1 and q u a n t u m e l e c t r o d y n a m i c s / , the other - the a p p' 1 i e d one.

P h y s i c a l e l e c t r o n i c s deals with ali the phe

nomena in solida, liquid&,gases and vacuum which involve free elec- trons, and especially with various mechanisma coupling their movement to the energy conversion, storage and transfer. Being able to describe these phenomena on the basis of the firs t principles of p h y s i c s , this type of e l e o t r o n i c s i s a n independent

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192 Józef R. Zon

branch of physios providing the basis for the a p p l i e d e l e o t r o n i o a.

To satisfy concrete practical demanda, a p p l i e d e l e o - t r o n i c s atudiea and constructs devicea of various degres of complerity which work usually on the ba8ia of ooupling varioua non- free-eleotronio processes to the movement of mobile electrona. In this way, it oovers a much wider spectrum of properties and mechanisms than does the phyaical one, compelling it therefore to pay special attention to the study of the phenomena underlying the functions of eleotronio devices. Theae vexy ciroumstances enforce broa^- ening of the original acope of e l e o t r o n i o s to include such studies aa, e .g . the magnetic properties of materiale, their piezo-, pyro-, and ferroelectricity, the electret, plasma, and liquid crystalline states in or of them, as well as photons and various quasi-particlea in all aggregation states of matter. I t is this extended meaning of the term "eleotronios" that b i o e l e c t r o - n i c s should be linked to.

There are also some historical preoedences of either aacribing another meaning to " b i o e l e c t r o n i o s " or labelling with another name the field of study charaoterized above. Here, some wi- dely known esamples will be mentioned solely for the sake of recor- ding these difficulties.

To the author’ s knowledge, it was L . G. Vincent who for the fir s t time used the term " b i o e l e o t r o n i c s " / 1 1 7/ to la- bel the field of the study of the eąuilibrium in the human organism in terma of proper relationship between such properties as pH and rH of the body fluids. In the A. Szent-GytJrgyi’ 3 contributions, one may observe a shift from the sense closely related to s o l i d S t a t e p h y s i o s - " n e w b i o c h e m i s t r y " /14, 1 5 / - through the application of q u a n t u m m e c h a n i c a to b i o c h e m i s t r y , " q u a n t u m m e c h a n i o a l b i o c h e m i s t r y " / 92/ , then a composition of a o 1 i d s t a t e p h y s i o s and c h e m i c a l b i o e n e r g e - t i c a - " s u b m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y " / 93/ which waa paralelled by the E. Ernst’ s s o l i d - s t a t e - p h y s i c s -related proposal of " s u b a t o m i o b i o l o g y " /1 1 8 / - to the investigation of the charge transfer processes in biosystems - called by him " b i o e l e o t r o n i c s " / 9 4 / or "e 1 e c t r o- n i o b i o l o g y " /9 5 A

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A Branah of Bioelectrioity; Bioeleotronios 193 The rather awkward term "the physios of biological solid state"

ooined by F. W. Oope / 5 6 / , seems to f i t well the rangę of studies of p h y s i o a l and/or t e o h n o l o g i o a l e l e c t r o - n i c s - b a s e d b i o e l e c t r o n i c s . The term " q u - a n t u m b i o l o g y " used by P-0. Lflwdin /11 9 / - proceeded by relating it to the atudy of the interaotions between ionizing radiation and liying organisms by F. Dessauer /1 2 0 / and by A. and B.

Pullmans’ " ą u a n t u m b i o o h e m i s t r y " / 7 / or "e 1 e- o t r o n i o b i o o h e m i s t r y " / 6/ - is tightly connected with the g u a n t u m o h e m i s t r y o f b i o l o g i - c a l l y a o t i v e m o l e o u l e s , and only indirectly re- fers to the phenomena on the above-moleoular levels of biological organization. E. W. Adey /1 2 1 / suggests that "q u a tr t u m b i o-

1 o g y " would refer go the area of the investigation on the influ

ence of eleotromagnetio fields on the moleoular and cellular biostructures, as well as on the means of eleotromagnetio oommunioation in and between these entities.

The disousslon of the meaning of the more specifio terms, as:

" s u p r a m o l e o u l a r b i o l o g y" , " m a g n e t o b i o - 1 o g y" , " e l e o t r i o b i o l o g y" , "e 1 e c t r o m a g - n e t i o b i o l o g y" , and the " e l e o t r o d y n a m i o t h e o r y o f l i f e " , along with the abore mentioned ones, would go beyond the soope of the present work.

Olosing remarks

After the appearance of b i o e l e o t r o n i o s as a new direction in the way to look at the properties of biosystems and the mechanisms underlying the life phenomena, a notioeable interest in i t haa developed and many hopes were raised. Łs usual in such cases, only some of them proved well founded. I n response to the diffioulties met at yarious fronts of investigation, as well as to the not yet fu lfille d hopes of solTing such direotly to the praotice coupled problems, as: carcinogenesis, satisfactory knowledge of the mecha

nisms that control differentiation and regeneration in higher orga

nisms, or the degree of the dependenoe of the state of organism on the spectral composition and intensity of external eleotromagnetio radiation, many more speoifio strategies were deyeloped and new research targets were defined. Oorrespondingly, the original scope of

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194 Józef B. Zon

b i o e l e c t r o n i o s has changed to some extent, and some technxqu.es and research targets too broadly set have been abandoned.

I t may also be added that many results remain oontroversial, hypo- t h e t ic a l, and some are erroneous. However, this state of a ffa ir s is not an exception among the situations in other fie ld s of the scien- t i f i c endeavour.

As a closing remark, i t should be added that it was not the pua- pose of this artiole to assess the oorreotness of the results or the y ia b ilit y of the hypotheses and theories in bioelectronios. It s basio purpose was to show the outline of the conceptual structure of th is branch of the s c i e n c e o f b i o e l e c t r i c - i t y ,t h e main strategies of elucidating the oonneotion3 between the

liv in g matter and it s electronic properties, as welł as to identify the d if f i c u l t i e s which at present seem to be the most serious obstacles to it s development. The f u l i deacription of b i o e l e c t ro- n i c s as a subdomain in the s o i e n c e o f b i o e l e c t r i c i t y s t i l l remains to be done. However, as the miniaturi- zation of the technioal eleotronio devices reached the level of sin

gle molecules and the presence of m o l e c u l a r e l e c - t r o n i o s isthe faot of l i f e / 1 2 2 / , it seems that appropriate time has come to speak about b i o m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s / b i o l o g i o a l m i c r o e l e c t r o n i o s / . As a matter of f a c t , i t has been virtualy present i n most of the studies done in the f i e l d of b i o e l e c t r o n i o s and it was alluded to its existence at least as early as in the six tie s /9 9 » 123^-125/ . Descri- bin g the scope, purposes, and methods of th is area of investigation i s the aim of the article / 1 / that follows the present one.

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79. M a r i n o A. A. and B e c k e r R. 0 . , Piezoelectric effect and growth control in bone, "Naturę", 228/1970/ 473-474.

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A theoretical and experimental study of insect sensilla tubular wa- yeguides, with particular emphasis on their,dieleotrio and tnsro-

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